father ȤñϡӸؤǤ褯礤ˤɽʤȤʤΤ餳ʤΤθŪȤʤȤʤߤθϲѲη̤ʤΤ뤤η̤ʤΤ餯ξʣäϥ֥åɤʤΤܸۤɡ츻ΤϤʤ
Ǥ Fertig (78) contamination Ѥ褦1Ĥˤʤ
The d > ð change in English father (<OE fæder is a popular example of contamination). (The parallel case of mother is cited less often in this context, for reasons that are not entirely clear to me.) The claim is that, by regular sound change, this word should have -d- rather than -ð- both in Old English (as it apparently did) and in Modern English (as is clearly does not). The -ð- in Modern English is thus attributed to contaminating from the semantically related word brother, which has had -ð- throughout the history of English . . . .
father 2ҲȤΤϡѸ˾Ǥ1ĤȤäƤ褤ʤ father father ʤΤϤޤФƤʤʲϢ뵭ȡ
#480. father ȥͥˡ§ ([2010-08-20-1])
#481. father ˵ä ([2010-08-21-1])
#698. father, mother, brother, sister, daughter λ (1) ([2011-03-26-1])
#699. father, mother, brother, sister, daughter λ (2) ([2011-03-27-1])
#703. űѸο²̾ζɽ ([2011-03-31-1])
#2204. d th θءѲ ([2015-05-10-1])
#4230. ʤ father, mother, brother Ǥ -th- Τ sister ˤϤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-11-25-1])
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
ǯ٤ꡤī㡼ɶˤƥָֺ츻ŵǤɤѸˡ˰٤Υڡdz֤Ƥޤ
ޤǤ1ָ츻ŵǤɤѸˡפ427ڡˤˡ2ֱѸäˤѤפ58ڡˤ˳֤ޤ줾äۤ¿ˤäȤʤޤؿؤפޤ
3ֱñȡ֥ˡ§ספ轵68ڡˤ 17:30--1900 ˳֤ޤ̤ơ̡饤ˤϥ֥åɷǤγ֤Ȥʤꡤֵ1֤Ρָƨۿץӥ⤴ѲǽǤֺ¤ǤϤޤƲϤΩƤޤפɬפʬ䤤ޤΤǡ椫λäǤꤢޤؿΤϡꤪߤ

2ƤΥȥ3ϡ褤ѸûˤγäƤޤΥɤˡ§ (grimms_law) Ǥ̾ʲ§ (sound law) 뤳ȤǡѸûˤΤ̥Ū¦̤˵ŤǤ礦ˡ§αѸû˾ΰյϡפΤۤĹǿǤѸóؽΩĤȤϤ²¾θäؤδؿͯƤȻפޤرѸ츻ŵ١ʸҡ1997ǯϤȤ츻ŵ䡤̤αѸ켭ŵޤᡤλȤɤμ¤ѤäƤϤǤ
ֺ¤Ǥϥˡ§δؤ¿θ츻ŵǰҤɤ߲ʤ顤ŪƱˡ§ƤͽǤɤñ줬夲뤫ͽۤĤĹֺ¤פǤޤȡޤޤڤʤϤǤرѸ츻ŵ٤ϡΡָ츻زפ 3.4.1. Grimm ˡ§ 3.4.2. Verner ˡ§ ɤͽƤȤᤷޤ

ͤޤǤˡܥ˴ؤ hellog βؤΥʲĥäƤޤ3ֺ¤⡤¿γΤäԤƤޤ
#5453. īֺ¤οָ츻ŵǤɤѸˡפ427Ϥޤޤ ([2024-04-01-1])
#5481. īֺ¤οָ츻ŵǤɤѸˡפ1λޤ ([2024-04-29-1])
#5486. 518ڡˤī뿷ֺ2ֱѸäˤѤפΤ ([2024-05-04-1])
ʰʲ嵭2024/05/30(Thu)
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
ܸδˤСʿ̾Ρ֤פФơ֤ס֤פˤơ֤ס֤פФơ֤פΤ褦ˤդ롥˳ˤĤơФ뤿ȯʹ (diacritical_mark) ϹԻҲ㳰Ȥơ§Ȥ̵Фͭ뤿εȤ롥ΤλˤϤۤܰӤƤꡤηŪǤ롥
Ѹ3 [f]/[v], [s]/[z], [θ]/[ð] ˤĤƤϡˡɤΤ褦ʽʬʤƤˤĤƤϡ1ۤ Mond ˴줿ܤγФ褦ʼؤβΤʤʬŪ˵
boss äƤʤ s դĤʤΡ8̼˼䤵ޤʤǤǤ

