Massachusetts 쳤߲⤫ Martha's Vineyard ϡLabov μҲؤĴͭ̾Ǥ롥Labov ϡ̱ΤǿʹԤƤ2첻 [aɪ], [aʊ] [əɪ], [əʊ] ؤѲμ֤ȸõäʲ1972ǯ Labov ǾܽҤƤĴƤ⤷ Aitchison (60--67) ˽ä롥

ꥫڤ3ޥۤɤβ⤫ Martha's Vineyard ʤϡDz Jaws ȤʤäȤ⤢ꡤ¿ο͡ε˻ĤäƤ롥ο6ͤۤɤļˤϲƤˤʤڤ4ͤĶѸҤĤ褦ˤʤꡤϤȤƤγȯʤޤä¦ˤڤ꽻Ԥ¿ޤ褦ˤʤä̤ȤơϿԤ̩٤ι⤤ϰȤʤꡤϸṮ̌ŪϰȤʤä
Labov ϡ30ǯĴεϿӤơ̱ [aɪ], [aʊ] ȯ [əɪ], [əʊ] ѲƤƤ뤳ȤܤѲĴ뤳Ȥ˷ˡ̱¿ΥǡȡLabov ̡ǯϰʬ̱ۡ²ʬۡʸŪѰۤʤɤΥѥˤʬϤʤޤ̱ȤϤѲʹǤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤƤʤȤȤȽ
ʬϷ̤ϼ̤äǯΥѥˤĤơ75ФǯؤǤϤѲϺǤ⾯ʤ31--45ФǯؤǺǤ¿ä30аʲǤ31--45ФۤɤѲѻʤäŪˤϡѲļǰŪˤ褯ʹԤƤޤMartha's Vineyard ϤȤȵȤäޤ˻ĤäƤʤ̱ΤۤȤɤ Chilmark ˽Ǥꡤε̱ѲαƶǤ⸲˼Ƥ뤳ȤȽΤޤȤȡѲϤ餯ε̱ξĤϤޤꡤ30--45ФǯؤعäƤä餷Ȥ¬롥
ʤΤ褦ʤȤäΤLabov ϡԤѻȹͻˤꡤΤ褦ʶڽֿȯǤ [əɪ], [əʊ] ϡºݤˤϤष̱θŤŪѼ¸ߤƤѰ۷äΤ18--19ΥꥫڤǤ [əɪ], [əʊ] ʹ줿ΤǤꡤθŤȯҶ˻ĤäƤȤƤԻĤϤʤ19ʹߡꥫڤ [əɪ], [əʊ] [aɪ], [aʊ] ؤѲư˸ƱơMartha's Vineyard ǤʿԤѲȻפ뤬ǤϸŤȯˤ϶व줺ˡݼŪѰ۷Ȥƻ¸ȤLabov ĴȤݼŪѰ۷ǤϺƤϤ֤ĥϤƤ褦Ǥ롥
ŤȯȳĥˤĤƤϡβ⤬ΩƤƤ롥Ūʵ̱ϡ˲ڤδѸҤˤϤӤѸӥͥ˷ƤΤǤϤʤѸȤȤΩŪĤǤε̱ˤϡʬ Martha's Vineyard 餷θ̱ɽǤȤ餬ꡤμˤݼŪѰ۷ξ [əɪ], [əʊ] Ѥ뤳Ȥ̵ռΤǤΤǤϤʤơΤ褦ʵ̱Ū̱ȤƤΥǥƥƥ˶뼡̱30--45СˤƤƤꡤ餬ħŪ [əɪ], [əʊ] Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤƤΤǤϤʤ
Aitchison (65) ΤޤȤɤǤߤ褦
On Martha's Vineyard a small group of fishermen began to exaggerate a tendency already existing in their speech. They did this seemingly subconsciously, in order to establish themselves as an independent social group with superior status to the despised summer visitors. A number of other islanders regarded this group as one which epitomized old virtues and desirable values, and subconsciously imitated the way its members talked. For these people, the new pronunciation was an innovation. As more and more people came to speak in the same way, the innovation gradually became the norm for those living on the island.
Labov ˤ Martha's Vineyard Ĵϡ#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1]) θȤȤˡҲػ˾塤פʥǥȤǧƤ롥
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ɸˤĤơ#1620. Ѹˤ /t, d/ źá ([2013-10-03-1]) #1575. -st θźä˴ؤ Dobson ιͻ ([2013-08-19-1]) εǼ夲Ƥä˸ -st ˤ t οˤĤƤ ##508,509,510,739,1389,1393,1394,1399,1554,1555,1573,1574,1637,1807,2062 γƵˤƤ
Ѹˤ /t/ æޤȹϤ¸ߤ뤬Wełna (329--30) OED MED 齸ΰͿƤƤΤǡǺܤWełna ϡ/t/ æ "permanent" ʤΡʸѸޤǤθ̤³ƤΡˤ "sporadic" ʤΡʰθ̤줿ˤȤη֤زΡˤȤ̤줫Ѹ줫ǶʬƤ롥
(1)
(a) Permanent t-insertion in native words: ME behest (<OE behæs); against, amidst, amongst, betwixt
(b) Permanent t-insertion in foreign words: ME ancient (<ME auncien), ME cormorant (<F cormoran), ME ernest) (<ME ernesse) 'earnest' (=pledge money), ME pagent (<ME pagyn 'pageant', ME perchement (<ME parchemin) 'parchment', ME fesaunt (<F fesan) 'pheasant', ME truant (<F truan), ME tirant '<F tiran) 'tyrant'
(c) Sporadic t-insertion followed by t-loss: ME glisten (<OE glisnian, ME listen (ONhb. lysna); ME vermin (<ME vermint <F vermin
. . . .
(2)
(a) Permanent t-loss in native words: (a) anduel (< onfilt) 'anvil'; ME best(a) (<betsta), ME blesse (<bletsen), OE blosma (<blostma), ME last(e) (<lattste); ENE bussle (<bustle), ENE brisle (<ME bristle), ENE miscelto (<ME mistilto) 'mistletoe', ME nestle, ME ?rustle, LME thrissil (<OE þistil) 'thistle', ENE throssle (<ME þrostle), Sc. quhissle (<OE hwistle) 'whistle', ENE wressel (<ME wrestlen); christen (OE cristnian <Lat.), ME fasten (<OE fæstnian); ME offen (<ME often).
(b) Permanent t-loss in foreign words: (a) ME apostle, castle, epistle, ENE iussell (<LME iustil) 'jostle', LME pestle, ME tresselle (<trestle) 'trestle' (obs.); crysmas (<Cristmasse) 'Christmas'; (b) ME chasten, ENE chestnutte (<chest-nut), ENE hasten; (c) ENE craven (<ME cravant), ME orisoun (<ME orizonte) 'horizon'
(c) Sporadic t-loss: ENE paisan (<OF paysant) 'peasant'.
Wełna Ѹ줫Ѹ t οĴ(1) ǤϹٸ줬ѸǤٸ줬βѲαƶ䤹(2) ʬۤ餫Ϥߤʤ(3) t ϼȤѸθݤǤ t æϼȤƽѸθݤǤ뤳ȡ3ȤƼƤ롥ɬǤϤʤ⤤Ĥ롥ܺ٤Ĵ˾ޤ롥
Wełna, Jerzy. "Insertion and Loss of the Voiceless Dental Plosive [t] in Middle English." Studies in Middle English: Words, Forms, Senses and Texts. Ed. Michael Bilynsky. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2014. 329--42.
