hellog 饸18ϡʤ <w> ֤Τʤ one /wʌn/ ȯΤǤȤѤʵǤѸֻȯδطϥ㥯ȸޤone ۤɤδܸǤ줬ѻȤȤϡϤꤿǤϤޤ⡤ź <w> ʸʤ /w/ ȯñʤ¾˻פĤޤäȤҤɤñȤȤˤʤޤǤϡŪطʤƤߤޤ礦
<one> = /wʌn/ ϡ鸽Ūʴ鶦ŪäƤ褷ޤѸȯȤθΥڥɸಽβͳ褹롤ŪǤϤΤ褦ˡޤäŪ¸ߤʤΤǤ
ϳΤηϤȤƤ¦̤ޤ餳ؤΩäƤΤǤ줬٤ƤǤϤޤħΤʤˤϡ夫Ѥ졤ɬ⸽Ū˺Ԥ줿ηϤˤŬΤޤĤäƤΤ⤢ޤθˤϡꤷħʬŪȿǤƤޤϡ头ȤˤäȥХȥ졼֤Ƥ̻Ū¸ߤʤΤǤ
/aːn/ one ȤδϢˤˤβǴĶ˱ /oʊn/, /wʌn/, /ən/, /ə/ ʤɤȯŸ餬ߤȤƶ¸ƤΤǤ
ˤȾʬŪޤ⤦ȾʬˤεǤǤȤϤäǤʤȤˤεȤƼ롥Ϥ줯餤δˤΤʤΤȻפޤ
ȴϢơ##86,89,3573,831,2723,3551εå
#3507. NURSE Merger ([2018-12-03-1])#4068. Ѹ -ir, -er, -ur ͻβŪᥫ˥ ([2020-06-16-1]) εǡr ֤첻Ūͻ礷ƤܤѸβѲȤǤ Dobson (724) "No consonant exercises greater or more varied influence on the development of the words in ME and ModE than r." ȽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤѸ˾夭ƱƶϤ礭ʲѲǤ롥
βѲˤĤ Hickey ʸɤൡäޤȤƤͭפʤΤǡβսѤ褦 (99--100)
The BIRD-TERM-NURSE merger
For his discussion of short vowel centralisation before /r/ Dobson discusses /ɛ/, /ɪ/ and /ʌ/ separately and in that order. However, he sees the development of all three vowels as similar and as having taken place in the early seventeenth century, in "Standard English", though earlier "in the dialects" (Dobson 1968, 746). The centralisation took place "because of the influence of the following r to the central vowel [ə]". He continues to state that "[t]he reason for the retraction was to anticipate the pronunciation of the r, for [ə] is a vowel closely allied to the ModE [r]". Lass (2006, 91) sees the centralisation for all three ME vowels as having taken place somewhat later and mentions Nares (1794) as the first writer to say that "vergin, virgin and vurgin would be pronounced alike".
Dobson (1968, 746) states that the schwa vowel "must have been of approximately the same quality as PresE [ə] which later develops from it when the r is vocalized to [ə]". There is an important conclusion from these remarks, namely that centralisation presupposes the existence of a following /r/ so that the loss of rhoticity must be dated after the centralisation. Confirmation of this is found from prescriptive authors of the eighteenth century. For instance, John Walker in his Critical Pronouncing Dictionary of 1791 has 'bu2rd' for bird, his u2 represents schwa (in his principle 172 he states that the vowel value is the same as that in done, son). Walker also transcribes bird with "r" but we know that he favoured the retention of non-prevocalic /r/ even though he recognised that it was rapidly losing ground during his lifetime.
NURSE Merger ΥΥˤĤƲƥݥȤȴФȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) ͻ礬ϡ1718ޤǤȽ֤
(2) ɸѸǤɸѸ٤ä
(3) ޤ첻ɤ岽ͻ礷θ˸첻ͻ礷
(4) 첻ͻ /r/ ξü
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. 2 vols.
Hickey, Raymond. "Vowels before /r/ in the History of English." Contact, Variation, and Change in the History of English. Ed. Simone E. Pfenninger, Olga Timofeeva, Anne-Christine Gardner, Alpo Honkapohja, Marianne Hundt and Daniel Schreier. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins, 2014. 95--110.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 43--108.
Nares, Robert. Elements of Orthoepy. 1794. Reprint. Menston: Scolar P, 1968.