[f] [v] ˤĤƤϡ줾 <f> <v> ֤Τ縶§ǤꡤۤܰӤƤ롥of [əv] Τ褦ʸϤ뤬㳰Ū
[s] [z] νʬ˴ؤƤϡ嵭βǤ⡤ʤǤ뤳ȤŦ<s>, <ss>, <se>, <ce>; <z>, <zz>, <ze> ʤɤֻʣ߹äƤΤʤ٤ʬȤ̣Ϥ뤬˰Ȥϸ
[θ] [ð] ˻äƤϡ <th> Ȥ1ֻǽɽ蘆졤ʬѤϤʤŪˤСʬ褦ȤտޤϤⴶʤäȤ餤롥
ʾĤС
̾Ѥʬϡ֥ȥåʡ
[f]/[v] νʬϡֹʡ
[s]/[z] νʬϡ֥ꥮ
[θ]/[ð] νʬϡ
Ȥʤ롥νŤΥԥ졼ͿƤ줿Τ Daniels (64) μ1ʸǤ롤
Phonemic split sometimes brings new letters or spellings (e.g. Middle English <v> alongside <f> when French loans caused voicing to become significant; cf. also <vision> vs <mission>), sometimes not---English used <ð> and <þ> indifferently, even in a single manuscript, for both the voiced and voiceless interdentals, a situation persisting with Modern English <th> due to low functional load. Japanese, on the other hand, uses diacritics on certain kana for the same purpose.
ʤˤĤƤϡԤ Voicy ΥץߥꥹʡۿֱͥѸˤء (helwa) ۿ֡ڱѸˤ #95boss äƤʤ s 2ĤʤΡ217ۿˤǼ夲Ƥ롥
Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.
ۿ YouTube ΡְʼδѸظإͥפκǿ#169. ʤ Z ϥե٥åȤκǸɤ줿Τ --- Ϯ줿 Z ʪǤŪˡ ZפȾΤƤ襤ʸ˥ݥåȥ饤Ȥơ12ʬۤɽ椷Ƹޤ Z ¿ʤȤ̾־ǤФ褤ΤǤ
z ʸˤĤƤϡ hellog Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ΤǤ⡤͡˼夲ƤޤZ α̾־Τ˽ϤƤǤ Z ˴ؤϤʾ師ĤʤʤäƤޤΤǡͥȤƤϤäǤڤˤʤꤽǤ
ޤǤ Z ο䤷ޤ
hellog
#305. -ise -ize ([2010-02-26-1])
#314. -ise -ize (2) ([2010-03-07-1])
#446. ֤ȤĤäƤ <z> ([2010-07-17-1])
#447. Dalziel, MacKenzie, Menzies <z> ([2010-07-18-1])
#799. ±ʣ <z> ([2011-07-05-1])
#964. z ʸȯ (1) ([2011-12-17-1])
#965. z ʸȯ (2) ([2011-12-18-1])
#1914. <g> ֤ ([2014-07-24-1])
#2916. Ϣ4֥ꥹѸ autumn ȥꥫѸ fall --- ʣŪͤΤס ([2017-04-21-1])
#2925. autumn vs fall, zed vs zee ([2017-04-30-1])
#4990. ư -ize/-ise ˡ ([2022-12-25-1])
#4991. -ise -ize --- 2Ĥ ([2022-12-26-1])
#5042. δñѸ in English٤Ϣ24ʺǽˡ֥ե٥åȺǸʸ Z Υߥƥס ([2023-02-15-1])
heldio (Voicy)
#171. z r ȯϰճȻƤ (2021/11/18)
#540. Z ˤĤƸޤ (2022/11/22)
#541. Z zee zed (2022/11/23)
[ helsta (stand.fm) ˻Ϥޤ ]
#3. ư -ize á (2023/10/08)
Z ˴ؤ뿷ͥŹळȤǤС Z α̾־ư®䤫ĤǤ͡줫 Z ˤϤҤȤͥܤƤƤ͡
#5268. ԡˡWorld Englishes ١ʾƲ2023ǯˡ ([2023-09-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤νϤˤơɸѸѤҲ첻βǤѸνѼǤ줫αƶưۤʤȯѤ㤬Ƥ롥
