#2743. ʾȸ ([2016-10-30-1]) ˰³"LANGUAGE IS MONEY" γǰեˤĤơʾȸζͤ뤳ȤǡȤΤɤޤǤͭǡɤ餬̵ʤΤä˸ܼȤϲʤΤˤĤƵ뤭äȤʲϡʥ롦ȥå (152--67) βʾˤΥʥäʬʤɤȤĤġʾȸεǽ˴ؤбˤĤơʬʤ˥֥쥹Ȥ̤Ǥ롥
| ʾ | |
|---|---|
| ʾϼҲή̤ | ϼҲή̤ |
| ʪήγȯ˹ | ʼȤƽդˤ˾γȯ˹ |
| ʾcf. ܻˤǤϲȹ650ǯˡִפʤɡ | ɸಽcf. ѸˤǤϽդɸಽ400?500ǯˡ |
| ʼβʾɼΤΤ | ɸಽˤऱƤ "selection" (cf. #2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1])) |
| ʾβ | "refinement" (cf. #2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1])) |
| ʾƥϥǤϤʤʻѼԴ֤ο¤ǽ | 쥷ƥϥǤϤʤʻѼԴ֤δط¤ǽ |
| ʾϤɤΤ褦߹٤ˤƤѤǤ櫓ǤϤʤ | ϤɤΤ褦߹٤ˤƤѤǤ櫓ǤϤʤ |
| ¨¸ݤꡤդǤλʧcf. Ģ | դˤǽȤʤƱߥ˥ |
| ʾϲͤ¢Ǥʡ | ϲͤ¢Ǥʡᵭˡ |
| ߡߡߡʾΤδ | Ѽ˴֤ǽ |
| ¤¤ΰˡ | Ϥ鳰줿ˡФȽ |
| ʾμʼ̣Υ쥯ʾDzʾ㤦 | äμʥŪʴؿǸ |
| ʾϽκ | դϽκ |
| ʾʧcf. Ųߤ˵줿դ䳨 | |
| ʲͤΥܥΤʤΥܥ | ǰͤΥܥΤʤΥܥ롩 (cf. semantic primitive) |
[2016-10-29-1]ε˰³ɸಽ (standardisation) βǧ4ʳˤĤơHaugen Ȥ롥ɸಽϡ (1) Selection, (2) Codification, (3) Elaboration, (4) Acceptance νǿʹԤȤ뤬4ĤβȽϡҲȸ졤ӷȵǽȤ2Ĥμ뤳ȤǤ (ޤ Haugen 933 Ȥ˺ˡ
| Form | Function | ||
| Society | (1) Selection | (4) Acceptance | |
| Language | (2) Codification | (3) Elaboration |
ε#2741. ascertaining, refining, fixing ([2016-10-28-1]) ǡ17ޤǤαѸɸಽ18ˤƤαѸ쵬ϲؤ³ή
ǡɸಽ (standardisation) ȤäƤ⡤βˤϤĤζ̤ǧ롥Haugen αƶϤζʸˤСѼ郎ɸಽȤŵŪˤ4ĤʳФȤ롥Hudson (33) ˤҲؤζʽΰѤ̤ơ4ʳ褦
(1) Selection --- somehow or other a particular variety must have been selected as the one to be developed into a standard language. It may be an existing variety, such as the one used in an important political or commercial centre, but it could be an amalgam of various varieties. The choice is a matter of great social and political importance, as the chosen variety necessarily gains prestige and so the people who already speak it share in this prestige. However, in some cases the chosen variety has been one with no native speakers at all --- for instance, Classical Hebrew in Israel and the two modern standards for Norwegian . . . .
(2) Codification --- some agency such as an academy must have written dictionaries and grammar books to 'fix' the variety, so that everyone agrees on what is correct. Once codification has taken place, it becomes necessary for any ambitious citizen to learn the correct forms and not to use in writing any 'incorrect' forms that may exist in their native variety.
(3) Elaboration of function --- it must be possible to use the selected variety in all the functions associated with central government and with writing: for example, in parliament and law courts, in bureaucratic, educational and scientific documents of all kinds and, of course, in various forms of literature. This may require extra linguistic items to be added to the variety, especially technical words, but it is also necessary to develop new conventions for using existing forms --- how to formulate examination questions, how to write formal letters and so on.
(4) Acceptance --- the variety has to be accepted by the relevant population as the variety of the community --- usually, in fact, as the national language. Once this has happened, the standard language serves as a strong unifying force for the state, as a symbol of its independence of other states (assuming that its standard is unique and not shared with others), and as a marker of its difference from other states. It is precisely this symbolic function that makes states go to some lengths to develop one.
ʤ顤ʳˤƤ⡤¿쾯ʤ졤ҲˤտŪǰռŪʴͿޤޤ롥ɸνϤƼҲŪǤꡤ˿ŪŪޤȤĤƤ롥ּҲˤտŪʲפη̤ȤƤɸȤˤĤƤϡΰѤΩʬˡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (Hudson 32)
Whereas one thinks of normal language development as taking place in a rather haphazard way, largely below the threshold of consciousness of the speakers, standard languages are the result of a direct and deliberate intervention by society. This intervention, called 'standardisation', produces a standard language where before there were just 'dialects' . . . .