ε#2104. ޡ ([2015-01-30-1]) ν˥ե٥åȤˤĤƿ줿ΤǡϤʤѸѤ륢ե٥åȤϡABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZפȤ¤ӽʤΤ
ʸθȤơ4ब̤̾, p. 155ˡ
(1) Ūʬˡθ˴ŤΤǡޤΤۤåȸʸʼޡˡϥʤɤ롥
(2) Ūʬˡθ˽Τǡ¼ŵʤɡ
(3) յŪʬˡ̣δϢθΡ¼ŵϰǤ⤢ΤǡʬŪˤϰյŪʬˡ˽äƤ롥ޤǸŤλʸ٤Ǥϡʸ¤Ӥ켫Ȥ̣äƤȤǡյŪʬΰȹͤ롥ʸ֤Ĥλס֤ϡ (cf. #1005. ʿ̾ˤǸŤΡ֤ϲΡפȯ줿 ([2012-01-27-1])ˤʤɤ⡤¤ӤΤȤƾ϶Ƥǡʬ°롥
(4) ǯŪʬˡʸä줿ꤷ¤٤븶㤨С<Z> ϥƥե٥åȤˤƸ夫ä줿ΤǡʸåȤκǸۤƤ<G>, <X>, <I--J>, <U--V--W-Y> Ʊ̾Ρ֤פ⡥
Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤϥƥե٥åȤΤǤꡤԤ6˥֥ƥư衤ʸդäʤɡĤβѤФƸ˻롥äơѸ쥢ե٥åȤϡ§Ȥƥƥե٥åȤˤʤäƤͤƤ褤Ǥϡƥե٥åȤϲ˴ŤƤΤϡꥷե٥åȤǤ롥ꥷե٥åȤȤʤꡤˤĤβѤä졤ƥե٥åȤΩ
ꥷե٥åȤƥե٥åȤ˻аޤˤϡԤѼ (cf. #1837. ȥꥷʸλκۡ ([2014-05-08-1])) 䥨ȥꥢ (Etruscan) ͿƤꡤʣǤ롥β <C> <G> (cf. #1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1])) <G> ꥷե٥åȤǤ <Z> Ƥ֤夷ꡤ<Z> 夫Ƴ줿ꤷޤ<F> ϡ#1825. <F> εȯŸ ([2014-04-26-1]) Ǥߤ褦ʷаޤǸߤΰ֤Ǽޤä<I--J> ʬ <U--V--W--Y> ʬ (cf. #1830. Y ̾Ρ ([2014-05-01-1])) ơ줾줪褽٤礦֤ۤ줿Τ褦˼βѤϤäΤȤƤϥꥷե٥åȤפˤ뤳Ȥϵʤ
ǤϡΥꥷե٥åȤθϲ#1832. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (1) ([2014-05-03-1])#1833. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (2) ([2014-05-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡꥷե٥åȤϡࡦե٥å (Semitic alphabets) 1ѼǤե˥ե٥å (Phoenician alphabet) ͳ褹롥äơŪˤϥե˥ե٥åȤʤɤθ饢ե٥åȤʤФʤʤ
#1832. ꥷե٥åȤʸ̾ (1) ([2014-05-03-1]) ˷Ǥʸɽαü2ˤʸ̾ΤỌ̇̄Ǥ롥¤ӹäƤ1Ȥʸΰּ̣ (yod) ȡֶʤ (kaf) ֿ (mēm) ȡֵ (nūn) Τ褦˲餫δطäƤȤͤȡʤȤʬŪˤϰյŪʬˡ˽äƤΤǤϤʤȻפ롥bet, gaml, delt ɽhé, wau ʥǤϤΰ֤ˤä, zai ɽlamd, mém, nun ήɽʤɡŪʬˡθʬŪƯƤ褦ˤߤ롥ΤȤƤ⡤褽ҲĴ֤ء첻첻첻ؤ¤Ǥ뤫Τ褦̾p. 157ˡ
ʾޤȤȡѸ쥢ե٥åȤϡյŪŪʸ줿Ȼפե˥ե٥åȤ˵إꥷե٥åȤȥƥե٥åȤγʳˤƼȤǯŪʸ§ˤ꿷ʸäʤɼβѤʤ줿̤Ǥ롤Ȥ롥Ϣơ#1849. ե٥åȤηޡ ([2014-05-20-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
ܸҤ餬ʤθޤȤС鷺Τ줿ɽؤ *
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<gh> ֻб벻ˤĤƤϡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1])#210. ֻȯЪΥˤ ([2009-11-23-1])#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1])#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1]) ʤɤˤƤѸˤɤΥꥨΤޤȤƤߤ褦֥륷 (145) ϡΤ褦ʥꥹȤƤ롥
[au] boughplough ʤ [ou] doughthough ʤ [ɔ:] boughtthought ʤ [ɔf] coughtroughѰ۷ [ɔ:f] ⤳Ʊ¸ߤ [ʌf] enoughtough ʤ [ɔk] hough [u:] through [ʌp] hiccough [ə] boroughthoroughǸ [ <ough> ] ȤΤʤˤ
<ough> Ȥ³ֻФơñˤä9ʤʤ10ˤȯб뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ΤȤƤ30ۤɤʤ褦ʤΤǡβ¿϶ä٤¤Ǥ롥줾βʤаޤƤŪȤʤȼ¤ʣʤΤǤ (1) ѸʳǤ첻ΰ㤤(2) <gh> ɽ蘆Ƥ̵ [x] ֤첻ѷʤäꤷȡ(3) [x] ü꿰 [f] ִ줿ȡ(4) ˤ֤ʤ(5) ̵֤ˤ첻μ岽νװۤʤʳ˰ۤʤˤƺѤȽҤ٤ˤȤɤƤnight ˤ <gh> Τ褦̵Ÿ [ç] ؤˤϤθβѲľŪľʤΤ̵ [x] ͿȻ֤ʣΤΤ褦ܺ٤ϡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) ǿ줿֥륷 (145--47) ˴ʷʵҤΤǤ⻲Ȥ줿
ΤȤ30ۤɤȽҤ٤äȥǡ١ǽ夲Ƥߤȸͭ̾졦ʣưʲ34줬ä
although, blough, borough, bough, bought, brough, brought, chough, clough, cough, dough, drought, enough, fought, furlough, hiccough, hough, lough, 'nough, nought, ought, plough, rough, slough, sough, sought, thorough, though, thought, through, tough, tought, trough, wrought
른塦֥륷ˡ 忡 СⲬ ͥˡرѸˡˤȸ١ݽǡ1999ǯ
ɸ /s/ + ̵λҲϡѸ˾塤ŪðۤʿƤðϱѸ첻ǤϹΤƤꡤ͡ʹͻʬϤʤƤʲƬ (132--33, 136--38) ˰͵Ʋ⤷褦
ޤˡ§ (grimms_law) ϡλҲ2ǤȤƸˤŬѤʤäȤΤƤ롥#641. ޥλҲ (3) ([2011-01-28-1]) ȡ#662. sp-, st-, sk- ̵ˤʤͳ ([2011-02-18-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ[s] ε©αƶǸ³֥å줿Ǥ롥
ˡűѸťΥɸƬdzǧ褦ˡsp-, st-, sc- ñϡȤ߹碌̤ñȤƬʤȤǤʤäĤޤꡤŪˤ2Ĥʬʤˤ⤫餺1ĤβΤ褦˿ȤȤȤ
ޤ#2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1]) (6) Ǥߤ2Ҳû (shortening before two consonants) ˤꡤfīfta > fifta, sōhte > sohte, lǣssa > læssa ʤɤûprēstes Ǥ㳰ŪûʤäξˤƤ⡤/s/ Ȥ³Ȥߴط̩Ǥꡤ碌1Ĥñ̤ȤƿäƤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ롥
äơ/sp/, /st/, /sk/ ϡOnset ˵ݤ˻ҲðۤǤ롥Onset λҲǤϡʹ (sonority) 㤤Ҳ˻Ϥޤꡤ⤤Ҳ³ȤĤޤ㢪פ§Ǥ롥Ȥ[s] [t] ʹ٤⤤Τǡsp- ʤɤǤϡֹ⢪פȤʤꡤ§ȿ롥