ޤֻҲ줫αƶפƤߤ褦 (12)
| Ҳ | ѸѼ |
|---|---|
| [θ] [ð] [t] [d] ѡʻĺˤʤ | ɱѸ [th]ʱѸ졤եԥѸ졤ݡѸ졤ޥ졼Ѹ졤ܤαѸ졤αѸ졤ߥޡαѸ |
| [θ] [ð] [s] [z] ѡʻˤʤ | ɥĤαѸ졤٥˥αѸ졤ڹαѸ [s]ܤαѸ졤αѸ |
| [f] [p] ѡʿξĺˤʤ | եԥѸ졤ڹαѸ [ph]αѸ졤ߥޡαѸ |
| [v] [w] ζ̤ʤ | ɥĤαѸ졤եɤαѸ졤ɱѸ졤üԤαѸ졤αѸ |
| 첻ơź | ѸѼ |
|---|---|
| 첻Ĺ첻ˤʤ | ޥѸ졤ɱѸ |
| 첻ûñ첻ˤʤ | ʱѸ졤եԥѸ졤ݡѸ졤ޥ졼Ѹ |
| Ҳθ첻 | ڹαѸ졤ܤαѸ졤Ρ̱ѡ |
| Ĺ첻û첻ζ̤ʤ | եԥѸ졤ݡѸ졤ޥ졼Ѹ졤ڹαѸ졤٥˥αѸ |

ԡˡWorld Englishes ١Ʋ2023ǯ
űѸο̾ΰ (hypocorism) ħϲȤ뤰䤤ФơClark (459--60) ԸͤˤĤġ⤷ҥȤͿƤƤ롥˲˴ؤŦŻҲ (geminate) ΩĤΤȤ
Clearly documented hypocoristics often show modified consonant-patterns . . . . Thus, the familiar form Saba (variant: Sæba) by which the sons of the early-seventh-century King Sǣbeorht (Saberctus) of Essex called their father showed the first element of the full name extended by the initial consonant of the second, in a way perhaps implying that medial consonants following a stressed syllable may have been ambisyllabic . . . . In the Germanic languages generally, a consonant-cluster formed at the element-junction of a compound name was often simplified in the hypocoristic form to a geminate, Old English examples including the masc. Totta < Torhthelm, the fem. Cille < Cēolswīð, and also the masc. Beoffa apparently derived from Beornfrið . . . .
ŻҲҲñ㲽ȤСܸΡ֤äס֤äס֤äס֤ޤä۵롥ܸβǤϽŻҲ¥ˤΤΤŪꤵƤȤäƤ褤̾䤽ΰΤʤɤˤϤȤ櫓¿ѤƤ褦ʰݤ롥ħ (sound_symbolism) δ顤餫ŪϲǽʤΤ
Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 452--89.
ƻ high ̾ height ϡ줾 /haɪ/, /haɪt/ ȯޤֻȯδطˤĤơԤϵ§̤ȹͤޤԤ㳰ŪǤϤʤǤ礦
ޤ high ֻȯȯã֤äƤߤޤ礦űѸ hēah Ѹˤ hēh > hēih > heih/hīh ȯãޤǸʳǰ۷2ĸޤԤ hīh 첻ܤФƸѸ high /haɪ/ ˻ޤԤ heih ѸǤϤषͭϤǤ high ˼ʤϤޤ
ʤߤˡűѸ nēah "near" ޤäƱȯã뤲ƤޤѸˤ nēh > nēih > neih/nīh Ѳޤǽʳΰ۷ΤԤ neighbour 1Ǥ˸ƤꡤԤ nigh Ϣʤޤ
ơ̾ height θűѸη֤ hēhþu ǤϷƻ hēah Ĵ·ѸˤƸȯãƤhēhþ > hēihþ > heiht ˵夷ޤƻȰۤʤꡤǸʳͽۤ۷ *hīht ϤޤǤ̾˴ޤޤ þ ³ĶǤϡƻˤѲߤ줿Ǥ
ơֻ̾ˤĤƤϡθֻμ㴳ѲФĤĤ height 夭ޤȤȯΤۤϷƻ˰Ĥ褦ˤ /haɪt/ 夷ޤȯֻʣȯãѤη̡ height /haɪt/ ȤϤʴطˤʤäƤޤäΤǤ
ʾ塤Prins (97) ȤƼɮޤϢơheldio #595. heah/hih/high --- ֤إ饸פӽФ̻ŪѥȤ
Prins, A. A. A History of English Phonemes. 2nd ed. Leiden: Leiden UP, 1974.