Ϣơ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ȡ
Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Ѹ˾ͭ̾ Swift ˤ A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue (1712) Ǥϡ̾3Ĥΰۤʤư correct, improve, ascertain ѤƤ롥ѸפֲפֳꤹפȤäΤǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥ֱѸθոäפȤǤ϶̤Ƥ뤬ưδ֤ˤϤɤΤ褦ʴްդκΤcorrect ˤϡָŦΤľפȤްդꡤimprove ˤϡ֤ɤס ascertain ˤϸŤȤơֳꤵפۤɤΰ̣롥
3ĤưȤԤäŤʤ櫓ǤϤʤSwift ϼλˡֱѸθոäפۤɤΰ̣Ǥ褯Ѥ줿⤦1·3ư줬롥ascertain, refine, fix 3ĤBaugh and Cable (251) ˤС줾ϼΤ褦ʰ̣Ѥ롥
ascertain: "to reduce the language to rule and set up a standard of correct usage"
refine: "to refine it--- that is, to remove supposed defects and introduce certain improvements"
fix: "to fix it permanently in the desired form"
ֱѸθոäǶ̤Ƥ褦˸뤬ܤƤ¦̤ϰۤʤ롥ascertain ϤŪɸκäΤǡJohnson ascertainment "a settled rule; an established standard" ŤƤ롥ŪˤСǤȤʤ뼭ʸˡǤ뤳Ȥؤ
ˡrefine ϤФոܻؤΤǤ롥μͤδ֤ˤ Chaucer λ䥨ꥶ٥īαѸ줳ͥǸҤѸǤȤΥ른åʱѸѤꡤαѸϿʬƤޤäȤФäΤǤ롥ˤϡ#1947. Swift clipping Ƚ([2014-08-26-1]) #1948. Addison clipping Ƚ ([2014-08-27-1]) ޤޤ
Ǹˡfix ϰٳꤷոʱ뤷褦ȤΡȤȤ館ƤФ褤Swift ϤȤ18ȾνꤿϡνʸϤʱ뤵뤳ȤܵǴäƤΤǤ롥ͤСޤạ̈ΤʤꤤǤϤ (cf. #1421. Johnson θѡ ([2013-03-18-1]))
18εϼԤδ֤ˤϡɤ¦̤֤ƻŸƤΤˤĤư㤤ΤǡưȤΰ̣϶̤Ƥɬפ롥
Ƕܸפ˶ФƤ뤬ܸˤĤ ascertain, refine, fix Τ¦̤бΤʤΤ뤤ϡ3ĤΤǤʤ¾¦̤ʤΤ褯ʬʤȤǤϤ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ѸֻɸಽˤϡȥɸŪʤΤ뤬ΥޥνѸˤϤ줬̵˵Ѹˤʤäƽ˺ɸಽѸɸಽʤߡ17--18ɸֻΩ绨ĤǤ롥γѤˤСѸֻɸबޤǤʤäȤȤˤʤ롥ϤǴְäƤϤʤֻɸȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤ٰӤֻȤȤǤСλˤĿͤ侮ĤΥ٥ǼƤפĤ롥褯ΤƤΤϡ(1) "AB language" ֻ, (2) Ormulum κ Orm ֻ(3) ֥ƥ Brut եǤ Laȝamon ֻǤ롥
(1) "AB language" ̾ϡƻΤλ Ancrene Wisse ޤ Cambridge, Corpus Christi College 402 Ȥ (= A) ȡϢ佡ޤ Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodley 34 μ (=B) ͳ褹롥2ܡʵڤӴϢ뤤ĤμܡˤˤϡʤӤֻηϤѤƤꡤʣμ̻ˤäƤ줬ѤƤ뤳Ȥ顤餯13Ⱦˡνƻܼ濴Ȥʤäơɸֻ夲ߤʤƤΤȿ¬Ƥ롥
(2) Orm ϡLincolnshire ΥƥνƻΤǡ1200ǯˡʬ䤹ʪ Ormulum 路¸ͣΥƥȤ2ԤĶʸǤꡤ줬äۤɰӤֻǽƤ롥Orm ϡ첻̤ˤäƸ³ҲŤͤʤɤιɵ椷äֻηϤԤߤʬκʤǼΤǤ롥 Orm ֻϡ¾μܤˤहΤȯƤ餺ƸĿŪֻɸಽλϸ16θŪֻԤȤäƤ褤
(3) Laȝamon ϡWorcestershire λʺפǡ13Ƭ˱ʸǯ嵭ʸDZѸǤ˸ŤᤫʤäƤȤܤƬ (alliteration) 䡤ʸáֻ褵Υ른åʷϵ⤹ȤLaȝamon ϡºݤ˸űѸˤäֻɤ̤ȤơˤűѸֻռŪѤðۤǤꡤθĿŪֻɸಽλߤȤߤ뤳Ȥǽ
ʾ塤Horobin (98--102) ȤƼɮ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#2675. ȸѲ ([2016-08-23-1]) ǡJones and Singh μҲŪѲŪʴοؤδؿˤĤƹͤEsperanto Τ褦ʿФȡʿԤ⤢СɡǾФ⤢Сζ̸ʤƲȤʤ⤷ȴؿԤ⤢롥ˤ衤üȿ륱¿褦˻פ롥
ĿͤȤƤϡʤȤᤤ衤͡˼븽ϤʤȻפäƤ뤷δ϶ؿäƤ櫓ǤϤʤJones and Singh εɤʤǡʤʤΡ˿͡ϿƤ˻ΤȤ˴ؿͯƤ鸽ߤˤơϾ˿ФƾƴƤǤ (cf. #958. 19Ⱦ³Ƚи ([2011-12-11-1])) Jones and Singh (154--55) ϡEco 礤˽Фʤ顤ʤȤ衼åѤˤ뤳δؿˤĤʬϤ褦ȤƤ롥
[F]or many, deliberate creation still smacks of the quasi-academic and the 'geeky'; a fringe and fantasy-based pastime that produces 'eccentricities' such as Klingon and Esperanto. . . .
Yet while deliberate invention has long been nothing more than a game for many, it has also been seriously considered as an ideal solution to what have been characterised by some as (linked) linguistic and social 'problems'. Eco (1995: 1) [= Eco, U. The Search for the Perfect Language. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.], for example, argues that the perception of linguistic diversity and difference has long been current in practically every culture, as has been the notion that this 'Babel' can be redeemed through 'the rediscovery or invention of a language common to all humanity'. In European thought, this has prompted various linguistic projects throughout the centuries, such as those listed in 7.2.a (adapted from Eco 1995: 2--3):
7.2.a Typology of 'language projects' in European scholarship
1. The rediscovery of languages postulated as original or as mystically perfect, such as Hebrew, Egyptian or Chinese.
2. The reconstruction of languages postulated, either fancifully or not, as original or mother tongues.
3. Languages constructed artificially for one of thee ends:
(a) Perfection in terms of either function or structure, such as the a-priori philosophical languages of the seventeenth century, designed to express ideas perfectly.
