#2698. hyphen ([2016-09-15-1]) ε tomorrow ˿줿Ȥ916դηǼĤǡmorrow ȤˤĤƤμ䤬줿ߤ˴Ϣ롤morn, morning ʤɤȤȤˡθ츻ɤäƤߤ
űѸǡīפɽ魯ϡmorgen Ǥ롥ޥĸ *murȝanaz ͳ褷ɥĸ Morgen, morgen ƱǤ롥Ѹ morn ϡθűѸ morgen μгʷ morne mornes ʤɤû̷뤤ѸȯŸ morwen, morun, moren ʤɤû̷ͳ褹ȹͤ롥morn ϸߤǤϡԻդǡīǡפɽ魯ۤåȥǡפɽ魯
ѸǺǤ̤ morning ϡ morn -ing ĤΤǡѸˡīפΰ̣ǽФ롥 -ing ϡФˤʤ evening ˤղä줿Ȥ롥evening ξˤϡñȤǡաפɽ魯űѸ̾ ēfen, æfen ư æfnian դˤʤˤ -ing ˤ̾첽ȤʣʷаޤéäƤ뤬morning ϤΤ褦ηаޤåפơȤˤɽŪ -ing դƤߤȤȤˤʤ롥
ơűѸ morgen ΤθβŪȯŸ͡äȤ櫓2첻Ҳ n Ѳˤ餵줿n æ morwe ʤɤη顤#2031. follow, shadow, sorrow <ow> ([2014-11-18-1]) ˽Ҥ٤ѲФơmorrow ߡmorrow ѰϸꤵƤ뤬Իդǡīפ̣롥ʤ n æϡи even ˤƤꡤ eve ա롨ˤѸƤ롥
ơīפɽ路θϡƱˡפȤ̣碌äƤ뤳Ȥ¿դ̲˽λӤȤƹͤȡīפȤ̾īפؤ顤ؼоݤȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) θǡθפΡפؤȹäƤäȹͤ롥tomorrow ⡤ֻ to ̾ morrowפȤǤꡤ֡īˤơפۤɤäƱͤžơˡפ̣褦ˤʤäʤܸǤ⡤Ťϡ֤סʴɽȤƤ <ī>ˤǡīפ̣ѸξƱͤΰ̣ĥФơפ̣褦ˤʤäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
ʤǿ줿 eve աˤϡ٤īλӤȤȡֺաפؤȤ¿ؼоݤֺΡפؤȹꡤɡפ̣褦ˤʤä
첻ϲΰǤ롥ΤȤǤꡤŵŪˤ϶ʤɤʹ˱äƱư¤Ƥ椯ʹ֤ޤ¿ưʪѤƥߥ˥äƤ롥첻˴ؤơŪʴääƤʲͤνŵϡCrystal (34) ӸͰ (26--28, 34)
ȡˤοư°ˤϡȿȲ٥뤬롥ȿȤϡ1ô֤βȤοưʤι⤵ɽ魯ñ̤ˤ Hz ʥإġˤѤ롥20Hz㤤Ķ (infrasonics) ȸƤФ졤ʹ֤ɤȤƴ뤳ȤϤ뤬Ǥϴʤޤ20000Hz⤤Ķ (supersonics) ȤϤ꼪Ǥϴ뤳ȤǤʤʹ֤ȤƴΤǤΤ20--20000HzȤȤˤʤ롥ޤϷȤȤʹ벻ϰϤʤꡤä˼ȿι⤤ʹˤʤȤ롥
ȤƤϡʹ֤ʹ뤳ιӰζޤǤȤʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤȯ¦⤢ꡤ̾ȯäǤ100--4000HzѤ롥̾ȯ90--130HzǤͽȯ250--330HzǤ롥ޤ줿Ф֤ε㤭400Hzȹ⤤NHKλ440--880Hzߵ֤Υ770--960HzǤ롥
ʤߤˡưʪʹ벻ϰϤϿʹ֤ȰۤʤäƤ롥Ļ200--8000Hz10--12000Hz̤15--50000Hzͥ60--65000Hz륫150--150000Hz1000--120000HzȤޤޤǤ롥줾줬ʹǽϤѤƼȼΥߥ˥ΩƤƤ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
ˡ٥˰ܤϲȤο˴ؤ°Ǥꡤ礭ɽ魯ñ̤ˤ dB ʥǥ٥ˤѤ롥ʹ֤̾βä60dBۤɤǤꡤ䤭30dBʹǤ⾮ʲ0dBǤ롥ӤȤơʹĤ70dBʹߵ֤Υ80dBɲʹ֤β100dBʹԵΥ120dBǤ롥
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
Ͱ ʡʴƽˡز縦桡䤫ճʳˡޤǡ١2016ǯ
Ѹˤơ岻˸д첻ɽȤ /ə/ /ɪ/ 2ब롥ܼʣιǤȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿ơʬۤˤϤ褽Ф꤬ΤΡξԤδ֤ɤ⾯ʤʤ㤨 except θƬ첻ˤ /ə/ /ɪ/ Τ⸽뤳ȤǤԤξˤ accept ƱȤʤ롥illusion θƬ첻ˤĤƤƱͤǤꡤ/ə/ ȯ allusion ƱȤʤ롥ѸѼˤäƤ⤳ɤʬۤηϰۤʤ롥
ɤεϡSamuels ˤѸ줫ѸˤƤλˤäȤűѸˤ岻첻ϸ¤ѸǤ /ə/ ؤۣ첻θ夵˼岽ƴĶ˱ /ɪ/ ؤѲ礬äʤʤǤּ岽פȤʹ (sonority) δߤ岽ǤꡤĴŪˤС־夲 (raising) 롥⤤첻ˤʤСʹ٤ꡤ첻ȤƤϼ夯ʤȲǤ뤫ˡ
/ə/ /ɪ/ ɤϡߤ֤夤פǤ뤳Ȥ˵Ȥ/ə/ ϶ĥٹ礤ȤǤ /ɪ/ 夯 /ɪ/ ʹ٤Ǥ /ə/ 夤ȹͤ뤫Ĥޤꡤߤ˼岽礦طȤȤˤʤ롥Τʤˤ첻ˤϾ˼岽뷹ȤСʤ /ə/ /ɪ/ ΤDZʱɤ줬֤Ȥˤʤ
嵭ˤĤ Samuels (44--45) ľʹ
In ME, where the vowels of the OE endings had been centralised to /ə/, we find widespread new raising to /ɪ/, especially in inflexions ending in dental or alveolar consonants (-is, -ith, -yn, -id, -ind(e)). Since then, there has been constant distribution of the vowels of syllables newly unstressed to one or other member of the opposition /ɪ?ə/, depending partly on the inherited quality of the vowels and partly on that of the neighbouring segments: /ɪ/ is the commoner reflex of the vowels of ME -es, -ed, -est, -edge, -less, -ness, de-, re-, em-, ex-, whereas /ə/ represents the vowels of nearly all other unstressed syllables (the more important are -ance, -and, -dom, -ence, -ent, -land, -man, -oun, -our, -ous, a-, con-, com-, cor-, sub-, as well as syllabic /-l, -m, -n, -r/ and their reflexes wherever relevant). But there are exceptions to the expected distribution that are due to conditioning: the raising of /ə/ to /ɪ/ before /(d)ȝ, s/ as in cottage, damage, orange, furnace, and by vowel-harmony in women (also sometimes in chicken, kitchen, linen); and the same applies to other exceptions recorded in the past.