ǸդäСְ㤤θ椫⡤Ҳ˴ؤְ㤤ðǧȤ롥
ʾβľ̤ؼԤλҲ(1) ޤ2ҲȤư(2) 2ҲǤϤ뤬1ĤΤޤȤޤ (ʣ粻ǡ composite phonemeˤȤư(3) 1ҲȤưʤɤνƤͤȤơƬ (138) ϡ¸ (dependency phonology) Ω줫顤λҲ /s/ ƳȤȤ "contour segment" ǤȤʬϤƤƤ롥"contour segment" ιͤϡѸǵäȤƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening) ˴ط /mb/ ʤɤλҲˤѤǤ褦Ǥ롥
Ƭġ˽ҡ"Consonant cluster" ȲѲðȲṽ¤ᤰäơס츦θߡ١ϩˡˡҤĤ˼2013ǯ127--43ǡ
̾ -th ˤĤƤϡ#14. ̾-th ([2009-05-12-1])#16. -th ̾ΤȤˤʤäư졦ƻϡ ([2009-05-14-1])#595. death and dead ([2010-12-13-1])#1787. coolth ([2014-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲ƤѲʤɤʣʷаޤˤꡤΤ -th դȤδطȯֻξǤϸˤʤäƤΤ¿Τ褦1Ĥ young -- youth Υڥ롥long -- length, strong -- strength Ǥϡ촴 ng ݤƤΤˡyoung ̾Ǥɡ youth ȤʤΤϲΤ
űѸǤϴΤȤʤƻ geong̾ geoguþ ǤꡤԤǤϤǤɡæƤ롥ޥǤƱߤƤߤȡOld Saxon juguð, Dutch jeugd, Old High German jugund, German jugend ɡ̵ͭɤƤ뤬ϥޥ̾ɡƤ褦ޥĸǤ *jugunþi n ƷƤʥƥ juvenis (adj.), juventa (n.) ⻲ȡˡPartridge ˤȡ"OE geong has derivative geoguth or geogoth---a collective n---prob an easing of *geonth" ȤꡤȯؤΤɡȤȤ餷ܤ̤Ĵĸʳ young θ촴ο long strong ΤȤϰۤʤΤä褦ʤ14ƬˤϷƻ young ľˤ youngth ֤ԤƤ롥
ʤߤ OED ˤȡűѸ geoguþ ϡư dugan (to be good or worth) ̾ duguþ (worth, virtue, excellence, nobility, manhood, force, a force, an army, people) ȥޥʳطˤäǽȤűѸ duguþ Ѹؤ douth Ȥä1400ǯǽȤѤȤʤä
Partridge, Eric Honeywood. Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. 4th ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966. 1st ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; New York: Macmillan, 1958.
ε#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1]) ˰³;̾ȯˤĤơ2;̾ʡŪʤ you ϡŪˤϸűѸбгʡͿʤ ēow ̤ (cf. #180. űѸο;̾о ([2009-10-24-1])) űѸμʤ ġe Ǥꡤ ye η֤ǶѸޤǼʤȤ̤ѤƤ#800. you ˤ ye ִ phonaesthesia ([2011-07-06-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡyou ˼ʤκ¤å줿ʸ塤ʡŪʤζ̤ʤ you ɸŪʷ֤Ȥʤꡤߤ˻롥
ͤǤϸűѸ ēow ɤΤ褦ˤƸѸ /juː/ ʶˤȯãΤȽȤʤ (251) ˤ you βˤҤȤȡܤޤʣ첻Ѳ뤲Ƥ뤳ȤʬäűѸβ2첻Ū /ˈeːou/ ϶ܤˤ徺2첻Ū /eˈoːu/ βĤ褦ˤʤꡤ1ǤȾҲȯã /joːu/ ȤʤäѸˤϡ2첻경 /juː/ Ȥʤä /juː/ ϸѸȯƱľ뤷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤϤʣǤ롥/juː/ ϶ȤƤ16ȾФ餵ʤѲ뤲ơ/jəu?joː/ ȯã17ˤϾü/juː/ ϼȤ /jʊ, jə/ ޤ졤ߤƱμϢʤ뤬줬ƶƶ /juː/ 褷Τ餷űѸ° ēower 褦ʣʷϩФơѸ your ʶ /jɔː, jʊə/ˤϤ
;̾β岽ȶ֤Ȥѥϡε ([2015-01-02-1]) #1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1]) Ǥ⸫줿 (316) Ŧʤ¾ο;֤̾ˤĤƤͿƤΤǡѤƤ
ModE ˤʸˡζ̤ ModE ˤ϶ʻ¸塤ԤѤȤʤꡤԤƶȤʤꤳޤȯã PE ˻Ȥϩ̤Ȥ褦Ǥ롥ޡΤޤƱͤѤ뤳Ȥ⤢ä
① Prn: my [əɪ?ɪ]/me [iː, ɛː?ɪ, ɛ]//we [iː?ɪ]//thou [uː?ʊ]/thee [iː?ɪ]//ye [iː?ɪ, ɛ], ƶˤ [ɛː]/your: (i) uː > ʲoː, (ii) uː > 16c ȾС[əʊ], (iii) [juː] μ [jʊ] ʤ鶯 [juː]ˤ3ĤԤƤ/ you: ME [juː] (i) Ȥơ16c ȾС[jəʊ?joː] 17˾üˡ(ii) [jʊ] > (16c) [jə] ޤϺƶ [juː] ʤ줬 PE dzΩ//he [hiː, hɛː?ɪ]//she [ʃiː?ʃɪ]//it [ɪt?t] [t] ϸü//they [ðəɪ?ðɪ]//their [ðɛːr?ðɛr] . . . // who [oː, uː?ɔ, ʊ]
ʤyou ֻ¤üʸǤ롥ѱñˤ <u> ǽΤ§ȤƤʤ you ϶ˤƵ㳰Ǥ̾p. 45ˡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Ѹ1;ʣ̾Ūʤη֤ us Ǥ롥ȯϡLDP ˤȶ /ʌs, ʌz/ /əs, əz/ ǤʸҲ /z/ Τ "BrE non-RP"ˡűѸǤĹ첻 ūs ǤꡤĹ첻û³岽 (centralisation) ΤζǤꡤۣ첻ΤμǤ롥ȡޤǤñ˹ͤƤȯŸεפڤȤƤϴְäƤʤȻפ뤬ľŪˤȤ館ƤǽȵŤ
;̾Τ褦ʸϡǽ塤˶ȼ夤碌Ƥ̾ʸ̮ǤϵôȤ̵ȤñΤѤ줿Ū˻ȤʤɶĴ뵡⤢뤫鿷ޤ뤳Ȥ⤢С鿷Ф뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤΤӤ˼㴳ۤʤ벻Ƥ㤨С#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡűѸ1;ñ̾ʷ ic I ȯŸΤ⡤ҲæȤ³Ĺ (compensatory_lengthening) η̤ǤϤʤǽˤФи붯ȼȤζȿǤƤǽ⤤βˤĤƤϡ (66) OE iċ ϡME ˤʤäơstress ʤ /ʧ/ æ /i/ Ȥʤꡤμ鶯 /íː/ ȹͤפȤθƤ롥
(67) ³1;ʣ̾гʡͿʷ֤ȯˤڤǤ롥űѸ ūs ˤƸѸ us ȯؤȯãˤĤơic I ʿŪʹͤƤ롥
OE ūs ϡME ˤʤäƶ /ús/ 줬 Mod E /ʌ́s/ ˤʤäΤǤME /uːs/ ϡʲѲéСGreat Vowel Shift ˤä /áus/ ˤʤϤΤΤǤ롥¡ME /üːr/ ModE /áuə/ ȤʤäƤ롥