(b) Perfection in terms of universality, such as the a-posteriori international languages of the nineteenth century.
(c) Perfection in terms of practicality, if only presumed, such as the so-called polygraphies.
4. Magic languages, discovered or invented, whose perfection is extolled on account of either their mystic effability or their initiatic secrecy.
Ǥϡ衼åѤǤι̣ǤΡָײ (language_planning) λƤˤʤäƤ뤬 Eco ΥꥹȤˤ⤦1IJäΤ롥ϡʹߡνʵڤܡˤǤɸŪǤ롥19ʹߤοƤϤǤΡֹŪ̸ָΤǤΤФγƹˤɸಽȵϲϤޤǡֹŪ̸κܻؤƤˤʤξԤȯۤϺŪˤ礭ۤʤäƤʤνѼ¿1ĤѼ֤뤳Ȥȡν¿1Ĥθ֤뤳ȤϡϤˤʤȤ⤤뤫ΤˡԤˤϿ줬ؤ뤬ԤϼΤʤǤäǤȤ礭ʰ㤤롥ԤɸѼˤ⾯ʤ̿ͰäƤ뤳Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥ʹߡˤɸѼɬ˺ꤷμͤȤγưϡŪ˳ɾƤȤäƤ褤ιǤǤ Esperanto Volapük Ƥ꿮ꤹԤȤγư "geeky" ȤߤΤϡԻĤȤԻĤǤ롥ξȤ "geeky" ǥŪǤȤСɸˤŪ˼ꡤʤɸ餷Ƥ֤⡤ "geeky" ǥŪȤΤ⤷ʤ
Jones, Mari C. and Ishtla Singh. Exploring Language Change. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005.
15Ⱦ˰ (printing) ⤿餵줿塤³16δ֤ɸŪˡؤϺϤޤäκݤηƻֻˤȤɤޤ餺ˡ (punctuation) ˤڤ֤Ȥˤʤä
ΩμܤλˤϡƼζɵ椬̣ŪŪȤϲɤΤΥɤȤ͡ѤƤ¿ϰλʹߤ˾äƤޤäο30ĶȤƤΤƱζɵ⤢äμܤǤϤεǽɬ⸽ΤΤƱǤϤʤäʾФƽؤȸФβϴȤƤꡤѸˤ⤤ޤʤä
ΰȼԤϴŪˤϼܤˤäɵƸ褦ȤбʤΤ⤢ꡤ뤳Ȥ¿äŪˤϡ</> (virgule) <.> (point) Ϲǧ줿</> εǽϸߤ <,> (comma) 1520ǯ夫鸽ߤΤ褦 <,> ֤褦ˤʤäȼԤˤäƤξԤȤѤΤ⤢äˡ
ΰǤϡۤ <:> (colon), <> (paragraph mark), <//> (double virgule) ʤɤѤ졤ɵȤƤ <( )> (parentheses), <;> (semicolon), <?> (question mark) ʤɤƳ줿ˤϻ֤פ㤨С<;> ʤɤϡCoverdales ˤ1538ǯοθ˸줳뤬ɤѤ褦ˤʤΤ1570ǯʹߤȤäƤ褤
17äƤ⡤ޤˡ³㤨СShakespeare First Folio (1623) Ǥ⡤ȴò䡤ȥߥλȤʬϰӤƤʤäݥȥե (apostrophe) ϥե (hyphen) ͽʤȤ˸줿 (ex. advan'st (= advanced), cast-him (= cast him)) ꤵϸ Shakespeare ιˤȿǤƤꡤۤʤǤۤʤѤȤ֤ˤʤäƤ롥
ݥȥեˤĤưäƤζɵ϶οǤꡤάѤФΤ1559ǯǤ롥ʤߤΥݥȥեˡȤƽͭʤɽ魯 <'s> ǤλѤ뤬ȯãϤä٤18ΤȤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡǤˡΰĤȤˡޤäƤζɵ⡤ѸǤϤޤ夷ƤʤäΤȤϡƳξ⤬˳̿ŪäȼԤŬΤˤ˻ԺΤ1ĤλɸȤߤʤȤǤΤǤϤʤʾ塤Crystal (261) ȤƼɮ
Ϣơ#574. punctuation 4Ĥεǽ ([2010-11-22-1])#575. Ū punctuation ˤ500ǯۤɡ ([2010-11-23-1])#582. apostrophe ([2010-11-30-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
ε#2628. Hockett ˤѸνդäդδطɽ魯ľ ([2016-07-07-1]) Ǽ褦ˡѸνդøդδ֤εΥϡޤˡ־梪碪ʡˡפɽǤѥǿܤƤ餿ȡ̤Ǥ롥
դäդεΥϡűѸ줫ѸˤƤŪޤޤˤȤɤޤäƤͥζѸȽդɸಽ (standardisation) ʤȤ⤢äơξΤЪΥϳƤѸˤʤꡤŪǤդˤή褦ˤʤ (= colloquialisation) ξԤεΥϺƤʬŪ˶ޤäƤƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ξΤάˤĤƤϡCurzan (54--55) εҤŪΤǤ롥
The fluctuating distance between written and spoken registers provides one fascinating lens through which to tell the history of English. For the Old English and Middle English periods, scholars assume a much closer correspondence between the written and spoken, with the recognition that the record does not preserve very informal registers of the written. While there were some local written standards, these periods predate widespread language standardization, and spelling and morphosyntactic differences by region suggest that scribes saw the written language as in some way capturing their individual or local pronunciation and grammar. The prevalence of coordinated or paratactic clause structures in these periods is more reflective of the spoken language than the highly subordinated clause structures that come to characterize high written prose in the Renaissance. . . . The Renaissance witnesses a growing chasm between the spoken and written, with the rise of language standardization and the spread of English to more scientific, legal, and other genres that had been formerly written in Latin. To this day, written academic, legal, and medical registers are marked by stark differences from spoken language, from the prevalence of nominalization (e.g., when the verb enhance becomes the noun enhancement) to the relative paucity of first-person pronouns to highly subordinated sentence structures.