Thus the pattern of development in EMnE was that new cases of /ə/ were continually arising from unstressed back vowels, but meanwhile certain cases of /ə/ with raised variants from conditioning were redistributed to /ɪ/. In present English, centralisation to /ə/ is again on the increase as dialects with higher proportions of /ɪ/ gain in prominence.
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
첻 (gvs) 䥰ˡ§ (grimms_law) ɽ벻ν۴ĥե (circular shift, chain shift) ˤ͡Ū롥Samuels ϡ첻ܤϡϵŪ ("mechanical") ѲȤƻϤޤäʳǵǽŪ ("functional") ʺѤƯƲηϤȤƤΥХ줿ϢβǤȤߤƤ롥ŪѲȤϡŪˤС㡦첻ˤĤƤϡĴ줿ʶĥˤΰ۲줿ȤȤǤꡤ첻ˤĤƤϡ줿дˤ2첻Ūʰ۲줿ȤȤǤ롥ơ첻ϡϤΤ褦˵Ū۲餯ΩƺΤäʳˤʤäơηϤΰݻ褦Ȥ뵡ǽŪʰϤ˲ƺǽŪʬۤȤͤ
Circular shifts of vowels are thus detailed examples of homeostatic regulation. The earliest changes are mechanical . . . ; the later changes are functional, and are brought about by the favouring of those variants that will redress the imbalance caused by the mechanical changes. In this respect circular shift differs considerably from merger and split. Merger is redressed by split only in the most general and approximate fashion, since the original functional yields are not preserved; but in circular shift, the combination of functional and mechanical factors ensures that adequate distinctions are maintained. To that extent at least, the phonological system possesses some degree of autonomy. (Samuels 42)
Samuels εαǤ롥۴ĥեȤǽŪΩ줫鲻Ǥʬȵۼ (split and merger) βȤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤäƤ뤫Ŧʤ顤Ԥ벻ηϤμΧǫƤ롥Τ褦 Samuels Ω줬ǽŪФäƤȤθˤʤӤ䤹ΤäϤޤǵŪװǤ Samuels ƤõƤϢơ#2585. ѲưΤϷǽ ([2016-05-25-1]) ȡ
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ѲˤäʹˤĤơȤ櫓ԤŪ˽Ż뤹ǯˤĤơ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1])#1932. Ѳ monitoring (1) ([2014-08-11-1])#1933. Ѳ monitoring (2) ([2014-08-12-1])#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1])#1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˡ#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1])#2140. ѲΥ饤ե ([2015-03-07-1])#2150. Ѳˤʹ ([2015-03-17-1]) ʤɤεǾҲ𤷤Ƥ
Samuels (31) ϲѲϤΤʤǡäʹȤδطˤĤơХμ줿Ƥ롥
As regards the current controversy as to whether articulatory or acoustic evidence is to be preferred, the study of change evidently demands both: the production of new variants is mainly articulatory in nature, their spread and imitation mainly acoustic, and both are continually coordinated by the process of monitoring.
äĴ (articulation) ˶ư줿Ѳʹβ (acoustics) ȤƤμƤ̤ƸѼԤδ֤˳ȻβϽĤδƻ뵡ǽ (monitoring) ˤĴ롤Ȥǥ
ε#2585. ѲưΤϷǽ ([2016-05-25-1]) ǡŪʵŪˤʶưȵǽŪʶưδطˤĤ Samuels θҲ𤷤줾ζưϤäʹˤ褽б褦ˤפ롥ѼԤϡ̾ƱäǤʹǤ⤢뤫顤Ŀʹ֤Τߤʤ餺ĿͤˤƤ⡤ξΩ줫δƻ뵡ǽƯƤΤ
ѲˤƤϡ(1) äιư(2) ʹιư(3) ˥3ǤռƤɬפ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
2첻 (diphthong) ϡñ첻 (monophthong) 䤽¾Ρ첻פ̾ΤĤñ̤ȤȤˡ1Ĥ첻ηϤʤҲηϤΩΤȹͤ뤬ǡñ첻ȤҲȤۤʤ3ηϤʤȤͤ⤢褦Samuels (32) ۩
. . . it is uncertain whether diphthongs should be regarded as constituting a third system, distinct from those of vowels or consonants. They evidently perform the same function as vowels in structure, and in some systems it would be misleading to separate them since they patently complete a vowel-pattern that would otherwise be incomplete. At the same time, the degree of phonetic distinctiveness from neighbouring vowels that is achieved by the gliding property of diphthongs is often greater than might be expected, and they are therefore better regarded as a partly autonomous section of the vowel system as a whole; they possess an extra feature that enables them to remain close to, yet distinct from, vowels in the total vocalic space available, and their function can be important. It is probably for this reason that where, by simplificatory change, diphthongs merge with monophthongs (e.g. OE ēo > ME /e:/, ēa > /ɛ:/) a new series of diphthongs arises, as seen in ME dai, sauȝ . . .; or, conversely, where extra diphthongs are created, other diphthongs are monophthongised . . . .