hellog 饸15ϡڥȯפʤ1Ĥ夲ޤwomen = /ˈwɪmɪn/ ϡɤҤä֤äƤǤʤڥȯδطǤñ woman = /ˈwʊmən/ ȤʤꡤޤǤΤǤʣ women = /ˈwɪmɪn/ ϡäʤΤȤǤʲİ
ǸΤȤDZѸˤζȤƽҤ٤褦ˡԵ§ˤߤΤŪˤϵ§ŪǤꡤפʤȤȤ¿ޤषߵ§ŪˤߤΤΤۤŪˤȤʤäƤѥ¿ΤǤ
ޤΤ褦ˡѸˤȲؤμϤФдؤ礤ޤܳŪ˱ѸˤؤǤߤȤϡȤⲻؤ⤤ä˳ؤǤѸˤΤ⤷ΤʤʬȯѲˤޤ夲ȤμդˤĤƤϡ##223,224εåɤ
Ū /a(u)NC/ βϢäƤѸϡɸ㼨̤ꡤѸˤ4ȯʤɤˤ롥[ɔː ? ɑː], [ɑː ? æ(ː)], [æ(ː)], [eɪ] Ǥ롥4֤ζ̤ϡĶˤꡤƤ٤ޤǤϼѤΥˤ롥Ū /a(u)NC/ 줬ɤäƤ4ĤΥ롼ȤޤȤ Minkova (241) ˤɽ¿Ѥǰʲ˵褦
| Source | Output | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| /aNC/ (AN <-aunC>) | [ɔː ? ɑː] | gaunt, haunt, laundry, saunter |
| /aNC/ (OFr <-anC>) | [ɑː ? æ(ː)] | aunt, grant, slander, sample, dance |
| /aNC#/ | [æ(ː)] | lamp, champ, blank, flank, bland |
| /aNC (palat. obstr.)/ | [eɪ] | danger, change, range, chamber |
ɸβѲϡܥ֥Ǥ⤹Ǥ˰ä褦ˡ#3507. NURSE Merger ([2018-12-03-1]) ȸƤФƤ롥βŪᥫ˥ˤĤ Minkova (277--78) βʹƤߤ褦
A coda /-r/ is a neutralising environment. For the short vowels neutralisation of [ɪ], [ʊ], [ɛ] results in merger into the featurally neutral schwa outcome. The phonetic rationale behind this is the coarticulation of the short vowel + /-r/ which affects both segments: it lowers and centralises the vowel, while the adjacent sonorant coda becomes more schwa-like; its further weakening can eliminate the consonantal cues, leading to complete loss of the consonantal properties of /r/. The difficulty of perceiving the distinctive features of pre-/r/ vowels is attributed to the acoustic similarity of the first two formants of [ɹ], [ɻ], and [ə ? ɨ] . . . .
(coda) /r/ ϡľ첻岽ʤۣ첻ˤˤ /r/ ȤҲŪ첻˶Ť̤Ȥơ/r/ ϻҲ˼Ȥˤʤꡤľû첻ȹήбĹ첻Ȥʤ롤ȤſϸͭβŪݻƤ2ߤƱ (assimilation) Ĥˤдˤä [əː] ؤȽ뤷Ȥʤ褦ʡ餷ʤ褦ʷ̤줬ñθˤϰƤΤʤ
Ϣơ#2274. heart ֻȯ ([2015-07-19-1]) εɤ
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ϿϿʤľܤβڵĤäƤʤŤθ첻ˤƿꤹ뤫Ȥ䤤ϡѤʵǤʤ顤˸ؤˤȤäܼŪʲǤ롥Ѹˤˤ뤳βˤĤƤϡޤǤŪʴ#437. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 ([2010-07-08-1])#758. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 (2) ([2011-05-25-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
оݤȤʤˤäƤ⡤ΤѤǤʤˤϰ㤤롥 Smith (40) ȤơȤ櫓ѸȯꤹˡܤƤߤ5ۤɵƤ롥
a) "reconstruction", both comparative (dealing with cognate languages) and internal (dealing with paradigmatic variation);
b) analysis of "residualisms" surviving in modern accents of English;
c) analysis of the writings of spelling-reformers and phoneticians from the Early Modern English period, supplying information about usages closer to the Middle English period than now;
d) analysis of contemporary verse-practices, based on the analysis of rhyme, alliteration and meter; and
e) analysis of spellings.
ս˥ȤäƤe) ΥڥʬϤȤΤȴ뤯餤ΤȤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸɽʸɸ֤ޥե٥åȤѤƽƤʾ塤ñΥڥͤˤΤǤ롥ѸȯȥڥδطͤƤߤʬ褦ˡڥľȯɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤäơѸˤƤⴰľȯɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤȤŪɤƤɬפȤʤ롥ǤľǤϤʤȤϤʤȤŪʷȯɽ綠ȤƤ뤳ȤǧƤ褵ǤꡤɤΤ褦ľǤʤΤɤΤ餤ŪʤΤˤĤƤϡʸηϤ䥹ڥηϤξܺ٤ʬϤ̤Ƥʤ餫ˤ뤳ȤǤ롥
d) ϱʸѤǤ롥ѸαʸϡȤ櫓ˤΦ鿷⤿餵줿ӱ (rhyme) ɤӱξڵϡȤ櫓첻μ̤䶯֤˴ؤ¿ξͿƤ롥űѸδƬ (alliteration) ѸˤϱߤΤΡ濴˺ĤꡤѸλҲ䶯֤˴ؤҥȤͿ³Ƥ롥ޤʸϡ嵭εӱƬȤ̩ܤ˴ؤ뤫DZΧ (meter) μǤϤȯ˼ͿƤ롥
c) ϡ³Ѹ˻˾ܳŪ˸Ƥ벻ؼԤˤ롤ȯˤĤƤΥȤ˰͵ˡǤ롥ΥȤϤޤǶѸΡʼȤƵŪʡȯˤĤƤ줬Τ˿ǤСȯˤĤƤ礭ʥҥȤȤʤŪʲѲħƤСϡʶѸȯˤջϡѸȯˤǽޤ롥
b) ḽμŪˤϡ˸Ť¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥ּΤܤΤ˶ּäƤ롤ȤˡϢơ#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
Ǹ a) ϡϢȤ (comparative_linguistics) ˴ŤƷ (reconstruction) ŪƷˤŪʿˡǤ롥ƷȤȡʸΤʤθˡȻפ뤫⤷ʤʸǧűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤƤڵηΤ˽ʬѤ롥
Ѹȯθϡ嵭Τ褦ʿμˡǿʤƤƤꡤǤܤȤ餫ˤƤ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. "Periods: Middle English." Chapter 3 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 32--48.