At the turn of the millennium something interestingly cyclical appears to be happening online, in journalistic prose, and in other registers, where the written language is creeping back toward patterns more characteristic of the spoken language --- a process referred to as colloquialization . . . . In other words, the distance between the structure and style of spoken and written language that has characterized much of the modern period is narrowing, a least in some registers. Current colloquialization of written prose includes the rise of features such as semi-modals (e.g., have to), contractions, and the progressive.
ϡդäդδطȤߤ⤦1ĤθʱѸ˵ҤȻפ
Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.
ɥå̾إץեåʥξ (45--46) ˡ衼åѡʵڤܡˤˤɸμݤŤߤɽս꤬롥ħŤƤ¿ϡˤơȸϤΤȤǰ층ؤ֤졤ΰ층ŪͭͤǤȤȯۤ˻ޤǺդƤߡΰ층ˤϤۤӤϤƤΤǤϤʤ
Ҳۤ¿Τϻǯ֤ΤȤǤ롥¿ҲäμҲϡ˶礦ΩɴˤΤܤѥäƤ²ΡʶΡƻΡͳԻԤäȥꥢΥˤϡŷΤ뼫ͳ̱Τä̤ΩɤäۤϥƱ̾ꡤեĥȶƱäħǿͤȹ礬äΩΩˡʼIJޤǤäˤϡΤ褦ʤΤ̵ˤä
θ塤ˤϹȤ̵Υѥ뤳Ȥ衼åѤˤȤʤä뤤ܤˤȤʤä
ưȾФˤϡȶ˴ؤ¿̤ꥫʹˤơȤʾ¤ˤ褽ϻǯˤ錄äơ¿ѻߤȤ줿
ˡȤξΩ˸ޤˤΤȤǽοȿޤ줿Ȥä衤ȿޤ줿Ʊ˥衼åѤǤϡܤλۤΤȻפƤؤΤ褦ʤफȿƤӼᤷ
ʤȤˡμä˶ϡ˶礦Ωȿʤ¿ǤϤʤͣθϡͣȿ¸ߤ٤ǤȤफοŪȤǸΤäΤΤ褦ˡΤϼԤ˽äȤȤϤμƤϡβˤϤʤʤä
ḽ˻ˤ⡤ŪʼҲˤĬή̵Ǥʤɤˤ褯бƤ롥ȤǤϡΤɸಽܻؤ졤ѤǵŪʸˡáˡȯˡꤵƤơĤ٤κ졤褽̱ϸŪʾˤƸոεϤ餹褦ƤĤƤ¿ˤäƳƤո͡褬ʸ̤˰층櫓ǤϤʤƤ
ɥåܤλۤˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤդεϼ층⡤ʹߤ˰ٳΩΤ褦ˤߤˡߡɸŪ¿ͤʸոʬǼƤϤƤ褦ˤפ롥
Ѹֻˤ路 Horobin ⡤ֻ¿ȶֻε층Ȥήɤäǡߤ̤ˤ¿碌Ƥ褦˻פ롥ȡʸϡˤȸ̩ܤʴطˤĤơƹͤƤߤ
ɥåP. F. ˡ ˡإץեåʥξ̤Ĺ뤫١ɼҡ2000ǯ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ѸˤϤ˸ؤˤؤǤȡФŵ (classical language) ȤѸ˽Ф魯ŵŵŪϡΡʻˡˤθŵʸŵȷӤĤȤƤΥƥ (Latin) ŵꥷ (Ancient Greek) Ǥ롥ŵϸ (modern language) ΩΤǤꡤָŵ (dead language)פȤϢۤ줽ۤñʤΤǤϤʤ (cf. #645. Ѹ ([2011-02-01-1])) ŵ°ȤƤϡ (vitality) ΤۤΧ (autonomy) ɸ (standardisation) פǤ (see #1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1])) Trudgill (22) Ѹ콸
classical language A language which has the characteristics of autonomy and standardisation but which does not have the characteristic of vitality, that is, although it used to have native speakers, it no longer does so. Classical European languages include Latin and Ancient Greek. The ancient Indian language Sanskrit, an ancestor of modern North Indian languages such as Hindi and Bengali, is another example of a classical language, as is Classical Arabic. Classical languages generally survive because they are written languages which are known non-natively as a result of being used for purposes of religion or scholarship. Latin has been associated with Catholicism, Sanskrit with Hinduism, and Classical Arabic with Islam.