ʤۤɡ¤줿 (phonological space) ¤˳Ѥ뤿ˤϡñ첻ǤϤʤƱεǽñ̤Ȥ2첻ʤΤФȤǤͭΤ褦˹ͤȡñ첻2첻ͭ¤β֤Ȥʤ˶ƱƤ뤫Τ褦˸Ƥ롥ƱǤȤȤϡߤ֤ǤϤ뤬ĤȤƤΩƤȤȤǤ⤢ꡤȾΧŪȤȤˤʤ롥
ΰѤκǸǿƤ뤬ѸβˤҤȤȡ2첻礤ƤϤʤǤϤʤΤ褦ʻĹ³䤬ƿ2첻߽Фơñ첻ȤζƱƳƤ (#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1]) ɽˤ OE--ME 12th c. ) 2첻¸ߤȾе̳Ǥ뤫Τ褦˴벻ˤǤ롥
ϲˤϤޤܤʤΤ褦2첻θϸߤβȿǤƤΤ (cf. #1404. Optimality Theory ߤ첻 ([2013-03-01-1])#2081. ¸ˤ첻ܤʬϡ ([2015-01-07-1])) ϢơĹ첻3첻ʤɤϤɤΤ褦˰֤ŤƤΤ2첻ƱͤȾΧŪηϤʤΤ뤤ñ첻ηϤ2첻ηϤβ̶ʬˤʤΤ̻ŪʲѲδŪäƤߤǤ롥
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ʤɤñ䲻ΰ֤ߤ˸ž (metathesis) βϡѲΥᥫ˥1ĤȤƤ褯ΤƤ롥#60. ž ( metathesis ) ([2009-06-27-1]) ϤȤơmetathesis εǰäƤѸˤŵŪȤ through βž롥#55. through θ츻 ([2009-06-22-1]) ǵ̤ꡤűѸ þurh u r ֤Ҥä֤Ȥ顤 through θޤ줿ȤƤ롥
Samuels (17) ϡɬʲžǤϤʤǽȻŦ롥
. . . the order of /r/ and a vowel may be reversed, as in L. *turbulare > Fr. troubler, OE þridda > third, OE þurh > through, Sc. dial. /mɔdrən/ 'modern'; this may amount to no more than insertion of a glide-vowel and misinterpretation of the stress (OE worhte > worohte > wrohte 'wrought', þurh > þuruh > ME þorouȝ > through).
ʤۤɡϤߤФⲻžäΤ褦worohte þuruh Τ褦 r ξ¦첻褦ֻʸڤΤǤС1ĤǤϤʤʣβϢ³ȤΤƵ뤳ȤϤǤʤSamuels ϡ r θ첻Ϥ겻Ȥ졤θ˶֤첻ؤȰܤäȤǽͤƤ뤬ϤäüŪˤϡr θ˿첻졤³첻üȤ2ĤϢ³Ȥ
Samuels ϿβǽƤˤä˶ĥƤ櫓ǤϤʤޤϤ겻ꤷˤűѸ ascian > axian fiscas > fixas Τ褦ˤϡƱŬѤǤʤäơžȤΤΤ褦ʰոǤϤʤǤ⡤Τʸڤֻ¸ߤθơȤϰۤʤ륢ǥǽȤˤϡ롥
through ֻˤĤƤϡ#53. Ѹ through ֤515̤ ([2009-06-20-1])#193. 15 Chancery Standard through ΰ֤14̤ ([2009-11-06-1]) ȡwrought ˤĤƤϡ#2117. playwright ([2015-02-12-1]) ȡthree/third ˴ؤƤϡ#92. third βžϤĵä ([2009-07-28-1])#93. third βžϤĵä (2) ([2009-07-29-1]) ȡ
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
ɸϡ#2464. Ѳθ ([2016-01-25-1]) Ǥ줿Ǥ롥ѲͳȤơŤƱ (assimilation)۲ (dissimilation)æû岽ʤɤƤĴΤ䤹ŪȤƤꡤ碌 "the principle of least effort" ʺǾϤθ§ˤ뤤 "ease-theory" ȸƤ֤Ȥ롥Ǥ٤ƤβѲǤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷⤬٤ƤȤС줬ƱͤĴ䤹褯ˤʤäƤϤ¤ˤΤ褦ʾϤʤ
ɸؤβϤǺѤȤкѤΤSamuels (18) 2ۤɰŪʲͿƤΤǡƤSamuels 褦Ȥ䤤ϡΤˤȡ"if such changes are so simple, they should appear in all languages and dialects to a full and equal extent, and not in varying proportions in each" (17) Ǥ롥
Firstly, there must be a limit to the rate and quantity of assimilations, contractions and other rearrangements that is tolerable in a single dialect if intelligibility is to be maintained, so that, even if a large proportion of them are continually occurring in certain colloquial styles, only a small proportion could be in process of acceptance into other styles at any given time. Secondly, the fact that their incidence differs according to language and dialect follows from the very nature of dialects, which owe their existence to development in part-isolation: in each dialect, there are differences in the basis of articulation, in the effects of suprasegmental features on the spoken chain, in the forms that are socially accepted or rejected as status-markers, or selected for functional utility, or merely redistributed at random.
Samuels ϡѲˤʣװͿ뤳 (multiple causation of language change) Ȥνװꥹȥåפ褦ȤƤΤǤ롥ǽ䥳ߥ˥θΨӻѰΩȤäĴŪŪǤʤ¦̤ιθɬפȤΤȤĥƤˤʤָϡ䤹ѲפȤñʸѲϡ̤˼뤳ȤǤʤ
Samuels, M. L. Linguistic Evolution with Special Reference to English. London: CUP, 1972.