ɸ3ȯϳơΤ褦ˤʤ롥Ҳܤ줿
knowledge [ˈnɑlɪʤ]
Greenwich [ˈgrɪnɪʤ, ˈgrɛnɪʤ, ˈgrɛnɪʧ]
spinach [ˈspɪnɪʧ, ˈspɪnɪʤ]
ֻ̾ȯδطǤ <dge> [ʤ]<ch> [ʧ] ̤Ǥ롥knowledge ͽ̤Greenwich, spinach ˤĤƤ <ch> [ʤ] ȯ⤢ȤǤۼǤ롥
θˤͭ˻ [ʤ] ϡ̵˻ѸͭΤǤ롥ѸǤ Verner's Law ȤΤ벻Ѳ (cf. #858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1])ˡ֥ȤҲľˤʤȤλҲͭפȤ§ѲǡȤƤ褯Τ ˈabsolute -- abˈsolve, ˈanxious -- anxˈiety, ˈexecute -- exˈecutive, exhiˈbition -- exˈhibit, ˈluxury -- luxˈurious, ˈoff -- of ʤ [s, z, ks, gz, ʃ, ʒ, f, v] ؤڥɸθΤ褦˻ [[ʧ, ʤ]] ؤΤ⤢롥
Prins (225) ꡤԤȤ
5. ʧ > ʤ
ME knowleche > MoE knowledge partriche > partridge spinach > spinach ['spinidʒ]
and in the suffix -wich in place-names: Norwich [noridʒ], Greenwich [grinidʒ], Woolwich [wulidʒ], Harwich [hæridʒ], Bromwich [brʌmidʒ]
Instead of the obsolete old pronunciation Ipswich [ipsidʒ] we find now [ipswitʃ].
The voicing is also found in MoE ajar < Scots and Nth dialect achar < on char-e (OE čerr, 'turn').
ѤκǸˤ̤ꡤajar űѸ on cierre ̤ȤΤ̣
Prins, A. A. A History of English Phonemes. 2nd ed. Leiden: Leiden UP, 1974.
֤إ饸פ餳hellog~Ѹ˥֥Ǥ줿
(1) ܥ֥Υȥå500
(2) note Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פ͵50
(3) note ֤٥ ֤إ饸סߡְʼδѸظإͥסߡVoicy Ѹθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ס
(4) ֤إ饸פ˴طε
Ǥ줿إ˥¼ŵ6ˤơߥֱѸQ&AפɮƤޤƱŵ˴Ϣ hellog genius6 ɤˡνбϤδϢǤǤٸȤȤƱŵڥڥäƤ⤷ܤ˵Ť顤ơ䤪ȯΤޤޤ٤ŸȤ֤إ饸פ餷ǤŪ˿줿¿ˤ錄ޤhellog heldio ʤɤǼ夲Ƥȥԥå¿ΤǡϢĥäƤޤ
Ρ -esque (e.g. Rubenesque, Kafkaesque)
hellog #216. ̾ƻ -esque ħ ([2009-11-29-1])
hellog #935. (1) ([2011-11-18-1])
hellog #3716. ֤˱ƶڤܤ ([2019-06-30-1])
ΡƬ un- un- θáˡ
hellog #4227. ʤɽ魯ˤ n- ǻϤޤΤ¿ΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-11-22-1])
رˤѸ˥ƥ #36. 츻θ¦ ~ in- un- a- äƲ㤦Ρ~ܲ khelf ŸΡֱѸ˥ƥ50פ
ΡԻҲɽ魯3Ĥʸ <k, c, q>
hellog #1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1])
heldio #255. ԻҲ c, k, q Τɤ졩 (2022/02/10)
Ρܸ줫μѸ (e.g. karaoke, karate, kamikaze)
hellog #4391. kamikaze bikini --- 略魯ΰ̣Ѳ ([2021-05-05-1])
hellog #142. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸʬۡ ([2009-09-16-1])
hellog #3872. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸμǯ ([2019-12-03-1])
hellog #4140. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸΡ֤ġפȡ֤ɤΤ餤ס ([2020-08-27-1])
heldio #60. Ѹäܸ줿 (2021/07/31)
Ρư en- -en (e.g. enlighten, strengthen)
#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1])