ܤˤƤϡŤ졤ʸŵȤưƤʸϡߤǤŪѼԤʤȤ̣ vitality 礤Ƥ뤬ˤ autonomy standardisation ǧ졤䡦ۤȶӤĤƤդѼǤ롥
ʤŵΤ⤦1Ĥ°Ȥơΰˤ⼨ƤΤΡŪʸ (historical authority) Ū˲äƤ褤ΤǤϤʤȻפ롥
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
#2469. αѸ([2016-01-30-1]) ˰³ϥեꥫαѸοפˤĤơGramley (307, 309, 311) "Anglophone Southern African countries", "Anglophone West African countries", "Anglophone East African countries" ɽǺܤ褦 * *
| country | significant UK contact | colonial status | independence | total population | English speakers | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| percentage | total number | |||||
| Botswana | 19th century | 1885 | 1966 | 1,640,000 | --38% | 630,000 |
| Lesotho | protectorate | 1966 | 1,800,000 | --28% | 500,000 | |
| Malawi | 1878 | 1891 | 1964 | 13,000,000 | --4% | 540,000 |
| Namibia | 1878 | 1920 (S. Afr.) | 1990 | 1,800,000 | --17% | > 300,000 |
| South Africa | 1795 | 1795 | 1910 | 47,850,000 | > 28% | 13,700,000 |
| Swaziland | 1894 | 1902 (UK) | 1968 | 1,140,000 | --4.4% | 50,000 |
| Zambia | 1888 | 1924 | 1953, 1964 | 13,000,000 | --15% | --2,000,000 |
| Zimbabwe | 1890 | 1923 | 1953, 1980 | 13,300,000 | --42% | 5,550,000 |
| Cameroon | 1914 | 1916 | 1960 | 18,500,000 | --42% | 7,700,000 |
| Gambia | 1661, 1816 | 1894 | 1965 | 1,700,000 | --2.3% | 40,000 |
| Ghana (formerly gold coast) | 1824, 1850 | 1874, 1902 | 1957 | 23,480,000 | --6% | 1,400,000 |
| Liberia | USA 1822 | none | 1847 | 3,750,000 | --83% | 3,100,000 |
| Nigeria | 1851 | 1884, 1900 | 1960 | 148,000,000 | --53% | 79,000,000 |
| Sierra Leone | 1787 | 1808 | 1961 | 5,800,000 | --83% | 4,900,000 |
| Kenya | 1886 | 1895, 1920 | 1963 | 39,000,000 | --9% | 2,700,000 |
| Tanzania | 1880s | 1890, 1920 | 1961 | 42,000,000 | --11% | 4,000,000 |
| Uganda | 1860s | 1888, 1890 | 1962 | 31,000,000 | --10% | 2,500,000 |
In most of these countries a kind of indigenization or nativization is currently taking place, a process in which the domains of the language are expanding and in which increasingly endonormative standards are becoming established for usages which were once stigmatized as mistakes. This is opening the way to wider use of English in creative writing and to the institutionalization of local forms in schools, the media, and government . . . . English may well still be far from being a language of the emotions among the vast majority of its users; indeed, the institutionalization of English may be making it ever more difficult for those without English to close the social gap between "the classes and the masses." All the same, English is more and more firmly a part of everyday linguistic experience.
"New Englishes" λѤ˴ؤ˼ҲŪʻˤĤƤϡ#1255. "New Englishes" Υ饤ե ([2012-10-03-1]) Ȥ줿ޤեꥫαѸΤĤϰˤĤƤϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1])#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#413. 롼ˤѸؤ language shift ([2010-06-14-1])#514. Nigeria ˤѸΰ֤Ť ([2010-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲ƤΤǡGramley αѸ˳ѥ˥ꡤβPDFեΤʤ "colonial expansion into West Africa" εͭѡ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
ǯޤ2016ǯ hellog ³ޤǯΰȯܤϡˤ#183. flower flour ([2009-10-27-1]) Ǽ夲ǤϤޤ
2Ĥñϡε褦ˡȤ1ĤθΤʤ2Ĥΰۤʤä餯Υ줹Ƥޤäˡ¿ȤƤǤϤʤƱ۵Ȥǧ褦ˤʤꡤʤȤֻ϶̤Τդ路ȴ褦ˤʤäΤѸˤ֤ʬ뷹Ƥ
ơθ줬ֲ֡פΰ̣ǥե줫Ѥ줿Τ13ƬΤȤǤ롥MED flour (n.(1)) ˤС"c1230(?a1200) *Ancr. (Corp-C 402) 92a: & te treou .. bringeð forð misliche flures .. uertuz beoð .. swote i godes nease, smeallinde flures." Ǥ롥Ϣ־ʴʡʴΤʤκǤΡֲڡסˡפΰ̣Ǥ13ȾФˤϱѸǽ㤬Ƥ롥MED flour (n.(2)) ˤС" a1325(c1250) Gen. & Ex. (Corp-C 444) 1013: Kalues fleis and flures bred..hem ðo sondes bed." ȤʤäƤ롥ФֻʸֻФ狼褦ˡϤθˤƤ <flour> <flur> ̤ä