#1634. ֥ӥפ equation ([2013-10-17-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡ<-tion> б̾ȯ /-ʃən/ 㳰Ū equation ȯ /ɪˈkweɪʒən/ ȤʤꡤͭƤ롥/-ʃən/ /-ʒən/ ɤ <-sion> <-sian> ǤϤ褯Τǡ줬Ū <-tion> ˤ礷Τȹͤ뤬Ϥƾʤ
equation Τۤˡ⤦1ĤȤ transition ʰp. 64ˡLPD ˤȡñˤϥꥹѸǤ3ȯԤʤƤ롥/trænˈzɪʃən/, /trænˈsɪʃən/, /trænˈsɪʒən/ Ǥ롥Preference poll ˤȡ줾λΨ75%, 16%, 9%ǡ /-ʒən/ ȯϺǤ⾯ʤȤƤʹ롥ϥꥫѸǤϹԤʤƤʤ褦
ָѸñ spelling sound discrepancy ˤĤơä˱Ѹˤδ鸫 orthography phonology δطˤĤơסʡؿʸѡ81, 1976ǯ49--75ǡ
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
ƣ (37--39) ˽äơűѸμפ첻ˤѸطѾ줿礷褦ѲΡʤäΡѸǿΤʤ͡Ǥ롥ºݤˤˤäƻϰۤʤ뤬绨ĤˤäǥȤƤ롥
| űѸ | Ѹ | ѲΥ | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | [i] biddan 'bid' | [i] bidde(n) | ̵Ѳ |
| 2 | [u] sunu 'sun', cuman 'come' | [u] sone, come(n) | ̵Ѳ |
| 3 | [o] hors 'horse' | [o] hors | ̵Ѳ |
| 4 | [iː] wīf 'woman' | [iː] wīf | ̵Ѳ |
| 5 | [eː] fēt 'feet' | [eː] fēt | ̵Ѳ |
| 6 | [uː] hūs 'house' | [uː] hūs/hous | ̵Ѳ |
| 7 | [oː] gōd 'good' | [oː] gōd | ̵Ѳ |
| 8 | [y] pytt 'pit' | [i] pit | ???????????? |
| 9 | [ɑ] a. catt 'cat' | IJ [a]ː cat | 岽 |
| b. nama | [aː]ː nāme | 岽Ĺ | |
| 10 | [æ] a. bæc 'back' | IJ [a]ː bak | 岽 |
| b. æcer 'acre' | [aː]ː āker | 岽Ĺ | |
| 11 | [e] a. settan 'set' | IJ [e]ː sette(n) | ̵Ѳ |
| b. mete 'meat' | [ɛː]ː mēte | 夲Ĺ | |
| 12 | [o] col 'coal' | [oː]ː cōle | Ĺ |
| 13 | [yː] hȳdan 'hide' | [iː] hīde(n) | ???????????? |
| 14 | [æː] a. dǣd 'deed' | [eː] dēd | ???? |
| b. sǣ 'sea', dǣl 'deal' | [ɛː] sē, dēl | 夲2ʡ | |
| 15 | [ɑː] stān 'stone', hām 'home' | [ɔː] stōn, hōm | ???? |
| 16 | [io] hiora 'their' | [i] hire | ñ첻 |
| 17 | [iːo] līoht 'light' | [iː] līht | Ĺ첻 |
| 18 | [ie] giefan 'give', ieldra 'elder' | [i] yiven, ylder | ñ첻 |
| 19 | [iːe] hīeran 'hear' | [iː] hīre/hūre | Ĺ첻 |
| 20 | [eo] heorte 'heart' | [e] herte | ñ첻 |
| 21 | [eːo] dēop 'deep' | [eː] dēp | Ĺ첻 |
| 22 | [ɛɑ] hearm 'harm' | [a] harm | ñ첻 |
| 23 | [ɛːɑ] drēam 'dream' | [ɛː] drēm | Ĺ첻 |
| 24 | [iː+w] tīwesdæg | [iu] tiwesday | 첻ܻҲ2첻 |
| 25 | [æ+j] dæg | [ai] dai | 첻ܻҲ2첻 |
| 26 | [eːo+w] cnēow | [eu] knew | 첻ܻҲ2첻 |
| 27 | [ɑ+w] clawu | [au] clawe | 첻ܻҲ2첻 |
| 28 | [aː+w] cnāwan | [ou] knowe(n) | 첻ܻҲ2첻 |
| 29 | --- | [oi] vois (OF) | ťե줫μ |
Ѳϸν̿Ȥ⤤ۤŪʤΤǤꡤźȤ줿Ϥʤ줯餤ߤƤʤ⡤θޤ餫ȤƤʤΤԻĤȤԻĤǤ롥⤽⡤ְ̣פȼʤʱˤѲȤΤϤɤȤʤΤạ̈ѲȤΤ䤹Ѳ뤳ȤïȤΤؤκǤ̥ŪǤ롥
ѲθˤĤƤϡŤ͡⤬ƤAlgeo and Pyles (34--35) ȤơĤɽŪʤ Ҳ𤷤褦
ޤ2ĤθABܿAüԤBԴ˽ȤAȯħBػۤȤȤ롥СˡظȯħƳ륱ϡظ첾 (substratum_theory) ȸƤФ롥դˡظȯħظ˻ۤ졤Ū˸Ԥ˲Ѳˤ "superstratum theory" ȸƤФ롥
ʤ٤ߤηֳ֤Ȥʤ褦ĴƯΤǤϤʤȤ "phonological space" ʲ֡ˤδ⤢롥ܸΤ褦첻Ȥ [i, e] 첻Ȥ [u, o, ɑ] 첻ηϤϡ褯ѹդμ줿֤ǤꡤŪѲˤѹդμƤʤ֤ϡѹդܻؤѲ䤹⤷ʤ
Ʊ (assimilation) ۲ (dissimilation)æ (elision) (intrusion)ۤˡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) Ǽ褦ʳƼβظˤϡ "ease of articulation" ĴưפˤȤưŤ褦˻פ롥Ť龧ƤǤϤ뤬⤷줬ѲͣθȤС٤Ƥθ줬Ĵ䤹νؤȵ夷ƤޤȤˤʤäơϡĤꤦ븶1ĤˤʤȤ롥