ޤ /uːs/ û첻 us ۣ첻ʤ /əs/ ޤ줿û첻 us Ϥ餯ȤƸ줿Τ鶯ӤƤʤϤǤꡤΤޤޤǤ̾βѲΥ롼Ȥ˾ä /ʌs/ ȯŸ뤳ȤϤʤϤǤ롥ȤΤϡ/u/ > /ʌ/ 岽϶ͭˤΤǤ롥դˤСѸ /ʌs/ 뤿ˤϡΤϤȤƶ /ús/ ԤƤʤФʤʤϡ岽ä /əs/ դη֤ƶΤȹͤΤ
äơűѸ ūs 鸽Ѹζ /əs/ ؤȯŸϡľŪʤΤǤϤʤ¿;ޤФΤȹͤʤѸɸ /ʌz, əz/ ͭҲ /z/ ͭⲻŪʼ岽θ (cf. #858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]))
OED ˵Ƥ us ΰ۷ְįС͡ʷ֤Ѹ˾˹ԤƤȤ褯Ǥ롥
α. OE-16 vs, OE- us, eME uss (Ormulum), ME oos, ME os, ME ows, ME vsse, ME vus, ME ws, ME wus, ME-15 ous, 16 vss; Eng. regional 18 as (Yorks.), 18 ehz (Yorks.), 18 ust (Norfolk), 18- az (Yorks.), 18- es (chiefly south-west.), 18- ess (Devon), 18- ez (Yorks. and south-west.), 18- uz (chiefly north. and north midl.), 19 is (north-east.), 19 ous (Yorks.); Sc. pre-17 os, pre-17 us, pre-17 uss, pre-17 usz, pre-17 vs, pre-17 ws, pre-17 wsz, pre-17 17 ous, 17 ows, 18 wes (Orkney), 18 wez (Orkney), 18 wus (Orkney), 18- 'is, 18- iz, 18- wis (Shetland), 18- wiz (Shetland), 19- is, 19- 'iz, 19- oos, 19- uz; Irish English 17 yus (north.), 18 ouse (Wexford), 18- iz (north.); N.E.D. (1926) also records a form 18 ous (regional).
β. eME hous, ME hus, ME husse, ME hvse, ME hws, 15 huse; Eng. regional 18- hess (Devon), 18- hiz (Cumberland), 18- hus (Northumberland), 18- huz (north. and midl.); Sc. 15 18- his, 17-18 hus, 18 hooz (south.), 18 huzz, 18- hiz, 18- huss, 18- huz, 19- hes, 19- hez; Irish English (north.) 18- hiz, 19- his, 19- hus, 19- huz.
γ. Enclitic (chiefly in let's: cf. LET v.1 14a) 15- -s (now regional and nonstandard), 16- -'s, 18- -'z (chiefly Sc.), 19- -z (chiefly Sc.).
ͺرѸˡ3ǡ̿2013ǯ
[2012-06-10-1] [2012-06-11-1] ˰³Ƥꡥ[2012-06-11-1] ε Jakobson Τ˰͵ƤĴǡ Murdock ΤΤǤ롥Murdock θŵäƤߤȡʤܺ٤Τ뤳ȤǤ롥
줿Τ474θ춦ƱΤΥǡǡ٤ƹ碌ɽ魯531ࡤɽ魯541ǧ줿Ʊθ줫ݤΤɤʬоݤȤ뤫ʬ˺ݤƤ첻ҲȤ߹碌ѥƱʤɤƿŤ˹θƤ롥η̤ɽǼƤΤǤ狼䤹Τ p. 4 TABLE 2 ʲ˺ƷǤ褦
| Sound classes | Denoting Mother | Denoting Father |
|---|---|---|
| Ma, Me, No, Na, Ne, and No | 273 (52%) | 81 (15%) |
| Pa, Po, Ta, and To | 38 (7%) | 296 (55%) |
| All 29 others | 220 (41%) | 164 (30%) |
#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1]) ǡGörlach ˤѸˤˤ첻ѲѤ첻Ѳˤ˰ӤƤߤĬήȤơRitt ϡ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) Ǥߤ褦˶ˤƤ뤬̤γ٤顤⤦1Ĥɸ˷ǤĬήŦǤ뤫⤷ʤ
Ƭ (128--29) ϡ (117--42, 142--51) Ȥʤ顤Ѹˤˤ첻μפĹû头Ȥ˰ʲΤ褦ƤʸűѸ줫ѸˤƤѲˤĤƤϡ#2048. ƱﲻĹĹIJû ([2014-12-05-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
ҸűѸ
(1) ƱĹ (Homorganic Lengthening)
gōld, lāmb, fīndan 'find' lāng
Ѹ
(2) Ĺ (Open Syllable Lengthening)
bāke mēte 'meat' hōle lōve < OE lufu week < OE wike
(3) 첻³Ĺ (Hiatus Lengtheningե)
gīant < giant pōet < poet
ҽѸ
(4) ̵Ĺ (lengthening before voiceless fricatives)
(/a/, /ɔ/ ___ [f, s, θ]) blāst mōss stāff sōft bāth clōth
ҸűѸ
(5) 3Ҳû (shortening before three consonants)
godspell deoppra 'deeper' wundrian 'wonder'
(6) 2Ҳû (shortening before two consonants, ŻҲޤ)
fifta 'fifth' sohte '(he) sought' læssa 'less'
(7) 3û (Trisyllabic Shortening)
laferce 'lark' halidæġ 'holiday' emetiġ 'empty'
Ѹ
(8) Ʊû (Homorganic Shortening)
land wind enden 'end'
(9) /u:/-û / ___ [x, v, m]
ruf < rōugh 'rough' plume < plūme 'plum'
ҽѸ
(10) ûҲû (shortening before a single consonant)
breath dread blood good cloth
(11) û (Open Syllable Shortening)
heavy weapon pleasant seven
(12) 2û (shortening in two syllabic words)
nickname < ēkename breakfast twopence
첻ĹûˤΤ褦ǡƬϡûĹ¿ѻĹΤΤû㤬ŦѸΤȤƤߤȡûͥǤꡤĹФ¤ޤäƤȤĬή롥Ƭ (129--30) ۩
űѸ衤ѸǤĹ첻Фʸ̮¤ޤäƤȹͤ롥űѸˤ첻ǤäƤĹû¸ߤĹ첻иĶä¤ƤʤäȤᤤĹ첻Ѥ³3Ҳ֤ˤĹ첻ʤʤ(5)3Ҳûˡ³2ҲǤĹ첻Ǥʤʤä(6)2ҲûˡѸûҲǤûä(10)ûҲûˡΤβṽ¤˴ؤΤǤϡűѸ˸3ܤĹ첻ʤʤ(7)3ûˡѸä2θ2ܡ1ˤǤûä(12)2ûˡΤȤƤϡűѸˤʤĹ첻Ф¤ޤäȹͤ롥
嵭ŪʱѸ첻˴ѤȤ⤤뤬ǤϤʤΤ褦ĬήΤϱѸ첻ˤεŪʲ