θ塤ѸǤξδطƤȤʤꡤֲ֡פ־ʴפʬơѸΥޥʡʰֻǤä <flower> Ѥ褦ˤʤäֻʬϰճ٤18ΤȤäθ19ޤǤϡ־ʴפ <flower> ֤ʤɤκѤߤ줿֤ʬ뤫ݤϡĿͤˤäƤۤʤäƤ褦ǡShakespeare Cruden Concordance to the Bible (1738) ǤϸߤΤ褦ʶ̤դƤJohnson μǤϡޤ flower Ȥ1ĤθФΤȤξƤ롥OED flour, n. θ츻Ǥ "Johnson 1755 does not separate the words, nor does he recognize the spelling flour." ȽҤ٤Ƥ뤬Horobin (150) ŦƤ褦 Johnson μ biscotin ΤʤǤ "A confection made of flour, sugar, marmalade, eggs. Etc." Τ褦 <flour> ѤƤ롥֤ʬ夹ˤϡ٤λ֤äȤȤɸֻ塤ˡγΩϡ⿴ʤʲǤ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ε#2391. ɽư ([2015-11-13-1]) ǡˡĸѸȡˡδˤܸ˿줿ˡ (orthography) ȤϡŪˤϸνɽε§Ǥ롥ѸǤи֤ΤȤˤʤꡤܸǤлѴ¡겾̾̾Ʊۻɽʤɤ꤬ط롥ܸˡˤĤդι䷱ˤäơܰ¡פ֤ɤפϤȤϤϤϤʤæΤ¨ְִ㤤פˤʤ櫓ǤʤȤǤϡϤ긽ѸˡȤϰۤʤꡤˤΤȸʤʤܸΤ˴ؤƤϡˡˡΤʤܸ٤ȡˡ
⤽ܸϴʿ̾Ҳ̾Ȥ4ĤʸηϤǽɽȤǤ롥ѸǤϤưʪ̾ɽΤˡΡʸʸʤɤζ̵̤뤹С<cat> ֤ʳϤʤܸǤ <ǭ> Τۤ<ͤ> <ͥ>ޤˤäƤ <neko> ǤƤ졤ְ㤤ȤϤʤܸɽˤƤϡ֤Ƥʸ̡̮εʬˤꡤɽȽǤ;Ϥ롥ǤŤܸ٤СܸˤϤ٤Ρܰ¡פ֤ɤפΤ¤ǤꡤˡޤäʤȸȤǤʤ
μפʸ˴ؤƤСζḽˤϡ٤κϤɸಽȵϲˤȤ롥ܵؤ䥢ǥߡͿˡꤹեΤ褦ʹ⤢СƲΤ夲ˡΩꥹΤ褦ʹ⤢롥ܤǤϡʹߡܤƻؿˤƤ¿θϤβǤ褽ָˡΩƤܸˡϡȤˤޤǡִˤ֤ˤȤɤޤäƤ롥
Τ褦˹ȡ줴ȤˡΩˤϰۤʤäƤ뤬ΰ㤤ͳ褹Τ䤦Ȥ̵̣ҲʸˤȤäҲŪװϤͿΤۤʬŪˤǤ졤ɽоݤθηϤѤƤηϤΤΤͳ褹װδͿꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤϡƸɽηϤεϲˤĤƤ˳ƻˤɽηϤεŪʸ椬ʤʤФʤʤ
ˡΤʤܸ١ȽŹ2013ǯ
ѸֻɸಽĬήϡü郎Ѹ줫顤ѸФơ1755ǯ Johnson Dictionary Ǥ˻ޤǡĹ³ѸˤեѤοȤݤƱͤΤ褦˿ˤ錄äƴ³ŪȤΤϡɤˤ15ǤϤɤʳʤΤ17ǤϤɤդ꤫ʤɡľŪˤȤ館뤳Ȥ
ϼ̤14ȾChaucer λդ˽ɸβߤ줿15ɸಽή줬ˤ䤫˿ʤȾΰѤƳϡɬ̤˿ƤۤɷŪֻɸಽʤ櫓ǤϤʤ³16ˤƤ⡤ɸಽؤĬήϴˤ䤫ˤߤ줿֤ۤ⤬פϴʤ17ȡȼԤȤϤषؼԤ䶵դƯˤꡤɸŪֻϰϤŸ뤳Ȥˤʤä1650ǯˤϻ¾ɸಽãƤռŪʡפʳ˿ʤΤλ夿18ΤȤǤ롥ơJohnson Dictionary (1755) ˤᲡä줾ܤϡܵդ cat:spelling standardisation Ȥ줿
δȤֻɸಽĬή٤°桦 (73) Ըܤۤä16ʹߤΤĤŤסڡĤŤνǤˤʤɤѤʤ顤?ȾСפȤåݥȤߤĤġʲΤ褦ʬ䤹Ƥ롥
ĤŤؤפϤǤ16ȾФ鸫Ϥᡤ17ȾФˤϡΤɸϤʤȤ⡤濴ŪʡĤŤؤγˤȤ⤤٤ΤϤƤꡤ줬17ޤǤˤϤ˽㲽ꤵñ첽ηɤꡤǤ Johnson's Dictionary ˤΤȤޤʤĤŤԤƤȤ
ȸˤϡåݥȤȤʤƻʸɤߴ졤ŪФȤɸಽ٤İǤ褦ǤʤФʤʤΤ
#193. 15 Chancery Standard through ΰ֤14̤ ([2009-11-06-1])
#297. ѤƳϱѸɸಽʤݤ ([2010-02-18-1])
#871. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ ([2011-09-15-1])
#1312. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ (2) ([2012-11-29-1])
#1384. ֻɸಽ˹Τ17ؼԤȶա ([2013-02-09-1])
#1385. Caxton ֻɸಽ˹ʤäȹͤ뺬 ([2013-02-10-1])
° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
ե˵ŪʸǤȤ롥ϼϱѸˤ⤢뤬եˤϱѸ붯Ϥ롥⤷쵬ϼŪʸȤ뤫⤷ʤΥեεϼγΩȡȼο (language_myth) ˤĤƤϡʲεǰäƤ
#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤá ([2011-01-13-1])
#1077. Rivarol Υեͥº (1) ([2012-04-08-1])
#1078. Rivarol Υեͥº (2) ([2012-04-09-1])
#1079. Rivarol Υեͥº (3) ([2012-04-10-1])
Perret (70--71) ˽äƥե쵬ϼȯŸˤ⤹ȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥15--16եϥƥäƥեθȤƽѤϥեɸಽή¥ʤ17ˤ Academie française Ω1635ǯ˵ڤӵŪʸˡ伭νǤ꼡18ΥեݲνפФȤʤä18γ̿ˤեϿȤΥܥ˻Ωƾ夲졤եʳθɸŪʥեѼˡŪӽ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤɸեм20ޤ³20ʹߤϡѸŨĬήǻ1994ǯ Toubon ˡǤϡѸɽθŪʻѤ¤褦Ȥаޤ롥ˤ La Francophonie ([2015-04-28-1], [2015-04-29-1]) 20ȾˤȯŸϡΤ褦ʱѸŨδ֤Ť뤳ȤǤեŪȻȼɸŪŪʥե줬θҤɬݻǤʤʤäƤȤ¤Ǥ롥ϰ褴Ȥι̱ŪեѼ (français nationaux) ¸ߴƤƤ롥 (World) Englishes (world_englishes) ΥեǤȤ
եεϼβȥե̿δطˤĤƤϡ4ϡ֥ե̿ȸפɤߤ䤹٤ࡥ
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
Ѹʸ塤ѸֻηϤɽŪȤϡɽŪΤˤɽŪˤˤʤäƤȤˤĤơʲεǼ夲Ƥ
#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])
#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])
#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ ([2014-11-30-1])
#2058. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (1) ([2014-12-15-1])
#2059. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (2) ([2014-12-16-1])
ͤƤߤСƱ (homophony) ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) ȤݤϡɽʸŪʸݤǤ롥ɽӤƤСǽʤȤȤϡ⸽Ѹֻȯ˴ؤ븲ħȤʤäƤ뤬εϤɽȯãϤѸ̤ˤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ˤѸֻˤɽŪˡϤʤä櫓ǤϤʤ§ȤɽŪäȤϤäƤƱȯθ줬ֻ̻͡ȤƽɽƤΤ顤ѸˤƱ۵ֻȯȤݤΤΤϳ̵ǤϤʤäǼĥΤϡθݤܳŪ˱ѸֻȤ⤫Ӿ夬äƤΤ϶ѸʹߤǤȤȤ