üԤΰռٴͿβѲ⤢롥#192. etymological respelling (2) ([2009-11-05-1]) Ǹ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ȥƿ줿褦ˡcomptroller ֻҲ [mptr] ȯ褦ˤʤäȤˤϰ spelling_pronunciation äȤˤʤ롥ޤ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡchaise longue chaise lounge Ȥȯ褦ˤʤäΤϡָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ˤΤǤ롥
ҿȯؤΰռ뤳Ȥˤä꽤 (hypercorrection) ⡤Ѳ1װȹͤ롥talkin' somethin' Τ褦 g æȯ¤ޤפޤꡤ g ͽʤĶǤ g [ɪŋ] ȯ褦ʥǤ롥㤨 chicken Virgin Islands 줾 chicking, Virging Islands ʤɤȯѲ롥Ϣơrajah, cashmere, kosher ʤɤλˡͽʤä /ʒ/ 褦ˤʤä̲ (overgeneralization) ⤢롥
͡ʲ⤬ƤƤñȤDzѲԤȤϤǤʤʣװͿƤ뤳 (multiple causation of language change) Ȥɬפ
Ѳθ˸¤餺Ū˸Ѳθ˴ؤƤϡ#442. Ѳθ([2010-07-13-1]) Ȥ줿
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
̾ե th ʻˤϷӤĤʤΤǤϤʤȻפ롥ƥθ d ʤɤΥեˤˤƼ岽üƤˤơʳФȤȤϡĴŪˤ϶ˤƼǤ롥ơʳˤեñ줬λȤ˱ѸؼѤ줿ȤȤäꤷƤ⡤ۤǤϤʤɤ顤faith Ȥñ줬ޤˤΤ褦ʲФȤƵ褦
ȯˤֻˤ衤θƤ餷ƥޥϤΤ褦˸롥츻ŵ餫ʤ褦ˡűѸˤ¸ߤѸμѸǤʬ롥ƥ fidēs (ˤťե feid, feit ȤʤꡤθҲ11--12ˤϡҤΤ褦˼岽Ƥȹͤ롥äƤθαѸؼѤ줿رѸ츻ŵ٤ˤȡfaith ˤ㳰Ū th ĤäΤϤ餯 truth, sooth ʤɤαƶǤפȤ롥
ʤ˥եǤϸ˾üեǤ foi ؤȯŸƤ롥θҲΤʤѸ fei, fay ȤäƤꡤۤѤ˶ᤤ֤ fay ˤ (cf. PDE by my fay < OF par ma fei) äơfaith fay 2Ÿ (doublet) ȤȤˤʤ롥
Ѹν֤ˤ MED feith (n.) Anglo-Norman ν֤ˤ The Anglo-Norman Dictionary fei Ȥ줿
OED faith, n. and int. ιꡤθҲˤĤơѤƤ
[ | ѥڡ ]The dental fricative in English apparently reflects the pronunciation of the final consonant in the earliest stages of Anglo-Norman and Old French (before its deletion, probably in the 11th cent.), this would make faith the only borrowing from Anglo-Norman to preserve this feature in a monosyllabic word (compare the parallel borrowing FAY n. 1 without it); it may have been preserved under the influence of the semantically related TRUTH n. and TROTH n. (For preservation of the early French final dental in suffixes, compare e.g. DAINTETH n. and the β. forms at PLENTY n., adj.., and adv..
It has also been suggested that the final dental in English faith is -TH suffix 1 (i.e. showing suffixation of fei FAY n. 1 within English), but this rarely combines with nouns and not normally with first elements of non-Germanic origin.
Ѹ speak, speech ϡ줾ŪˤϸűѸ sprecan, sprǣc ʤɤ̤뤬ˤβ r üƤȤ˵Ťɥĸб sprechen, Sprache ˤ r ޤޤƤ뤳ȤʬȤꡤr ޤॲޥĸ̤εǤ (PGmn *sprekan, *sprǣkjō)
OED 츻ŵĴ٤ȡѸθˤ r ξüϤǤ˸űѸ줫ѻ졤11ˤϰŪˤʤäǡŤ r ֤ͭ12ȾаʹߤѤƤä r ξüϡOHG, MHG, MDu. бˤƤ˸褦ѸǤȤƤ pang (< ME prange) ȤƤۤɤˤǤϤʤȤ餫Ǥ롥
εҤˤ11--12˿θȶ¸ߤ줿Ȥˤʤ뤬MED ǵ sprēcen (v.) ȡƤΤۤȤɤ The Peterborough Chronicle Ǥ롥131ĵƤ뤬12ȾȾФˤƽ줿 The Peterborough Chronicle r ξѤ¾ǸΥƥȤȤߤʤƤ褤
礦ɺǶ The Peterborough Chronicle 1123ǯɤǤơr ̣˽вäEarle and Plummer Ǥ餽βսѤ롥
. . . se king rad in his der fald and se biscop Roger of Seres byrig on an half him. and se biscop Rotbert Bloet of Lincolne on oðer half him. 7 riden þær sp`r'ecende.