[2020-02-24-1] εǼ夲ˤĤ³ԤϤ롥
űѸ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> ֤32Ż (digraph) ϡ줾ŪˤûǤĹǤΤɽ路ƤȤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸǤƱ2Ż֤Ƥʤ⡤Ūˤϡû2첻פȡĹ2첻סʸʸǤϤФ1첻Ĺ (macron) դɽˤ̤ƤȤȤľ˲᤹С<ea> [ɛɑ], <ēa> [ɛːɑ], <eo> [eo], <ēo> [eːo], <ie> [ie], <īe> [iːe] Τ褦бطȲƤ褵줬ŪˤʤäƤΤ⤿ǤϤʤűѸʸؤˤƺǤʣĿǤ롥
¤ΤȤĹû2첻ΤűѸνˤϳ경2첻ǤϤʤʤäƤޤǤϸαѸ첻ˤˤۤȤɱƶͿƤʤ櫓Ǥꡤ츫Ȥʤۤ礭ˤʤΤʬˤϸűѸβηϤ˴ؤˤȤɤޤ餺ŪʰյǤꡤ餳褬ҡȥåפƤΤʲMinkova (178--79) ˽äơ2첻Ĺûζ̤äȤȿФƤߤ褦
ޤεˤҤ٤褦ˡŪˤä2첻Ĺûζ̤ϤޤǤ롥Τ褦ʤޤ첻ηϤűѸΤ˺ƷƤ褤ΤȤ꤬롥Τ褦첻ηϤʤȤޤǤϤʤΤΡˤޤȤС⤽ⲾŪʺƷθȤƵƤ褤ΤϡʤʤȿˤȿǤ롥
⤦1Ĥεϡ32첻Ȥ̤2첻 [ej] ϡäĹûζ̤ƤʤȤȤ˰͵롥츻ŪˤϤ2첻Ĺûζ̤ƤűѸǤϸ츻ŪˤĹϤ hēȝ (hay) ûϤ weȝ (way) äΩʤƤʤȤС32첻ˤĤƤĹûζ̤ϤʤäȤǽ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
3ĤˡβˤȤƤߤȡû2첻פϤ䤬û첻ͻ礷ƤȤˤʤ롥Ĥޤꡤû2첻פ2Ż֤ƤΤǴ㤤䤹¤ϤȤ1⡼첻äΤǤϤʤŪ˹ͤȡĹ2첻פϼ¤2⡼̤2첻ˤʤΤǤϤʤ
Ǹˡ⤽2첻Ĺûζ̤¾ڤǾ (minimal_pair) ¤Ƥ뤳Ȥ¤ƤѻȡǤȤưۤʤȤˤ餺Ȥ⡤̤βˤ롥
ϰ¦Ҳ𤷤ˤʤξرĤơΩƤƷ㤷깭Ƥ롥2첻2첻٤
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
Ϣε Ritt ˰͵ʤ顤űѸ줫ѸˤϢ첻̤˴ؤѲ˾ƤƤŪˤϡ첻Ĺû˴ؤʲ4ĤѲǤ롥
ƱĹ (Homorganic Lengthening; homorganic_lengthening)
Ҳû (Shortening before Consonant Clusters; shocc)
3û (Trisyllabic Shortening; trish)
Ѹ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl)
褳첻ѲϤ줾ΩݤȤƲᤵƤε#3961. 3ûλ ([2020-03-01-1]) κǸǤ줿̤ꡤ¤䴰Ūʴطˤꡤ1Ĥζή (drift) ȤȤ館ФƤƤ롥Ritt Ϥ Early Middle English Quantity Adjustment ȸƤǤ롥
2ĤĹˤĤƤϡ#3958. Ritt ˤѸ쳫Ĺθ ([2020-02-27-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ1ĤδؿȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥ƤθǤƤ
2ĤûˤĤƤΩƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ûĹϸ䴰ŪǤꡤû¥ʤĶǤĹ졤εդޤǤ롥ȡûθϡĹθžФ褤ȤȤˤʤ롥Ritt (95--96) εƤûθϼ̤ꡥ
The probability of vowel shortening was proportional to
a. its height
b. syllable weight
c. the overall weight of the weak syllables in the foot
and inversely proportional to
a. the (degree of) stress on it
b. its backness
c. coda sonority
ޤСĹûθȤ߹碌ơ礭1Ĥ Early Middle English Quantity Adjustment θΩƤ뤳ȤǤ (Ritt 96)
Ritt βοĺϡΤ褦˲ĶȲѲδطΨȤư츫ߤΩѲӤĤƤߤˤ롥
Ritt, Nikolaus. Quantity Adjustment: Vowel Lengthening and Shortening in Early Middle English. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ε#3960. Ҳûλ ([2020-02-29-1]) ǿ줿 SHOCC (= Shortening before Consonant Clusters) Ȥ褽Ʊ⤦1Ĥ첻ûȤơ3û (Trisyllabic Shortening (= TRISH)) ȤѲ롥3ˤƶΤ1Ĺ첻ûȤΤ꼰ȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
V [-long]/__C(C)σσ
Ritt (99--100) ꡤѸǤη֤ˤ褦Ѹη֤ӤǤΤΤߤ롥
| heafodu PL | 'head' |
| cicenu PL | 'chicken' |
| linenes GEN | 'linen' |
| æniȝe PL | 'any' |
| ærende | 'errand' |
| æmette | 'ant' |
| suþerne | 'southern' |
| westenne DAT | 'waste (desert)' |
| deorlingas PL | 'darling' |
| feorþinȝas PL | 'farthing' |
| feowertiȝ | 'forty' |
| freondscipe | 'friendship' |
| haliȝdaȝ | 'holiday' |
| alderman | 'alderman' |
| heringes PL | 'herring' |
| stiropes PL | 'stirrup' |
| Monenday | 'Monday' |
| Thuresday | 'Thursday' |
| seliness | 'silliness' |
| redili | 'readily' |
| bretheren PL | 'brethren' |
| evere | 'ever' |
| othere ACC | 'other'' |
| redeles PL | 'riddle' |
| boseme ACC | 'bosom' |
| wepenes PL | 'weapon' |
ε#3959. Ritt ˤƱĹλ ([2020-02-28-1]) ˰³űѸ줫Ѹ⤦1Ĥ첻̤ѲȤơҲû (Shortening before Consonant Clusters (= SHOCC) or Pre-Cluster Shortening) λRitt (98) ѸǤη֤ǾҲ𤷤褦Ѹη֤ӤǤΤΤߤ롥