Ƭġ˽ҡ"Consonant cluster" ȲѲðȲṽ¤ᤰäơס츦θߡ١ϩˡˡҤĤ˼2013ǯ127--43ǡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
#2015. seek beseech θҲ ([2014-11-02-1]) ǡKrygier ˤϢʸɤεκǸǡseek /k/ ǹԤ줿ťΥɸƱ /k/ αƶˤΤǤϤʤȤҲ𤷤Krygier ϤٻƤ롥ǫϤʤΤǡפƤ
εǤȤꡤűѸб sēċan ǤꡤλҲ [k] ǤϤʤŸ˻ [ʧ] äθβϡGmc *sōkjan ˤƸ [j] ³ƤȤˤ줿ΤǤ롥űѸθ߷ޤǤϸ줿 [ʧ] 뤬2;ñ3;ñζΤߤ sēcst, sēcþ Τ褦 [k] ʤΥѥǤθؤˤĤƤϲŪʵ뤬ǤϾάˡŪʸˤȡ23;ñ [k] ѥ˹ꡤ1;ñʤɤ٤Ƥζ [k] ˻äȤ롥 (analogy) ΤʤǤѥǤοʿ (levelling) ȸƤФतβȤ (cf. #555. 2 analogy ([2010-11-03-1])) Hogg (7.42) ⤳ٻƤ롥
Following general principles of analogy . . . we would expect the nom.sg. to predominate over plural forms in nouns, and in strong verbs the present forms similarly to predominate over past forms. . . . In the present tense of weak verbs the alternation type sēcan ? sēcþ is, as would be predicted, the source of later seek, cf. beseech, where the affricate has been extended, perhaps on pragmatic grounds, and so for other similar verbs, such as think, work.
Krygier ϡ˵롥̾Ѥͭɸʷ̵ɸʷݤ߹ޤƤǤ롥ǤСsēċan ξ硤ष1;ñʤɤ [ʧ] ķ̵֤ɸȤߤʤϤ顤[ʧ] ؿʿƤ椯ΤڤȤ¤ȿФǤ롥ΰѤˤ⤢̤ꡤष [ʧ] ؿʿ beseech ˴ؤƤϤĤΤǤꡤseek ˤĤƱФȤΤǤϤʤ
Krygier ϡseek Ʊ֥饹°ưʸ촴 [k] ļѲIưˤΥꥹȤä (catch (OFr cachier), dretch (OE dreccan), letch (OE læccan), quetch (OE cweccan), reach (OE rǣcan), reach (2) (OE reccan), rech (OE reccan), seek (OE sēcan), stretch (OE streccan), teach (OE tǣcan), think (OE þencan ? þyncan), watch (OE w(r)eccan), work (OE wyrcan)) ơ13ĤưˤĤơ5Ĥ˶ʬѸФ[k] [ʧ] 夲η̡ưΤȤƤΤȤƤ [ʧ] ͥǤϤĤưˤĤƤष [k] ͥǤ뤳ȤƾʤȤ¾٤٤Ȥ狼äŪˤϡHogg ΰѤͽۤ褦ˡseek, think, work 3줬Τ褦ʬۤ (Krygier 465)
Ǹˤä [k] ͥǤȤȤϡťΥɸδͿ碌롥ºݡ˵ưбťΥɸˤ [k] 롥3ˤĤƤСťΥɸ sœkja, þekkja/þykkja, yrkja Ǥ롥ξΤߤǤޤǤ뤬ξˤϸťΥɸλͿͤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ȤϡϤ [k] ɸȤƺѤ줿ȤʥꥪꤹΤߤseek beseech ʿŪȯãʤäΤϡťΥɸ sœkja ʸڤ뤬 *besœkja ʸڤʤȤȤطƤΤǤϤʤ (Krygier 468)
Krygier (468) ηʤΤǡѤƤ
By way of a summary, the following interpretation of the developments in the "seek"-group regarding velar restoration can be proposed. The Present-day English situation is a result of an interplay of two factors. One of them is analogical levelling of the alternations resulting from Primitive Old English syncope of medial unstressed [i]. Contrary to earlier scholarship, however, a path of development parallel to that in strong verbs is postulated, thus removing the minority velar forms from second and third person singular present tense. This would give palatal consonants throughout the present paradigm in all dialects of Late Old English/Early Middle English. On this pattern the influence of Old Norse equivalents of the "seek"-verbs should be superimposed. For obvious reasons, initially it was limited mainly to the north-east, later spreading southwards, with West Midlands as a possible relic area. The absence of an Old Norse equivalent would favour the preservation of the palatal type, while its existence would further velar restoration, as best exemplified by the seek ? beseech contrast. In individual cases other factors, such as the existence of etymologically related Old English words with a velar, e.g., wyrcan : weorc, could have played a secondary role, which can probably be seen primarily in isolated velar forms in the south.
Krygier, Marcin. "Old English (Non)-Palatalised */k/: Competing Forces of Change at Work in the "seek"-Verbs." Placing Middle English in Context. Ed. I. Taavitsainen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 461--73.
Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
ޥλ夫űѸ졤ѸФƶѸ˻ޤǤαѸ첻ˤäȤޤȤߤȻפäΤǡפʼŪŪѲޤȤƤߤʲɽϡGörlach (48--49) 첻μ̤˴ؤѲάǯɽɥåΤǤ롥
| Period | Quantity | Quality | ||
| Rule | Examples | Rule | Examples | |
| WGmc--OE | ai > ā, au > ēa, ā > ǣ/ē, a > æ | stān, ēage, dǣd, dæg cf. Ge Stein, Auge, Tat, Tag | ||
| 7--9th c. | compensatory lengthening | *sehan > sēon "see", mearh, gen. mēares "mare" | ||
| 9--10th c. | lengthening of before esp. [-ld, -mb, -nd] | fēld, gōld, wāmb, fīnd, but ealdrum | ||
| shortening before double (long) consonants | wĭsdom, clæ̆nsian, cĭdde, mĕtton | |||
| shortening in the first syllable of trisyllabic words | hăligdæg, hæ̆ringas, wĭtega | |||
| OE--ME | shortening in unstressed syllables | wisdŏm, stigrăp | monophthongization of all OE diphthongs | OE dēad, heard, frēond, heorte, giefan > ME [dɛːd, hard, frœːnd, hœrtə, jivən] |
| 12th c. | [ɣ > w] and vocalization of [w] and [j]; emergence of new diphthongs | OE dagas, boga, dæg, weg > ME [dauəs, bouə, dai, wei] | ||
| southern rounding of [aː > ɔː] | OE hāl(ig) > ME hool(y) [ɔː] | |||
| 12--14th c. | unrounding of œ(ː), y(ː) progressing from east to west | ME [frɛːnd, hertə, miːs, fillen] | ||
| 13th c. | lengthening in open syllables of bisyllabic words | nāme, nōse, mēte (week, door) | ||
| 15th c. GVS and 16--17th century consequences | ||||
| esp. 15--16th c. | shortening in monosyllabic words | dead, death, deaf, hot, cloth, flood, good | ||
| 18th c. | lengthening before voiceless fricatives and [r] | glass, bath, car, servant, before | ||
űѸ줫Ѹˤơ첻̤ѲȵäǽƱﲻĹ (Homorganic Lengthening) 12--13ˤƳĹ (Open Syllable Lengthening) IJû (Closed Syllable Shortening) Ȥ롥ñȯ櫓ǤϢŪ櫓Ǥʤष1ĤθǤ줿̴طˤ벻ѲȤߤʤ٤ΤǤ롥
줾ѲάҤ褦ƱﲻĹϸűѸޤǤƤ첻βѲǡ#145. child children 첻Ĺ ([2009-09-19-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤƱʤ뤤϶ᤤĴﴱˤĴ2ĤͭҲ³ˡԤû첻Ĺ첻ȤΤŪˤ /ld/, /rd/, /rð/, /rl/, /rn/, /rz/, /mb/, /nd/, /ŋg/ û첻Ĺ롥Ϣ³2ĤλҲͭľ첻˰ޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤿ᡤ̤Ȥ첻β̤Ĺʤ롥cild cīld ءblind blīnd ءclimban clīmban ؤѲ
˳ĹϽѸ첻βѲǡ#1230. over offer ϺǾФǤϤʤ ([2012-09-08-1]) ǤܤҤ٤褦ˡˤû첻Ĺ첻ȤΤnama nāma ءberan bēran ءofer ōfer ؤѲ
ǸIJûϳĹƱŪ첻βѲǡIJˤĹ첻û첻ȤΤsōfte softe ءclǣnsian clænsian ءkēpte kepte ؤѲ
ơ3ĤβѲظึ˰ܤ֥륷 (64) ˤСűѸˤϴܲṽ¤Ȥ4Ĥηꤨ(1) V|C (ex. beran), (2a) VC|C (ex. settan), (2b) VV|C (ex. dēman), (3) VVC|C (clǣnsian) Ǥ롥Τ3⡼餫ʤ (2a) (2b) ŪʸȹͤƤꡤ(1) ϤûΡ(3) ϤĹΤȤƼŪʹ¤Ȳᤵ롥δ餹ȡűѸʹߤβѲϡŪ (1) (3) ι¤Ū (2) ι¤ؤȽƤȤȤ館롥(1) V|C beran ϡ첻Ĺ뤳Ȥ1⡼ä(2b) VV|C bēran ؤܶᤷ(3) VVC|C clǣnsian ϡ첻û뤳Ȥ1⡼鸺餷(2a) VC|C clænsian ؤܶᤷΤ褦ˡĹIJû2ѲˤĤƤϡ3⡼δܹ¤ؤνȤư礷뤳ȤǤ롥
ƱﲻĹˤĤƤϤɤϢ³2ĤƱλҲϸߤĴŪ˶̩Ǥ뤿ᡤŪˤϤ1ĤλҲǤ뤫Τ褦˿褦ˤʤäȹͤƤߤ褦ȡ (2a) VC|C cild ϡŪ /ld/ 1ҲȤߤʤȤˤСष (1) V|C °뤳Ȥˤʤ롥(1) ϸæʹ¤ʤΤǡ첻Ф (2b) VV|C ܶᤷƤʣʡгʷ cildru Τ褦 /ld/ θˤ⤦1ĻҲ³ˤϡĹ֥å뤿ᡤû첻ݤ졤˻롥
嵭θʲ˿ޤǼ

Ϣơ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ε⻲ȡ
른塦֥륷ˡ 忡 СⲬ ͥˡرѸˡˤȸ١ݽǡ1999ǯ
ɸθΤ褦˸Ѹ -<ow> ĸϡѸǤ -<we> ֤Τ̤Ǥ롥űѸǤϸФ folgian, sceadu, sorg Τ褦͡ѸˤƸ촴ȾҲ /w/ ȯã (cf. #194. shadow shade ([2009-11-07-1])) Ѹ -<we> ʹߤֻȯȯãˤĤƴؿäΤǡĴ٤Ƥߤ
ޤ Jespersen (192) ˤȡ -<we> ɽ蘆ȾҲ /w/ /u/ ؤ첻벻ѲФ /u/ ϤȤĹ /uː/ ȤʤꡤĹûδ֤ǤФ餯ɤ餯Ĺɽ魯Τ <ow> ֻѤ줿ΤǤϤʤȤǡ/o/ /oʊ/ İ۷⸽Ƥ褦ǡ<ow> ϤθԤľܤΤȤͤ롥Ʊˡ첻岽 /ə/ ⸽졤ѸɸŪȯȤƤϰѤƤ롥
. . . /wə/ became syllabic /w/, that is /u/, thus ME folwe, shadwe, sorwe, medwe, etc. became /folu, ʃadu/, etc. This pronunciation is often found in the old orthoepists; thus H 1569 has /felu/ and /feluˑ/ by the side of /felo/, /folu/ by the side of /folo/, and /halu/, for fellow, follow, hallow.
M 1582 says that -ow in the ending of bellow, mellow, yallow is = "u quick". H 1662 likewise -ow = u: hollow hollu, tallow tallu, etc.; J 1701 has "oo" in follow. This pronunciation is continued in vg [ə]:[fɔlə, gæləs], and the spelling -ow adopted in all these words was probably at first intended for the sound /u/ or possibly /uˑ/. But we soon find another pronunciation cropping up; H 1569, besides /u/ as mentioned, has also /boro/ and /borou/ borrow. G 1621 does not seem to know /u/, but has /oˑu/ in follow, shadow, bellow, hollow. J 1764 says that -ow in follow, etc. = "o", but if another vowel follows, it is "ow". Now [o(ˑ)u] is the established pronunciation.