Henry I ֤ȼĤ˽Ф֤٤ʤϤ˾äƤ륷Ǥ롥ѤκǸ˸ʬȤ֤Ƥ sp`r'ecende θ̻Ϻǽ specende ֤ꡤθ r p פ롥r ΰ֤ˤĤƤϥ쥹ߥȹͤƤ褤̣Τϡr 虜虜ơƱƥ¾ sprecon ʤɤη֤ȹ碌Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥
μ̻ιưưƤߤ褦餯̻äդˤơǤ r Τʤ specen Τ褦ʷ֤̤äΤǤϤʤǡפ鷺վǤ specende ֤äƤޤäʸϸˤƤϡޤǤˤǤ˸ŤᤫʼĥäӤӤ褦ˤʤäѰ۷ sprecen Τۤդ路Ȼפľr ΤǤϤʤ1121ǯΤ "Copied Annals" ̤ʤǡμ̻ϸűѸɸŪʽդǸ֤뤳Ȥ˴Ƥꡤ³ "First Continuation" ʬݤˤ⡤äƤפ餳˸롥̻ r ϡΤ褦ʸ̮ΤʤªɬפΤǤϤʤ
⤷ΥʥꥪȤСsprecen r üƤäΤߤʤ餺12ȾˤƿƷӤӤƤ register ָȤȤˤʤ롥
Earle, John and Charles Plummer, eds. Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel with Supplementary Extracts from the Others. London: OUP, 1892. 2 vols.
haplology ʽŲæˤϡβؤǤ롥벻䲻Ϣ³Ȥˡæ븽ݤ㤨Сprobably b Ϣ³뤿ˡ¯Ǥ probly Ȥȯ뤳Ȥ롥Ʊͤˡlibry (< library), nesry (< necessary), tempry (< temporary), pa (< papa) 褯ʹ롥Ūˤ⡤humbly ϸŤ humblely haplology Фޤ줿#1145. English England ̾Ρ ([2012-06-15-1]) ȡ#2250. English θƬ첻ʻˡ ([2015-06-25-1]) Ǥߤ褦 England Englaland la 1æΤǤ롥morphophonemic morphonemic Ѥ뤳Ȥ⽽ʬǧƤ롥
haplology ȤѸϡ1893ǯ˽Ф롥ꥷ haplo- + -logy ʤꡤԤ haplo- ϡñΡĤΡפ̣ ha- ȡ?šפ̣ -pl(o) ʤ롥#352. ƥ /s/ ȥꥷ /h/ б ([2010-04-14-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡꥷ h ϥƥ s бΤǡhaplo- simple ƱǤ롥
嵭 haplology ϲæ褦æֻˤߤ졤 haplography ʽŻæˤȸƤФ롥<philology> <philogy> Ƚꡤ<repetition> <repetion><Mississippi> <Missippi> Ƚ褦तǤ롥ʤդ˻ʣ dittography ʽʣ̡ˤȤݤ⤢롥<literature> <literatature> Ȥ褦ǯϡ⥿ԥε¿ʤꡤhaplography dittography λϤषƤΤǤϤʤ
ǤֻǤʣʬæϡϤ餷ʤѤȤȤ館뤳Ȥ¿֤ȤȤѤȤƺѤ褦ˤʤäΤ⤢롥Τ褦ʥǤϡhaplology haplography ̻ŪʲȤȤ館ɬפ롥ʲˡ˾ؿѸؼŵ (529) 餤ĤƤߤ褦
OE eahtatiene > ME eightetene > eighteen
OE eah(ta)tiġ > eighty
ME honestetee > honesty
OE sunnandæġ > Sunday
OE Mōn(an)dæġ > Monday
OE fēowertēneniht > fortnight
Missis > Miss
Gloucester > [ˈglɔstə]
Leicester > [ˈlestə]
OE berern > ME beren > barn
OF cirurgien ME surgien > surgeon
Poleland > Poland
ϢơMerriam-Webster μ haplology ⻲ȡ
ε ([2015-09-22-1]) ˰³Vachek ʸȤơդμΩˤĤƹͤ롥Vachek ϡפʤȤ顤դäդʴطĥ롥ɽ (phonetic transcription) ֻɤ߾夲 (spelling out) Ǥ롥
ɽä̩ʲɽ (narrow phonetic transcription) ϡŪˤϤޤɤߤˤؤǤͭѤŪɤ߽ѤȤˤʤäؤޤʤʤȤɤ⤦ȤʤСɽɤʤ顤ä˽ФƬDz뤳ȤˤäơŪˤñΤȤǧ뤳Ȥˤʤ줿ɽƤƤޤǤˡĤιФʤФʤʤɽǤϤʤ̾ʸֻǤСƤƤޤǤιϡäȤäľŪǤ롥
ֻɤ߾夲Ȥϡ1ʸ˽Фƥڥ륢ȤΤǡ㤨 apple ǤС1ʸ [eɪ piː piː ɛl iː] (= A P P L E) ɤ߾夲롤ΤǤ롥 [ðɪs ɪz ən æpl] (= This is an apple.) ʹСΤޤƤȤ[tiː eɪʧ aɪ ɛs aɪ ɛs eɪ ɛn eɪ piː piː ɛl iː] (= T H I S I S A N A P P L E) 1ʸɤ߾夲줿ɤʹʤ1ʸɤäƤƬֻȤΩƤơThis is an apple. ΤȤȻפ롤ʤȤ꤯ɤи뤳Ȥˤʤ롥1ʸĤɤ߾夲ʹʤƤޤǤˡĤιФʤФʤʤɽֻɤ߾夲ϡγϤȽλ𤳤ߤ˰ۤʤäƤ뤬ޤǤιҤɤ꤯ɤǶ̤Ƥ롥ޤˤͳˤꡤŪˤѤʤΤǤ롥
ɽֻɤ߾夲ζ̹Vachek ΤȤФɽС "a sign of the second order"Ĥޤ국εǤȤȤФơäդˤ첻դˤʸֻϡ"a sign of the first order"ĤޤľŪʵǤ롥δطʲοޤǼƤߤ
+---------------+----------------+--------------------------+ | | | | | | Speech | Writing | | | | | | | +---------------+-------+--------+------------+-------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | phones | letters | | First order | phonemes | graphemes | | | | spellings | | | | | | | | | +---------------+-----------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | Second order | spelling out | phonetic transcription | | | | | | | | | | | | | +---------------+----------------+--------------------------+
#2198. 衼åѽ͡ r ([2015-05-04-1]) /r/ ͡ʶŪ¸̻ŪȯãѤ衼åѽΤʤǤ⡤Ѹ /r/ μ¸ϤʤüǤꡤŵŪˤϻܶ (alveolar approximant) [ɹ] ܶ (retroflex approximant) [ɻ] ȤĴ롥ŪʸˤСűѸѸǤ /r/ ˤư (coronal trill) [r] ȤƼ¸줿ȤƤ뤬⤷θȤƤ⡤ˤƤθˤˤ [r] ߤüĴؤȯãΤȤʤ롥
Erickson (185) ϡĴؤδ餳ꡤʲȯãƤƤ롥
0. Origin: coronal trill
1. Trill lenites to tap before homorganic consonants
2. Coronals change from dental to alveolar; tongue simultaneously acquires sulcal shape