| kepte | 'kept' |
| brohte | 'brought' |
| sohte | 'sought' |
| þuhte | 'thought' |
| demde | 'deemed' |
| mette | 'met' |
| lædde | 'led' |
| sprædde | 'spread (past)' |
| bledde | 'bled' |
| fedde | 'fed' |
| hydde | 'hid' |
| softe | 'soft' |
| fifta | 'fifth' |
| leoht | 'light' |
| hihþu | 'height' |
| dust | 'dust' |
| blæst | 'blast' |
| breost | 'breast' |
| fyst | 'fist' |
| mist | 'mist' |
| druhþ | 'drought' |
| clænsian | 'cleanse' |
| halja | 'holy (man), saint' |
| mædd | 'mad' |
| fætt | 'fat' |
| wræþþo | 'wrath' |
| cyþþo | 'kin' |
| feoll | 'fell' |
| fiftiȝ | 'fifty' |
| twentiȝ | 'twenty' |
| bledsian | 'bless' |
| wisdom | 'wisdom' |
| wifman | 'woman' |
| hlæfdiȝe | 'lady' |
| ȝosling | 'gosling' |
| ceapman | 'chapman' |
| nehhebur | 'neighbour' |
| siknesse | 'sickness' |
V [-long]/__CCX
where CC is not a homorganic cluster
ΰʬ̤ꡤSHOCC kept, met, led, bled, fed ʤɸ촴ǽѲưβʬŵŪˤߤ롥ޤfifth Ƥ뤬ˤĤƤϡ#1080. ʤ five ν fifth ʤΤ ([2012-04-11-1]) #3622. latter η֤űѸ졦Ѹ "Pre-Cluster Shortening" ([2019-03-28-1]) Ȥ줿ˤϤʤδ against û첻 /ɛ/ ǤȯˤĤƤͻ뤳ȤǤcf. #543. says said Ϥʤû첻ȯ뤫 (2) ([2010-10-22-1])ˡ
SHOCC ϡäƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening) Ȥ褽ƱƤꡤ䴰Ūʴطˤ벻ѲǤ뤳ȤդƤʲ⻲ȡ
#2048. ƱﲻĹĹIJû ([2014-12-05-1])
#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1])
#2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1])
Ritt, Nikolaus. Quantity Adjustment: Vowel Lengthening and Shortening in Early Middle English. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
űѸ줫ѸˤȤ롤ƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening) ȸƤФ벻Ѳ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2048. ƱﲻĹĹIJû ([2014-12-05-1]) Ǵñ˲⤷̤ѸŪˤ2첻 child û첻 children ΰ㤤ݤ˰礤˽ФפʲѲ1ĤǤcf. #145. child children 첻Ĺ ([2009-09-19-1])#146. child ʣ children ʤ櫓 ([2009-09-20-1])ˡ
ϤäƤ⡤child/children 첻ĹûŪƤʳˡ¾ˤɤΤ褦ʸѸθβˤĤƤΤȤС¤Ϥ¿ιϵʤ#2862. wilderness ([2017-02-26-1]) ε wild/wilderness κۤ˿줿Τ褦˾꤯ۤǤ롥Ritt (82) ƤƱĹФĤƤߤ褦
| Pre-HOL | Post-HOL | |
| ld: | cild | cīld |
| feld | fēld | |
| gold | gōld | |
| geldan | gēldan | |
| rd: | word | wōrd |
| sword | swōrd | |
| mb: | climban | clīmban |
| cemban | cēmban | |
| dumb | dūmb | |
| mb: | behindan | behīndan |
| ende | ēnde | |
| hund | hūnd | |
| ng: | singan | sīngan |
| lang | lāng | |
| tunge | tūnge | |
| rl: | eorl | ēorl |
| rn: | stiorne | stīorne |
| georn | gēorn | |
| korn | kōrn | |
| murnan | mūrnan | |
| rð: | eorðe | ēorðe |
| weorðe | wēorðe | |
| wyrðe | wȳrðe | |
| furðor | fūrðor | |
| rs: | earsas | ēarsas |
ε#3957. Ritt ˤѸ쳫Ĺλȿ ([2020-02-26-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl) ˤϰճ㳰¿ĶۤƱ˸Ƥ⡤ñˤä첻ĹäƤ굯äƤʤäꤹΤ
Ritt (75) MEOSL ˤĤơ첻Ĺ뤫ݤϡĶνθǤγΨȤȤ館Ƥ롥ơΤ褦ʸͿƤ (75)
The probability of vowel lenghthening was proportional to
a. the (degree of) stress on it
b. its backness
c. coda sonority
and inversely proportional to
a. its height
b. syllable weight
c. the overall weight of the weak syllables in the foot
In this formula t, u, v, x, y and z are constants. Their values could be provided by the theoretical framework and/or by induction (= trying the formula out on actual data).