⤦ܤ褦ɽŰ줵ƤȤʤСѸǤºݤˤŰϤƤʤäˡƱ۵ɤϰۤʤǤϤäƤƱֻɽ줶ʤɽˤʤСʤäɽ˰ǤŤʤСˡ¤Τǡson / sun, plain / plane Τ褦ʷǽˤʤ롥ֻɸಽˤäƼҲŪˤդͿ경ȡƱ۵ζ̤ĤȤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤƱ֤εǽŪͤϹޤ
often t ɤޤ褦ˤʤäƤɽֻȯ⡤ɽοʤäɽȯŸˤؤäƤ롥ȯֻ̩бäƤηϤˤƤϡȡȥȯֻԤäȰפƤ롥äơ§ȤȯΤäƤֻ뤷ֻɤȯƸǤ롥Τ褦ʾˤϡ٤ƺǽ餫ֻȯθ§ΩäƤ櫓ǤꡤΩƤֻȯθݤޤǤʤΩƤֻȯθݤɬפФƤΤϡȯֻ礭ЪΥΥåפȤߵ褦ˤʤäƤǤ롥ɽƤ뤫餳ɽꤿȤߵƯֻȯȤݤΤǤꡤɽߤǤФ٤ʤΤϡ°桦 (75) ԤŦƤȤǤ롥
ĤŤȯʤΤϡĤŤȯΥƤʤäˤƤȤʤꤨʤΤǤ뤫顤ѸΤĤŤɽŪǤʤʤäƤΤȤǤ롥⡤ɽŪĤŤθĤŤɤȯ褦ȤߤԤ줦ΤϡĤŤˡΩơñ줬줾줭ޤäĤΤĤŤޤ¿ο͡ʪ˿Ƥ褦ˤʤäƤΤȤǤ뤫顤ǯŪˤϡŤȤǤϤʤ
° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Ѹ줬λǤȤȤϡ#577. Ѹ̩ʤ˱ɡ ([2010-11-25-1]) #929. ѸɸδפȤʤäͳ ([2011-11-12-1]) ۤ me_dialect γƵľܴܤˤƤΰ⤤˴ؤƸƤϤʤΤϡѸˤˤѸ˸¤餺ĤǤԤƤΤǤꡤѸüԤϸ夫鸽˻ޤǾѤƤȤȤ
Ѹ줬λǤȤƼĥΤϡѸ˾夳λˤðۤϡλ˽ɽ蘆츽ߤäƤƥȤθդ٤ǤȤȤդˤơʤäդˤƤɸѸʤΤ¸ߤºݤ˹ԤƤΤϱѸνˤʤѸνγơϡΤ줫ȤäǤꡤǤ⤢äűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤνϤ̤ˤϤλ夽λ˳ΩʤĤĤäˤɸѸɤ߽ΤǤꡤդľդȤϵäѸϡ٤ɸѸ줬ʤäȤ̣ǡվ塤λȸƤФΤǤ롥
ѸɸѸ줬ʤäΤˤиޤɸಽʤäΤϡΥޥˤäƸűѸɸѸȤȥɸŪϰ̤θѸϰŪʸҤؤեΤӤΤȤɸಽεͿʤäǤ롥#1919. ѸγȻ˴ؤ4Ĥ crossings ([2014-07-29-1]) ǡűѸ줫ѸˤƤɸѸѼοȾǤ "the first decline" ȸƤȤǤ롥Ѹ줬λȤƸȤơҲŪѤȡȼҲŪʵῴϤ㲼äΤ
Ѹ줬λǤ뤳ȤǤͺۤ˼ĥΤ Strang (224--25) ʲ˰ѤƤ
ME is, par excellence, the dialectal phase of English, in the sense that while dialects have been spoken at all periods, it was in ME that divergent local usage was normally indicated in writing. It was preceded by a phase in which the language had one kind of written standard . . . and followed by a phase in which it had others. It stands alone as having a rich and varied documentation in localised varieties of English, and dialectology is more central to the study of ME than to any other branch of English historical linguistics.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
ͤФǤʤäƤ롥ȤäƤ褤ȤäƤ褤ؤȡŪ (purism) Ū¾˻뤳ȤꡤҲؾδؿȤʤ롥ޤǹԤʤȤ⡤ɸη䵬ϼγΩȤ褦ʸˤ顤ؤͿƤ롥äƤ븽ݤˤ⤫餺ηŪ˸椵줿ȤΤʤ꤫⤷ʤ
ΤʤǤ Weinreich "Sources of Language Loyalty" (99--102) ꤹϵͭͤǤ롥ؤȼӤʤ顤⤭ĦˤƤ롥ƱƳ (99) Ѥ褦
The sociolinguistic study of language contact needs a term to describe a phenomenon which corresponds to language approximately as nationalism corresponds to nationality. The term LANGUAGE LOYALTY has been proposed for this purpose. A language, like nationality, may be thought of as a set of behavior norms; language loyalty, like nationalism, would designate the state of mind in which the language (like the nationality), as an intact entity, and in contrast to other languages, assumes a high position in a scale of values, a position in need of being "defended." Language loyalty, like nationalism, can be "an idée-force which fills man's brain and heart with new thoughts and sentiments and drives him to translate his consciousness into deeds of organized action." In response to an impending language shift, it produces an attempt at preserving the threatened language . . .; as a reaction to interference, it makes the standardized version of the language a symbol and a cause. Language loyalty might be defined, then, as a principle---its specific content varies from case to case---in the name of which people will rally themselves and their fellow speakers consciously and explicitly to resist changes in either the functions of their language (as a result of a language shift) or in the structure or vocabulary (as a consequence of interference). Thus in the field of sociolinguistics purism, standardization, language loyalty, and related defensive mechanisms are phenomena of major importance requiring systematic treatment, even if, for understandable reasons, they are considered irrelevant in descriptive structural linguistics.