3. Tap lenites to retroflex approximant before homorganics
4. Approximant articulation generalized to syllable coda
5. Approximant articulation generalized to all positions
ޤޥ /r/ 0 ˼ư [r] äӸŪˤ⡤Ūˤ¬ȤäƤ褵ŵŪʼ¸ϡʣդ뤨Τä[t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l] ʤɤλѤƱﲻ³ĶǤϡդ뤨ϰ٤ñư [ɾ]ˤȤʤ뷹1ʳˡ
ˡñư˸³ [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l] ʤɤĴ֤ԤؤѲ褬Ԥΰ֤ޤǸह뤳Ȥˤꡤ̤ϥåˤܤ2ʳˡΥå幽ˤꡤʳ3μܶ [ɻ] ؤΰܹԤưפˤʤ롥ѸˤǤС1600ǯˤʳäȤ (Erickson 191)
ʾ /r/ ĴȯãϡƱﲻ³Ķ˸¤Ƥ줬δĶˤȤ4ʳˡ˲ΰ֤ˤ餺̤˳Ȥä5ʳˡ
ѸɸѼǤϡʾȯãʳΤɤǻߤޤäΤ褦ĴΤ⤢Сʬ줷̤ȯãΤ⤢äޤɸѼˤƤ⡤¸ˤ٤ѰۤϤä嵭ȯãȤƿ뤳ȤˤꡤΡְæפ⤪褽̵ʤǤȤΤ Erickson μĥǤ롥
/r/ ĴȴϢơErickson (184) ޥˤ r ˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ륳ȤҲ𤷤ƤɥĸΤۤåȥǤʹ "Northumbrian burr" ȸƤФ r ϡ#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤ ([2012-03-17-1]) Ǹ褦ˡե줫ŤȤ뤳Ȥ¿ºݤˤŤβǽͤᤤ˥ɥĸ [ʁ] ԤƤȤ⤢ꡤŤǤϤʤȯãȤ⤢褦
Erickson, Blaine. "On the Development of English r." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 183--206.
#2290. ƻޤĹ첻û ([2015-08-04-1]) ǡ<oo>, <ea> ɽ蘆줿Ĺ첻Ѹû夲Ȥ櫓 <oo> ˤĤƤϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1])#1353. 첻Ĺû ([2013-01-09-1])#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1]) ǰäƤ
<oo> ɽ蘆줿 [uː] [ʊ] ؤûϡط뤹٤Ƥθ櫓ǤϤʤPhillips (233) λȤ Mieko Ogura (Historical English Phonology: A Lexical Perspective. Tokyo: Kenkyusha, 1987.) ˤСѸ졤Ȥ櫓16--17줿ڵ˴ŤȡûϺǽ [d] ֤ǡ [v], [t, θ, k] ֤ȤȤ櫓Ҳ [l] θ֤Ǥ䤹äȤ롥ĤޤꡤóȻΤǡĶ˽äơѲ˿ʹԤƤäȤ
ν˴ؤơOgura ϲĶ٤ι⤵ isochrony Ȥ褦ȤPhillips ĴŪʺƤƤ롥⤽ Phillips ϡβѲϡûפȤŪѲȤߤ٤ǤϤʤд˲פȤŪѲȤߤ٤ȼĥ롥ȤΤϡ⤷ʲѲȤƤûǤС̵ [t] ֤Τۤͭ [d] ֤첻Ūûûꤵ뤬ºݤˤϵդνŪд˲ȤȤ館С줬ʤ [d] ֤ΤĴŪǤȤ
ĴؤˤС[l] [d] ˶ޤ줿ĶǤ [u(ː)] [ʊ] ؤдˤ䤹ȤޤĴ˺ݤƤϡ¾λҲξ٤θ㤯ʤ뤳Ȥ¿Ϥд˲䤹Ȥ⤵ (Phillips 237) Ǹˡ[d], [t] Ȥ˴ؤƤϡԤԤдŪ (lax) ǤȤ⤢롥ΤȤơPhillips ϡĴŪʥѥƳ뤳ȤǡθóȻѲΥ塼̵ʤǤȼĥƤ롥
ɬ̤ʵȤϤʤäƤʤ褦ˤפ뤬1ĤθǤϤ[2015-08-04-1]εǤߤ褦ˡŪʻʬŪ˴ޤ Görlach θˤդʧɬפ롥
Phillips, Betty S. "Lexical Diffusion and Competing Analyses of Sound Change." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 231--43.
<look>, <blood>, <dead>, <heaven>, ʤɤ첻ʬϡ2Ĥ첻֤뤬ȯȤƤϤ줾û첻Ǥ롥ϡѸˤͽ̤ۤ2äΤθ塤û1ȤʤäǤ롥<oo> ֻȯδطӤطʤˤĤƤϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1])#1353. 첻Ĺû ([2013-01-09-1])#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1]) ǿ줿<ea> ˤĤƤϡ#1345. read -- read -- read γѡ ([2013-01-01-1]) Ǵñ˿줿ˤʤΤǡȤƼ夲
Ҥ̤ꡤ<ea> Ĺ첻ɽ路ǤѸˤƤλ3Ҳ֤ûäƤꡤdream / dreamt, leap / leapt, read / read, speed / sped Τ褦첻̤Ω (cf. #1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])) ޤñҲ֤ˤƤ⡤ѸޤǤˤĤñˤûƤ (ex. breath, dead, dread, heaven, blood, good, cloth) ΰۤʤûβˤĤƤϡ#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1]) #2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1]) ǸȤǤꡤ˲Ūʴ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤä˽Ѹˤûϰθä˸¤ƤȤ𤬤ꡤޤǤ롥
Görlach (71) ϡεˡŪǤϤ뤬˷ŪʴǤ롥
Such short vowels reflecting ME long vowel quantities are most frequent where ME has /ɛː, oː/ before /d, t, θ, v, f/ in monosyllabic words, but even here they occur only in a minority of possible words. It is likely that the short vowel was introduced on the pattern of words in which the occurrence of a short or a long vowel was determined by the type of syllable the vowel appeared in (glad vs. glade). When these words became monosyllabic in all their forms, the conditioning factor was lost and the apparently free variation of short/long spread to cases like (dead). That such processes must have continued for some time is shown by words ending in -ood: early shortened forms (flood) are found side by side with later short forms (good) and those with the long vowel preserved (mood).