ǤϲäƤΤʬʤ⤹аʲ̤Ǥ롥MEOSL Ψϡ6ĤΥѥ͡ʤ̤ͤΤˤδؿȤƻФ롥6ĤΥѥ顼Ȥθ̤ϰʲ̤ꡥ
(1) β˶Сβ첻Ĺ䤹
(2) 첻첻ǤСĹ䤹
(3) coda 첻˸³Ҳˤʹ (sonority) ⤱СĹ䤹
(4) 첻Ĵ⤤ȡĹˤ
(5) βŤȡĹˤ
(6) αμ岻ŤȡĹˤ
ФΤϤޤdzΨǤ뤫顤ۤƱĶˤǤäƤ⡤첻Ĺ뤫ݤη̤ϰۤʤȤȤRitt Υץϡǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ŪʡֲѲ㳰ʤפθ§ (Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze) Ȥϰ褹ץǤ롥
ʤδؿϡ¤Ʊ⤦1Ĥ첻ĹǤƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening) ˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤޤ뤳ȤʬäƤꡤ⤤ƱĹˤĤƤεǡ
Ritt, Nikolaus. Quantity Adjustment: Vowel Lengthening and Shortening in Early Middle English. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Ѹ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl) ϡ12--13ˤȤפ첻Ѳ1ĤǤ롥ŵŪ2ˤơû첻ǽ볫Τû첻Ĺ첻ѲǤ롥#2048. ƱﲻĹĹIJû ([2014-12-05-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡnama nāma, beran bēran, ofer ōfer ʤɤ㤬ŵǤ롥
βѲʹԤƤѸǤθȸѸǤθ¤٤뤳ȤǡŪʻǧƤʲRitt (12) ꡥ
| EME | ModE |
| labor | labour |
| basin | basin |
| barin | bare |
| whal | whale |
| waven | wave |
| waden | wade |
| tale | tale |
| starin | stare |
| stapel | staple |
| stede | steed |
| bleren | blear |
| repen | reap |
| lesen | lease |
| efen | even |
| drepen | drepe |
| derien | dere |
| dene | dean |
| -stoc | stoke (X-) |
| sole | sole |
| mote | mote (of dust) |
| mote | moat |
| hopien | hope |
| cloke | cloak |
| smoke | smoke |
| broke | broke |
| ofer | over |
| EME | ModE |
| adlen | addle |
| aler | alder |
| alum | alum |
| anet | anet |
| anis | anise |
| aspen | aspen |
| azür | azure |
| baron | baron |
| barrat | barrat |
| baril | barrel |
| bet(e)r(e) | better |
| besant | bezant |
| brevet | brevet |
| celer | cellar |
| devor | endeavour |
| desert | desert |
| ether | edder |
| edisch | eddish |
| feþer | feather |
| felon | felon |
| bodig | body |
| bonnet | bonnet |
| boþem | bottom |
| broþel | brothel |
| closet | closet |
| koker | cocker |
| cokel | cockle |
| cofin | coffin |
| colar | collar |
| colop | collop |
űѸ츦νפ "digraph controversy" ȤΤ롥2Ĥ첻Ťͤ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> ʤɤ2Ż (digraph) ʤ첻ɽ魯ΤȤǤ롥첻μ̤ä͡ʸФƤ
űѸμܤǤ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> ʤɤ֤ƤΤߤιǤǤϤФ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> Ȥ̤ˡ1첻Ĺ (macron) դ <ēa>, <ēo>, <īe> Ȥɽߤ롥 <ea> ֤벻ˤϡŪˤϡûפΤȡĹפΤäȤΤƤ뤫Ǥ롥ĹΤʤСȤСȤǡºݤ˸űѸˤ첻μ̤ɤΤ褦˰äƤΤͤߤ뤳Ȥ͡ʿ¬ʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ǥ⥹ȥ졼ȤʤΤϡֻΤޤޤˡû2첻פȡĹ2첻פꤹƤǤ롥<ea> [ɛɑ], <ēa> [ɛːɑ], <eo> [eo], <ēo> [eːo], <ie> [ie], <īe> [iːe] ʤɤȺƷʡ#2497. űѸ줫ѸˤƤ첻Ѳ ([2016-02-27-1]) 첻ɽȡˡŪˤߤơʤȤ⥲ޥɤˤ2첻 (diphthong) ûΤĹΤ̤륱ϤʤȤ顤䤬褵Ƥ롥
ФơĹΤʤСñ첻 (monophthong) ǤꡤС2첻 (diphthong) ǤȤ롥ˤĤƤ Minkova (178--79) ĤƤ뤬ǤϾܺ٤ˤƧ߹ޤʤ˽äƺƷ줿ʲ˼ (Minkova 156)
| Value | Example | ||
| Digraph | Early | Late | |
| <ēa> | æʊ | æə | strēam 'stream' |
| <ea> | æə | æ | heall 'hall' |
| <ēo> | eʊ | eə | sēon 'to see' |
| <eo> | ɛə | ɛ | ġeolu 'yellow' |
| <īe> | iʊ | iə, iː | (ġe)līefan 'to believe' |
| <ie> | ɪə | ɪ | ġiefan 'to give' |
#2027. ɤdzȤ miuk ȯ ([2014-11-14-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡܲɤ첻³ʤ l 첻ȤѲʹǤ롥ŪˤߤСl 벻ĶˤФæƤȤѲϷ֤ƤƤꡤѲ l μ岽ȤŪʷΤ⤦1ĤȤߤʤȤǤ롥
l æ˴ؤᤤϡѸǧ롥űѸ hwylc (= "which"), ælc (= "each"), wencel (= "wench"), mycel (= "much") Τ褦˻ c ٤礦Ķ l æѸˤ hwich, ech, wenche, muche ȤƸƤ롥ۤ˸űѸ ealswa (= "as") Ѹ als(o)/assceolde (= "should") shudwolde (= "would") wud ʤɤѻ졤Ѹ˼˹ٸˤ l æƤȤ狼롥Ѹ˶Ťȡfolk halfpenny ʤɡ俰٤ΰ֤ˤƤ l æä
Τ褦 l μ岽ϱѸˤˤŪʷȲᤷƤ褤褦Ѳ٤ΥեƤ¤ˤդƤMinkova (131) ԤŦƤ̤ꡤѸ˾ l æϡΩݤȤߤƤ褤եƱѲϤƤȤǽ롥