Dobson Vol. 2 (866--67) äƤߤȡ /w/ ˤ錄겻 (glide) Ȥ /o/ ȯãΤǤϤʤȤDobson Jespersen ʣѰۤꤷƤ褦ȾҲ /w/ Ϳ벻ˤϡ¿ variants ȯã뤫ǤϤʤ
(2) Variation between late ME ou and ŭ from ME -we
§295. In words such as folwe(n) 'follow' there were variant developments in ME: either a glide-vowel o developed before the w, which then vocalized to [u], giving the diphthong ou; or the w, after final ĕ had become silent in late ME, vocalized to [u], which was identified with ME ŭ. PresE has regularly [o(:)] < ME ou, but formerly [ʊ] (or, by reduction, [ə]) < ME ŭ was common in follow, narrow, sparrow, borrow, morrow, yellow, &c. ME ou (or sounds developed from it) is shown by Hart (who has boro, &c. with [o] < [o:] < ou and felō with [o:] < ou; in all six forms < ME ou, against more than twice as many < ME ŭ), Laneham (folo, &c., but also ŭ), Bullokar, Robinson, Gil (who has both [ou] and [o:] < ME ou), Butler, Hodges, Newton, Lye, Lodwick, Cocker, Brown, and the shorthand-writers T. Shelton, Everardt, Bridges, Heath, and Hopkins. The pronunciations [ʊ] and [u:] (by lengthening of [ʊ]) < ME ŭ are shown by Salesbury, Hart (commonly), Laneham (yelloo 'yellow'), Mulcaster, Jonson (apparently; he says o loses its sound in willow and billow), Howell (1662), Price, Richardson, and WSC-RS. Gil gives fula, in which the a must represent [ə] (probably < ME ŭ) as a Northern form of follow. In the seventeenth century these words also had pronunciations with [ə] and perhaps with [ɪ] . . ., which are likely to be derived from the ME ŭ rather than the ME ou variant.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
ε#2026. intrusive r (2) ([2014-11-13-1]) Ǹ奤ɤʬۤ礵Ƥ븽ݤ1Ĥܤ⤦1Ĥε®ʬۤȤƤ벻ѲǤ [l] 첻Ҳ𤷤褦벻Ķˤ [l] 첻βӤӤ뷹ǸȤʤäƤƤꡤ礷Ƥ (Trudgill 63--66; Ͽޤ Trudgill 64 Ȥ˺)

ɽȤƵΤmilk ȯǤ롥 [mɪlk] ȯ[mɪʊlk] Ф [mɪʊk] ؤѲƤƤ롥[l] (ä dark l; cf. #1817. Ѹ /l/ /r/ (2) ([2014-04-18-1])) Τĸľ첻˱ƶͿơ[ɪ] [ɪʊ] Ѥ [l] ϾäƹԤȤǤ롥첻θ [l] ³ĶǹäƤꡤhill, roll, ball ʤɤǤƱݤǧ롥ŪˤƱ (assimilation) 1ǤꡤۤȤǤʤɥä˸˵äƤꡤ쥤ɤ濴˱ƶϤϤƤȤ̣Ǥϡfill feel Ȥ [fɪʊ ? fɪʊl] ˹줷Ƥꡤdoll dole [dʌʊ] ؼ̤pull Paul [pʌʊ] ͻ礷ƤޤäƤ롥
250ǯۤ non-prevocalic /r/ æɥդǵꡤϤ礷ƤȤͤȡ non-prevocalic /l/ æɥ濴˻ϤޤäƤȤȤϼŪǤ롥塤ɤΤ깭ϰس礷ɸˤɸܤ褦ˤʤǽ롥
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
#500. intrusive r ([2010-09-09-1]) Ǹ "The idea(r) is . . . ." ʤɤ˸ r ˤĤơθݤϡRP ޤѸνʬۤƤ롤߿ʹθѲǤ롥ñΤǤ뤤ϻҲ³Ȥˤ /aɪˈdɪə/첻³ĶǤ /aɪˈdɪər/ Ѱۤ붦Ūݤ֤ȤȤʬۤƤȤǤ̻ŪݤǤ⤢롥
εǽҤ٤褦ˡintrusive r ΤϡŵŪ /ɔː/, /ɑː/, /ɜː/, /ə/ Τ줫첻ǽˤƤǤ롥ѰۤüԤˤȤäƤϡθδ첻ˤ /r/ ޤޤƤꡤ첻³ĶǤ /r/ Τޤ¸뤬ʳδĶǤ /r/ æǡʤȤƼ¸Ȥ§ߤƤȹͤ롥
Ѱۤ뤤ѲطʤǺѤƤ륫饯ͤƤߤ褦Ūɸ।ꥹѸѼǤϡ㤨 ear δ첻 /ɪər/idea δ첻 /aɪˈdɪə/ Ǥꡤ/r/ ̵ͭ˴ؤΤ˶̤Ƥñ첻³ĶʳǤ /ɪə/ ȤǼ¸뤿ˡ줾δ첻ˤ /r/ ̵ͭˤĤơɽŪʥҥȤ뵡ʤΤϤС첻 /ə/ ǽ /ər/ ǽΤۤŪ¿Ȥ⤢ꡤ (analogy) θ̤ idea ʤɤδ첻 /r/ 뤳ȤȤʤäˤꡤear idea ɽŪˤƱǼ¸뵡¿ˤ⤫餺ۤʤ첻⤿ʤФʤʤȤôȤʤ֤ä줿Ȥˤʤ롥
Υ饯ϡɽŪʥҥȡפηǡǤ롥첻³ĶʳȤ櫓ñΤǼ¸ݤˡear idea ȤǸζ̤ʤȤˤꡤߤδ첻Τˤ̤ʤϤȤǽȤʤ롥դ˸С¸벻˶̤硤ʤ줾 /ɪər/, /aɪˈdɪə/ ȯѼˤƤϡΥ饯꤬ư뤭äʤˡintrusive r ʤͽ¬롥ơºݤˤͽ¬Ȥ狼äƤ롥non-prevocalic /r/ ѼǤ intrusive r Ƥ餺Τ褦ѼüԤϡ¾ѼǤ intrusive r ̯ʸݤȤȤ館Ƥ褦Trudgill (58) ΥȤ̣
. . . of course it [intrusive r] is a process which occurs only in the r-less accents. R-ful accents (as they are sometimes called), in places like the southwest, USA and Scotland, do not have this feature, because they have not undergone the loss of 'r' which started the whole process off in the first place. Speakers of r-ful accents therefore often comment on the intrusive-'r' phenomenon as a peculiar aspect of the accents of England. One can, for example, hear Scots ask 'Why do English people say "Canadarr"?'. English people of course do not say 'Canadarr', but those of them who have r-less accents do mostly say 'Canadarr and England' /kænədər ən ɪŋglənd/.
r ȯ̵ͭˤĤƤϡ#406. Labov New York City /r/ ([2010-06-07-1])#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1])#453. ꥫѸνˤ r ([2010-07-24-1])#1050. postvocalic r ΥϿޤˤĤ ([2012-03-12-1])#1371. New York City ˤ non-prevocalic /r/ ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-27-1])#1535. non-prevocalic /r/ μҲŪʲ͡ ([2013-07-10-1]) ۤrhotic ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
#157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1]) ǡԵ§ʣ feet η֤ˤĤơi-mutation ޤϢβѲη̤Ȥ§ȤƱ feet ˸¤餺¾Ե§ʣ geese, lice, men, mice, teeth, women ˤƤϤޤ뤬ȡάʲΤ褦ʷаޤäȹͤƤ롥
(1) ޥĸ졧 *fōt- (sg.) / *fōt-iz- (pl.)
(2) ʣ i-mutation 롧 *fōt- (sg.) / *fēt-iz- (pl.)
(3) űѸޤǤ *-iz ü fōt- (sg.) / fēt- (pl.)