Ҳǽñ촴ηƻϡѸޤǡŪʾ˱ơƶ e ݤĤȤä (cf. #532. Chaucer ηƻζޡ ([2010-10-11-1])) e ̵ͭϲṽ¤Ѳ촴첻Ĺûꤷ1Ĥηƻˤ뤳ĹûѰۤǥȤʤäơṽ¤¾δĶˤƤĹûѰۡʤƸûˤ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤȤ Görlach glad vs. glade ʤҤ٤ƤΤϡϡ˷ŪʵǽͭƤ -e Ū˾üƤǡεǽ촴첻Ĺûΰ㤤ˤκפĤΤߤȤʤäƤäȤаޤǤ (cf. #295. black Blake ([2010-02-16-1])) Ϣơ#977. ƻζο syntagma marking ([2011-12-30-1]) ǿ줿եꥫˤƻΡʸˡפλ㤬פФ롥
Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.
eye ˤĤơʣŪ¿#219. eyes ɽ172ֻ̤ ([2009-12-02-1]) Ǽθϡȯ˴ؤƤŪʣʲФƤƤ롥ϡeye βѲˤάҤ褦
űѸθȥǤϡθ <eage> ֤줿ȯȤƤϡ[æːɑɣe] Τ褦ˡĹ2첻 [g] ³û첻³äޤűѸ˸Ƭ2첻경 [æːɣe] Ȥʤäˤ첻Ͼ夲βФơѸˤ [eːɣe] Ȥؤȯã
ͭ˴ꡤޤꡤ˸첻ۣ沽 /eːjə/ Ϥ줿λҲȾ첻ǽŪˤϹ첻 [ɪ] ȤʤäǡԤ첻 [e] Ϥ [ɪ] ͻ礷ơʤ夲Фơ[iː] Ȥʤ˻롥ۣ첻ṳ̈ȤƸѸˤϸΤȤ [iː] Ȥȯ褦ˤʤä
ϡѸ I [iː] ʤɤθȤȤ˻Ĥˤࡥ⤤Ĺ첻 [iː] ϡ첻 (gvs) Ф2첻ޤ [əɪ] ء [aɪ] ؤȯãɸѼʳǤϡʳȯãߤޤäꡤۤʤäȯã뤲Τ⤢ɸѼǤϰʾĹФƤʲȯãˤޤȤƼ
| /æːɑɣe/ |
| /æːɣe/ |
| /eːɣe/ |
| /eːjə/ |
| /eɪə/ |
| /iːə/ |
| /iː/ |
| /əɪ/ |
| /aɪ/ |
Ѹ⳰ˤȯѲϡޤǤεǤ¿夲Ƥɤ餫ȤȻδؿǤȤǤȤŪñ̤ˤΤǡȤ˾ñ̤ѲѶŪˤƤȤаޤ롥ȯѲȰ˸äƤ⡤¤ϸΤɤΥ٥ˤƤ뤫ȽȤʤȤ¿ϡʪŪȯʤΤȤŪʲʲǡˤʤΤˤäƤϡ1ǤŪӤӤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤǤϲȤƤȤ館٤⤢롥ζ̤ۣˤȤơֲѲפȤ "sound change" ȤƾΤѤȤ⤢뤷ۣʤΤۣʤޤޤˡֲѲפȤȯѲפȤƨ¿ä¤ϡܸȤơʤѸȤƤˤɤƤ٤Ф褤Τᤫͤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤ롥
äƱѸˤˤƤ֥ʤΤǡѸѸǹͤ褦Ѳˤäơ"sound change" "phonological change" ȤΤ̤Smith ϡ̾Τʤ "sound change" ȤѸ̤˽ФͿĤΤ礷Ƥ롥Smith (13)
A sound change has taken place when a variant form, mechanically produced, is imitated by a second person and that process of imitation causes the system of the imitating individual to change.
Smith äΤ褦ˤʹ롥§ȤƲǤѲѲäƤǤϡ¤ŪʡŪʤΤ⤷ʤʤ˼ҲŪʼäƤΤSmith οȾȻפˡSmith ι¤Ū¦̤Ż뤹ʤСϡ#2268. ֤ʤޤפΰۤʤ˴ؤ붦Ū ([2015-07-13-1]) Ѹˤä "systemic" ѲΤȤؤΤɤǤʬ褦ˡ۲٥ѲȲǥ٥ѲȤΤޤǥ˶̤櫓ǤϤʤޤǥʥŪϢ³ŪʤΤǤ롥ˤ롤뤤ϸĿͤˤ붦ŪѰۤΩȤʤä̻ŪѲؤȰܹԤȤǤϡ٤ƤϢ³ΤʤΤǤ롥äơSmith ϡǤ "sound change" ˥ХäȤͿƤ뤬ܽΤۤȤɤʬǡΥʥŪϢ³ΤǧᡤξDZѸˤˤ벻ѲƤΤ
ŪȤªʤСphonetics phonology ζܤϤɤˤΤξԤδطɤߤʤФ褤ΤȤˤ䤤ˤʤΤ
ϡ졤϶̤տŪʤȤʤ˾ˤϡܸȤơֲѲפȤѸ줷褦ȻפäƤ롥۲٥ѲǤ뤳ȤΤǤСֲѲס䲻ǥ٥ѲǤ뤳ȤΤǤСֲѲפȸΤ褤ȻפȤˤϡֲѲפȾΤ
Smith, Jeremy J. Sound Change and the History of English. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
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