An important, though often ignored contributing factor in the history of /l/-loss in English is the fact that Old French and Anglo-Norman had undergone an independent vocalisation of /l/. Vocalisation of [ɫC] clusters, similar to [rC] clusters, started in OFr in the ninth century, and although the change in AN seems to have been somewhat delayed ... , the absence of /lC/ in bilingual speakers would undermine the stability of the cluster in ME. Thus we find Pamer (personal name, 1207) < AN palmer, paumer 'palmer, pilgrim', OE palm 'palm' < Lat. palma ? OFr paume, ME sauder, sawder < OFr soud(i)er, saudier 'soldier', sauf 'safe' < Lat. salvus. The retention of the /l/ in some modern forms, as in fault, vault is an Early ModE reversal to the original Latin form, and in some cases we find interesting alternations such as Wat, Watson, Walter.
ѤθȾˤ褦ˡե l æ̤ϱѸ줬Ѥ¿ΥեѸˤȿǤƤꡤ줬Ѹֻ l 褵츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ѰդȤѸ˾ήˤդϢήϡl λҲȤƤꤵ¾ڤƤ褦˻פ롥
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
̤˸ѲμΤäȹͤ뤳Ȥ¿ʹ¤礭Ȥĥ褦ˤʤäƤܥ֥Ǥ⤳ˤĤƤĤεƤ
#1932. Ѳ monitoring (1) ([2014-08-11-1])
#1933. Ѳ monitoring (2) ([2014-08-12-1])
#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1])
#1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])
#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1])
#2150. Ѳˤʹ ([2015-03-17-1])
#2586. Ѳˤäʹ䤪Ӵط ([2016-05-26-1])
#3378. ŪФ߽Ф4װ ([2018-07-27-1])
Ǹ2ĤεΤ褦ˡȤ櫓ѲˤƤäʹ䤬뤵褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥äϾǤڤĴȤߵäƤ뤬ޤ˴άȯǤʹʤ줬롥ʹäФƴŪˡޤάƤʡषΤǫĴƤ졤Ȥץå㡼ƤΤǤ롥ΥˡȿƤꡤ줬äƤȤǸ줬ΩäƤȤ롥Ѳ⡤礤礭ʤ٤˵Τȹͤ롥
#3848. "Optimality Theory" ([2019-11-09-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ŭ (Optimality Theory) ϡ嵭2ĤΥˡΥХθƤ롥OT δŪʹͤ⤷ Carr and Montreuil (258--59) ꡤϢ
The basic architecture of the model is straightforward: a set of constraints CON represents the priorities obeyed by the grammar of a language. These constraints are violable, universal and ranked in a hierarchy. A generating function GEN provides the output candidates for a given input and an evaluation function EVAL determines the relative desirability of each output; most critically it determines which of these outputs is the optimal candidate, the 'winner'.
. . . .
OT . . . attempts to explain why outputs may differ from inputs. It does so by encoding markedness directly into the grammar. Most constraints are formulated negatively and penalize the markedness of undesirable results; they point to marked structures or articulations, and their paraphrases read like lists of what not to do; for instance 'avoid (marked) sonority differentials', 'avoid (marked) complex articulations', 'avoid (marked) labial codas'. These markedness constraints make no reference to the input, they simply evaluate the intrinsic desirability of outputs.
Be penalising marked constructs, markedness constraints optimise language towards ease of articulation and simple structures. Assimilations and mergers usually respond to the desire to minimise effort. But this is counterbalanced by the need to keep articulations clear, words distinct and intonations contrastive. Effective communication, and language use in general, attempts to reach a satisfactory equilibrium between the drive to simplify phonetic forms and the need to be understood. In OT, this balance is achieved by pitting against each other markedness constraints and faithfulness constraints.