βΤˤϡѲξܺ٤ˤޤƧ߹ɬפ롥ä (3) *-iz üȤϡ겼ɬפ롥ȤΤϡ*-iz ξüˤꡤϲŪʰյʤä ō ē ΩŪô褦ˤʤäǤ롥
*-iz ξüϡ2Ĥβ쵤˾üΤǤϤʤ *z *i üȹͤƤ롥ޥĸǤϡfoot ϸ촴ȶδ֤첻ΤʤȤħȤ athematic ζޥפ°ʣʤȤ *-iz ̵ˤä *z ϡĸ *s ȼʤͭ Verner's Law νϤǤ (Campbell 398.2) *z ϡƱ岻δĶǸ˾üʤޥĸˤ a-stem Ѳޤˤʣʸ϶ *-ôs Ǥäᡤ*s ϼ뤳Ȥʤߤ˻ޤʣɸεǽô³Ƥ (Campbell 571) Ĥޤꡤfeet 㤨 stones Τɤä־ˤϡʣʸ˶ʤääΰ㤤ʵŪˤϡĸ°Ƥޥפΰ㤤ˤ˵뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ơ*z æȡϸ *i üˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤäűѸλˡμ岻ˤ첻 *i *u ϡľ˶ΤĹĶæ롤High Vowel Deletion ȸƤФ벻ѲǤ롥*fēti *i Ϥξ˹פƤæ뤳Ȥˤʤä (Campbell 345)
(3) Ǥϰ *-iz æȽҤ٤ºݤˤϾŤ줿ϢβѲϢˤäƽ緫æƤäΤǤ롥ɸΤ褦ʸѸΡѤʵפФƤǤ¤Τ뤿ˤϡɤޤǤˤ̤ʤФʤʤ
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
#49. /k/ θڥ ([2009-06-16-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡspeak / speech, wake / watch, match / make ʤɤΥڥˤ /k/ /ʧ/ θؤߤ롥ԤԤθ (palatalisation) ǤꡤűѸǤξϸùܴ֤Τߤʤ餺ִ֤ˤƤ§Ūб
㤨СѸư seek θűѸˤľˡߤζޤȡic sēċe, þū sēcst, hē/hēo/hit sēcþ, wē/ġē/hīe sēcaþ Ȥʤꡤ sēċan äˤäơ<ċ> /ʧ/ <c> /k/ ؤƤ뤳Ȥդ줿ȡѸ seek θҲ /k/ ϡ2;ñ3;ñʣζޤˤҲѤ褦ˤߤ롥ƬդϢ beseech (< OE besēċan) Ǥϡ1;ñζޤˤҲѤ褦ˤߤ롥
ǡseek beseech ˴ؤơˤưۤʤҲФɸಽΤȤ꤬롥űѸǻ褦ʲȶޤ teach (< OE tǣċan; cf. token for OE tācn) ˤƤϡ /ʧ/ Ф줿ȤͤȡȤ櫓 seek /k/ פ褦˻פ롥ºݡβȯãȤ *seech ȤʤϤäʸ Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire ʤɤǤη֤ߤˡѸǤϡMED sēchen (v.) ˤСsechen seken ξʻ¸Ƥꡤޤ֤ɤƤѸˤʤä seek ̲褦طʤˤϡ/k/ ĸťΥɸη sœkja ¸ߤäΤǤϤʤȵ뤬ΤʤȤϤ狼ʤ
ʤѤ˴ؤƤ seek beseech ⶦ̤첻ؤȼѲγѤʬȤ (be)sought Ȥʤ롥
ǧθؤǤϡץȥ (prototype) ιͤŻ뤵롥ꥹȥƥ쥹ŪʥǥʥƥѤ˵褷 Wittgenstein (1889--1951) եǥʥʲ²Ū (family resemblance) ˴ŤƥѤΤ1ĤθήȤơץȥפǧθؤˤƽפʥɤȤȯŸƤץȥˤȡƥ (feature) ̵ͭȤ߹碌ˤäɽΤǤϤʤ (attribute) ٤Ȥ߹碌ˤäɽΤǤ롥Ǥ뤫顤Υƥ濴˰֤Ť褦ʺǤդ路ŵŪ⤢Сդ˰֤Ť뤢ޤŵŪǤʤ⤢ȹͤ롥㤨СĻפȤƥˤơĥХ濴ŪʥץȥŪˤȤߤʤ뤬ڥ祦ϼŪץȥŪˤǤ롥ϲʳŪμˤӮưʪΤƤꡤŵŪʥƥѤˤСĻפǤϤʤȤ뤬ץȥΥƥѤˤС¤ʤŪʡĻפǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥Τ褦ˡ֡餷פ٤100%0%ޤǤϢ³ΤʤƤꡤɤ餬Ǥꡤɤ餬ǤʤΤϤǤʤȤߤ롥
ͤƤߤСʹ֤Ū˻ʪץȥפδߤƤ롥֤ǤʤǤʤܤˤƤɤ餫ǺΤϡץȥŪ֤ȲΤäƤꡤ줫Ūʿդˡ֤ΤʤȸСܸüԤǤСŵŪإݥȡȥޥȡʤɤ֤롥Ʊͤˡ#1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1]) ˤ FURNITURE, FRUIT, VEHICLE, WEAPON, VEGETABLE, TOOL, BIRD, SPORT, TOY, CLOTHING 줾ŵŪʤȤȡ¿αѸüԤ褽פ롥
Ѹ FURNITURE Ǥμ¸ߤƤߤ褦E. Rosch ϡ200ͤΥꥫͳˡ60Ĥβȶ̾Ϳ줾줬ɤΤ餤ֲȶ餷פ17ޤǤ7ʳɾ1Ǥȶ餷ˤǼפȡȶŵδФäۤɶͭƤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤʤäRosch ("Cognitive Representations of Semantic Categories." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 104 (1975): 192--233. p. 229) Ĵ Taylor (46) ɽƸ褦
| Member | Rank | Specific score |
|---|---|---|
| chair | 1.5 | 1.04 |
| sofa | 1.5 | 1.04 |
| couch | 3.5 | 1.10 |
| table | 3.5 | 1.10 |
| easy chair | 5 | 1.33 |
| dresser | 6.5 | 1.37 |
| rocking chair | 6.5 | 1.37 |
| coffee table | 8 | 1.38 |
| rocker | 9 | 1.42 |
| love seat | 10 | 1.44 |
| chest of drawers | 11 | 1.48 |
| desk | 12 | 1.54 |
| bed | 13 | 1.58 |
| bureau | 14 | 1.59 |
| davenport | 15.5 | 1.61 |
| end table | 15.5 | 1.61 |
| divan | 17 | 1.70 |
| night table | 18 | 1.83 |
| chest | 19 | 1.98 |
| cedar chest | 20 | 2.11 |
| vanity | 21 | 2.13 |
| bookcase | 22 | 2.15 |
| lounge | 23 | 2.17 |
| chaise longue | 24 | 2.26 |
| ottoman | 25 | 2.43 |
| footstool | 26 | 2.45 |
| cabinet | 27 | 2.49 |
| china closet | 28 | 2.59 |
| bench | 29 | 2.77 |
| buffet | 30 | 2.89 |
| lamp | 31 | 2.94 |
| stool | 32 | 3.13 |
| hassock | 33 | 3.43 |
| drawers | 34 | 3.63 |
| piano | 35 | 3.64 |
| cushion | 36 | 3.70 |
| magazine rack | 37 | 4.14 |
| hi-fi | 38 | 4.25 |
| cupboard | 39 | 4.27 |
| stereo | 40 | 4.32 |
| mirror | 41 | 4.39 |
| television | 42 | 4.41 |
| bar | 43 | 4.46 |
| shelf | 44 | 4.52 |
| rug | 45 | 5.00 |
| pillow | 46 | 5.03 |
| wastebasket | 47 | 5.34 |
| radio | 48 | 5.37 |
| sewing machine | 49 | 5.39 |
| stove | 50 | 5.40 |
| counter | 51 | 5.44 |
| clock | 52 | 5.48 |
| drapes | 53 | 5.67 |
| refrigerator | 54 | 5.70 |
| picture | 55 | 5.75 |
| closet | 56 | 5.95 |
| vase | 57 | 6.23 |
| ashtray | 58 | 6.35 |
| fan | 59 | 6.49 |
| telephone | 60 | 6.68 |
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