³ Weinreich (100--01) ϡɤΤ褦ʾﲼˤƸؤȯ䤹狼䤹⤤Ƥ롥
It is in a situation of language contact that people most easily become aware of the peculiarities of their language as against others, and it is there that the pure or standardized language most easily becomes the symbol of group integrity. Language loyalty breeds in contact situations just as nationalism breeds on ethnic borders. . . . / Thus language loyalty, like a nativistic movement, is "unlikely to arise in situations where both societies are satisfied with their current relationship." It is rather frustrated superiority feelings that cause language loyalty to develop.
ξɽ碌СгŪʶĥפΥɤϡ#1876. ġ ([2014-06-16-1])#2029. ܤ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-16-1])#2030. ꥹ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-17-1]) ǤѤƤˤƤȤˤƤ⡤ռܳФΤϡ¾ԤȤβ餫ܿˤƤꤨʤäơ㤨нѸˤ륤ꡤܸˤץꡤܸˤ륫ʸ⡤줾ξˤ¾ԤǤ뤫¾ԤȼδطϤʤΤθ뤳ȤʤˤϡŬڤ˰ȤǤʤ (cf. #1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1]))
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
ε#2058. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (1) ([2014-12-15-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ
Ѥ Perret եˤˤƻŦΤƱݤǡScragg (56) ϡѸˤˤۻȯŸɽʸؤžȤ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
. . . an important change overtook the written language towards the end of the fourteenth century: suddenly literacy became more widespread with the advent of cheaper writing materials. In earlier centuries, while parchment was expensive and wax tablets were cumbersome, the church easily retained control of education and writing, but with the introduction of paper, mass literacy became both feasible and desirable. In the fifteenth century, private reading began to replace public recitation, and the resultant demand for books led, during that century, to the development of the printing press. As medieval man ceased pointing to the words with his bookmark as he pronounced them aloud, and turned to silent reading for personal edification and satisfaction, so his attention was concentrated more on the written word as a unit than on the speech sounds represented by its constituent letters. The connotations of the written as opposed to the spoken word grew, and given the emphasis on the classics early in the Renaissance, it was inevitable that writers should try to extend the associations of English words by giving them visual connection with related Latin ones. They may have been influences too by the fact that Classical Latin spelling was fixed, whereas that of English was still relatively unstable, and the Latinate spellings gave the vernacular an impression of durability. Though the etymologising movement lasted from the fifteenth century to the seventeenth, it was at its height in the first half of the sixteenth.
ۻΩƤȡɼԤϰϢʸΤĤʤȯߤˡľܤ˸Ȥñ̤طӤĤ뤳ȤФֻġʸѤ餺ɽɸ֤륢ե٥åȤǤꡤɽɽ180žȤȤȤˤϤʤʤɽζˤؤȤޤǤŤȤϳΤ
˽פȻפΤϡѤθȾ Scragg ŦƤ褦ˡƥֻκѤɽؤή˹ֻɸಽήˤȤͥΥƥǮֻɸಽĬή츻ŪֻɽʸɽȤäװϡ٤ͭŪ˴ؤäƤΤǤ롥
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
ε#2029. ܤ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-16-1]) ˰³ϥꥹǤҤ٤褦ˡްϤ褽ɸಽȵˤƤ롥ɸಽΰϤʤФʤۤɡưʤȤޤꥹǤϡѸɸಽưϽѸ˻Ϥޤꡤ褽Ϣưλ뤹Ĭ1600ǯޤǤƤGeorge Puttenham (1530?--90) ˤΤȤ The Arte of English Poesie (1589) ϡɥεäѸɸȤƿ侩ʳ٤ǤȤƤ롥
neither shall he take termes of Northernmen, such as they vse in dayly talke, whether they be noble men or gentlemen, or of their best clerkes all is a matter: nor in effect any speach vsed beyond the river of Trent, though no man can deny but that theirs is the purer English Saxon at this day, yet it is not so Courtly nor yet so currant as our Southerne English is, no more is the far Westerne mans speach: ye shall therfore take the vsuall speach of the Court, and that of London and the shires lying about London within lx myles, and not much above. (cited in Upton and Widdowson 6)
17ȾβŻˤѤФŪȤʤꡤ18ˤ Swift, Dryden, Johnson ʤɤɸಽɤʸͤŪ˳ư˵ڤǡѤϷоݤˤʤä18Ⱦ19ˤƤϵϼ̾ΤȤˡϰ̤Ϥޤޤơ1881ǯζˡ1921ǯ BBC Ωˤɸ춵餬˿䤷ʤ졤ѤѤ٤ΤȤΥ경
ѸϡȤȤޤѤäꥹгŪʶĥΤʤǡŪʵϤäºݤɸˤϤޤ3--4ۤɤλ֤䤵졤ڤˤϤʤ֤פɸɵ᤹뤽ĹΤʤǡСްоݤȤ졤̰ռȥץå߽ФƤˤνפϡ21θߤ뤳Ȥʤ͡ο˻ĤäƤ롥εȹ碌ơܤȥꥹ̤ץåˤӤ줿
ʤǰѤΤ Upton and Widdowson νϤ "A Language of Dialect" ꤹ (2--7) ϱѸˤʷ˵ҤΤȤơؤƤȻפ
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
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