δ餹ȡŬܻؤֺŬפȤϡäʹȿˡ¤Ĵ̤ȤƤνϤؤȤǤ롥
Carr, Philip and Jean-Pierre Montreuil. Phonology. 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
1114ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ12ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ9Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤѸΥڥˤۻ¿ΤפǤ

ۻ (silent_letter) ȤΤϡclimb, night, doubt, listen, psychology, autumn ʤɤΤ褦ˡڥϽƤΤˡбȯʤΤޤñΥڥޤʤõȡ¤ a z ޤǤΤ٤ƤʸˤĤۻȤѤƤ㤬Ȥ⤤졤ѸؽԤˤȤäƤϼ¤˿ȶʤΤǤ
εǤϡۻȤΤǽ餫¸ߤ櫓ǤϤʤޤˤΤʤƤݤǤ뤳ȡġۻλϰۤʤ˰ۤʤװƤΤǤ뤳ȤפҲ𤷤ޤ
ϢܵɤۻŪطʤγѤĤǤȡܥ֥ǽƤΤ褦ѸˤΤʤΤ˰֤Ťʤ뤳ȤǤϤǤ
#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1])
#1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])
#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1])
#724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1])
#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1])
#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1])
#2590. <gh> ޤñˤĤƤס ([2016-05-30-1])
#3333. ʤ doubt ֻˤȯʤ b Τ ([2018-06-12-1])
#116. 츻֤֤ --- etymological respelling ([2009-08-21-1])
#1187. etymological respelling ζ ([2012-07-27-1])
#579. aisle --- ʤֻȯ ([2010-11-27-1])
#580. island --- ʤֻȯ ([2010-11-28-1])
#1156. admiral <d> ([2012-06-26-1])
#3492. address <dd> ˤĤ (1) ([2018-11-18-1])
#3493. address <dd> ˤĤ (2) ([2018-11-19-1])
δ졡֤ʤѸΥڥˤۻ¿ΤסرѸ춵2019ǯ12桤罤۽Ź2019ǯ111462--63ǡ
ɸϡǤˡѤʵפΰĶƤꡤषïʤǤ礦ޤǤ3Ĥε ([2019-11-13-1], [2019-11-14-1], [2019-11-15-1]) ǡʤֿסʤФˤΥɽ Shimbashi ˤ n ǤϤʤ m Ѥ뤫ȤˤĤƵƤޤ֤ˤ褦ʵȤʤäƤޤʤʤΤǡεɤˡ
[ŋ] ȯ ng ʸ2ʸ1Ȥֻˤɽ魯ȤϸѸǤϰŪǤꡤϲŪ /ŋ/ βǤȤΩƤ¤бƤȹͤޤƱɡҲǤäƤ [n] [m] Τ˶̤٤ΤȤ [ŋ] ¸ߤ餳 n m ֤ΤǤϤʤng Ȥȼ֤ĤΤǤޤȤСȯ [ɕiŋkoiwa] Ǥ顤Ѹʤ뤤ϥإܥˤDzŪ˸̩ɽܻؤΤǤ *Shingkoiwa դ路ȤǤ礦ƱͤͳǡѸ ink, monk, sync, thank *ingk, *mongk, *syngc, *thangk ʤɤ֤Ƥ٤ȤǤ⤽ʤäƤޤ
ͳϡ/ŋ/ ˤĤƤ /n/ /m/ ȰۤʤꡤΩǤȤƤδפ夤ˤꤽǤŪˤС/ŋ/ ΩǤȤʤäΤϸѸ줫ѸˤƤλˤޤcf. #1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1])ˡ/n/ /m/ ĸοǯˤؤͤβǤȤС/ŋ/ ֤˷βǤȤȤˤʤޤ/ŋ/ ѸޤǤϤޤDz /n/ ξ۲Ȥ֤ŤǤꡤηϾ夵ƽפǤϤʤ椨ֻä n ȶ̤٤ȤϤߤʤƤʤäΤǤС[k] [g] ֤ˤ [ŋ] Ͼ۲ȤƸΤ褦˼¸Ƥޤ /ŋ/ ȤƤ¸ߤʤäᡤվñ n ֤ƤȤȤǤ
Ѹ kingk (king), dringke (drink), thingke (think) ʤɤֻȯŪˤߤ줿ȤΤǤṲ̄äΤ king, drink, think פΤۤǤʹߡŪˤ /ŋ/ βDzʹԤȤϤֻŪˤ夫 ng, nk ΤޤɸಽʹԤ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ˻ޤ
ɸεޤ礦ֿפΡ֤פϲŪˤϾ۲ [ŋ] ȤƼ¸ޤѸǤϾ۲ [ŋ] ֻ ng Ȥɽ뽬ǤʤäŪаޤޤΤᡤѸɽӤ˴ŤإܥǤϡ*Shingkoiwa Ȥʤ餺n Ѥ Shinkoiwa ƤΤǤ
2֤ε ([2019-11-13-1], [2019-11-14-1]) ɸѤʵˤĤƹͤƤޤɽŪˤߤȡܸǤϡ֤夯ס֤ФפȤɽǡ֤פʬʤѸʤ뤤ϥإܥˤǤ Shinjuku Shimbashi ʬƤΤǤ顤Ѹɽȯΰ㤤˼¤Ҵȿ븷̩ɽʤΤʡȻפ뤫⤷ޤn m νʬΤߤ夲ơѸɽŪ˸̩ǤǸΤϾǤ¾ͻƤɬפޤ
n m ȤҲΰ㤤פǤΤϡξȤ˰ǤѸ nap map ΰ㤤פʤΤƱͤˡܸǡ֤ʡ̾ˡ na ȡ֤ޡʴ֡ˡ ma ΰ㤤ϽפǤǤ顤ܸñΥɽˤ na ma Τ褦˽ʬ뤳ȼΤԻĤǤⲿǤ⤢ޤɡҲ첻ʤĶĤޤñȤΩľˤܸǤɡҲΰ㤤¤ȤǤʤѸ٤礭ۤʤΤǤ
֤ʻˡפ̾ [saɴ] ȯޤĿͤˤäơ뤤Ͼˤä [san], [saɲ], [saŋ], [sam], [sã] ʤɤȼ¸뤳Ȥ⤢ޤȯǤ⡤ܸʸ̮ǤϽʬˡ֤פȤƲᤵޤȤѸǤ sun [sʌn], some [sʌm], sung [sʌŋ] Τ褦ˡĤɡҲñȤΩĴĶǤΤ˶̤ʤФʤޤѸϤΤ褦ܸ٤ɡҲζ̤Ū˸θˡˤȿǤƤ뤿ˡShinjuku Shimbashi νʬƤȹͤޤ
äϤǽޤ˵ sung [sʌŋ] Τ褦ˡng Ȥֻ [ŋ] ȯñͤƤߤޤ礦. sing, sang, song Ϥ king, long, ring, thing, young ʤɤޤ͡ѸǤ [ŋ] [n] [m] Τ˶̤ʤФʤʤΤǡΤ褦 ng Ȥ ȼʸ2ʸ1ȤֻˤѰդƤ櫓ǤȤСn m ˽ʬΤƱˡ ng ˽ʬƤ뤫ȤС㤤ޤ㤨 ink, monk, sync, thank ϳơ [ɪŋk], [mʌŋk], [sɪŋk], [θæŋk] ȯ졤ʶʤ [ŋ] ɡҲäƤޤʤΤˡ*ingk, *mongk, *syngc, *thangk Τ褦ˤ֤ޤn m ξȤϻ𤬰ۤʤΤǤ
Ѹ [n], [m], [ŋ] Τ˶̤٤ȯȤߤʤƤޤֻ夽ΰ㤤ȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤޤn m ʬ뤳ȤˤĤƤϾҴǤ ng ΰ㤤˽ʬۤҴʤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤܸδ鸫ȡѸɽϤȤǤϳΤ˲Ūˤ긷̩Ȥޤ̤ΤȤǤɬ⸷̩ǤϤʤܸɽΡ֤פ˶ᤤȤޤ⤷٤Ƥξ˸̩äȤ顤ֿסʤ [ɕiŋkoiwa] αѸɽʤ뤤ϥإܥɽˤϡԤ Shinkoiwa ǤϤʤ *Shingkoiwa ȤʤϤǤ
ɸεޤ礦ʤֿסʤФˤΥɽ Shimbashi ˤ n ǤϤʤ m ѤΤǤ礦εФơֱѸܸⲻŪ˸̩ɽѤƤ뤫פñǤԽʬǤֿפΡ֤פǤξĤƤꡤ餳 m ɽΤǤĴؤǤޤϡ˴ְäƤȤϤޤShinkoiwa 褦ȤʤˤʤäþޤǤΤǡɸεФΤϡҤ٤褦ˡֱѸˡ᤹٤ˤΤ߸̩ʲɽɽ路Ρ줬 Shimbashi פȤʤޤäϪˤäƤޤСShimbashi ֤ΤϡѸǤϤ֤뤳ȤˤʤäƤ뤫פȤȤˤʤޤѤʵФȤƤϿȤդʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ޤŪʴ餤ȹͻ̡䤬äȰƤɤĤ̤ηǤ̻ŪʴϤޤ̤˵Ǥޤˡ
ε ([2019-11-13-1]) ǡܸΡ֤פĶ˱ƿΰۤʤȯǼ¸뤳Ȥ˿ޤλ¤ˤĤơ⤦Ū˹ͤƤߤޤ礦
ƣ (49) ˤȡ֤פ͡ʲŪ¸ˤĤơΤ褦ޤ
³ҲƱĴɡְФȤ벻Ǥ롥³ҲɡΤȤϡ[p] [b] [m] [m], [t] [ts] [d] [dz] [n] [n], [tɕ] [dʑ], [ɲ] [ɲ], [k] [ɡ] [ŋ] [ŋ] ˤʤ롥
ǤθꡤĤޤٻߤľǤϡɡ [paɴ] Ȥʤ롥ĿͤޤϾ̤ˤꡤ[m] [n] [ŋ]ޤɡ첻ˤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥֤ʿաˡס֤ʿˡפΤ褦ʡ첻ܶΥ⡤ɡ [paɴ] Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ뤬ºݤϤۤǫĴʤ¤ĺ[ɕiĩi] Τ褦 [i] ɡ첻 [ĩ] Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿
³ҲԤϹԤʤɤΤȤ⡤ƱǡƱĴͭɡΤȤʤ뤬첻αƶ뤿ᵭ沽άɽǤϳά[h] [s] [ɸ] [ɯ̃], [ɕ] [ç] [ĩ] Τ褦ɡ첻ȤʤȹͤƤФ褤
ܸΡ֤פϤʤʤʣʤ͡ȯƤ뤳ȤʬǤ礦̾٤вŪ˸̩ȤäƤ褤Ѹɽʤ뤤Ϥ˶ᤤإܥɽˤǤΡ֤פȤʤС1ν˼ޤʤΤƻǤ̤ȤơShinjuku Ǥʤ Shimbashi Τ褦ֻФƤ櫓Ǥ
̾ӤФ긷̩ʲɽȤȤˤѸʤɽˤˤƤ⡤ n m ʬ뤯餤ǡ¤ϡָ̩פʤɤǤϤޤѸˡ᤹٤ˤΤ߸̩ʲɽɽ路Ρ줬 Shimbashi ȹͤƤɬפޤ
ʤθɡ [ɴ] ˤĤơܸɴŵ (247) ȡ֤ѶŪɡҲǤȤϡꡤ㴳Ĥ뤳Ȥˤä벻פȤȤǤ
ƣ ˡŸ˾ܸ١ҡ1996ǯ
ܸɴŵ١İ ɧۤ ԡ罤ۡ1988ǯ
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