#3510. Ƭ en- ưʻž֡ ([2018-12-06-1])
#4241. ʤƬ en ĤưˤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-12-06-1])
heldio #62. enlighten Ƭˤ⤪ˤ en Ĥ (2021/08/02)
ΡʸˡѸ桧tense, voice, gender
heldio #644. ֻפ tense ȡֶĥפ tense Ʊ츻 (2023/03/06)
heldio #643. ʤư֡ǽư֤Ρ֡פ "voice" ʤΡ (2023/03/05)
hellog #1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1])
hellog #1449. ˤơס ([2013-04-15-1])
Ρminister θ츻
#4209. ʤ minister mini- ʤΤˡáפʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-11-04-1])
ΡֱѸQ&Aס
hellog #4892. ͽΡإ˥¼ŵ6ǤοߥֱѸQ&AפξҲ ([2022-09-18-1])
heldio #532. إ˥¼ŵ6ǤνǵǰˡֱѸQ&Aץ spring äޤ (2022/11/14)
hellog #4971. often t ȯΤʤΤ ([2022-12-06-1])
GW Τ褦 Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤ khelfʷѸ˥ե˥СȤ̲ϤƤޤkhelf ǤֱѸ˥ƥ50ⳫǤξԤݤ碌ǥƥĤξҲΤ⤪⤷פ#5115. ե٥åȤεȯãˤĤƤ2ĤΥƥġ ([2023-04-29-1]) Ҳ𤷤ޤ
Ѹ˥ƥĤ heldio äǤ420رˤ줿ƥ#7. consumption p Ϥɤ顩ܤޤ

ΥƥĤ heldio ǤޤԤƣ蘆Ȥ̲Ǥ#700. consumption p Ϥɤ顩 --- ƣ蘆κоȤۿƤޤΤǡҤİȯ˴ؤʤΤǥ饸ȤȴǤ
ƥĤ̤ǿƤ治ź (epenthesis) ϡźǤ褯벻Ѳ1Ǥ consumption, assumption, resumption /p/ Τۤ epenthesis ؤñƤߤޤ
September, November, December, number /b/
Hampshire, Thompson, empty /p/
passenger, messenger, nightingale /n/
Τۤ she θεᤰ벾1ĤǤϡepenthesis δͿƤޤcf. #4769. she θ츻 --- Laing and Lass ˤ "Yod Epenthesis" ξҲ ([2022-05-18-1])ˡ
epenthesis ȴϢ뤽¾βѲˤĤƤϡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) ⤴Ȥ
˻䤬ϪξäĤ /m/ ȯפϡ饸Ǥ̤ˤäΤǡưޤΤǤYouTube ǤˡỤ̄äƤС
Ѹˤͭɡ [ŋ] /ŋ/ Ȥ1ĤβǤǧƤ롥[ŋ] ̤β /n/ ΰ۲ȤƤδġѸβηϤˤ [ŋ] /ŋ/ Ⱦüʰ֤ŤͿƤ롥βǡˤΰ֤Ťˤϡ줬ѸˤŪʳdzΩȤȴط롥δϢ뵭ȤưʲƤ
#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1])
#3482. ƬλҲϢñ㲽Ƥˡ ([2018-11-08-1])
#3855. ʤֿסʤˤΥɽ *Shingkoiwa Ȥʤ餺 Shinkoiwa ȤʤΤǤ ([2019-11-16-1])
#4344. -in' -ing ξάǤϤʤ ([2021-03-19-1])
Minkova (138) ˤȡ /ŋ/ ˤ2Ĥð롥1ĤϡβǤ coda ˤʤȡ2Ĥˤϡ˲ä domain-final ˤʤȤǤ롥Ԥϲ١ǡԤϷ֡å١ȹͤƤ褤ԤͭΤˤСñ줴Ȥ˼¸ /ŋ/ /ŋg/ ۤʤΤաȽҤ٤ƤΤƱǤ롥
The distribution of contrastive /ŋ/ prompts some interesting phonological questions. Like PDF /h-/, which can appear only in onsets, /ŋ/ is a 'defectively distributed' phoneme: it can be distinctive only in coda position. The restriction reflects its historical origin since it is only through the loss of the voiced velar stop in the coda that /ŋ/ became contrastive: kin--king, ban--bang, run--rung. Before /k/, as in plank, sink, hunk, [-ŋ] remains a positional allophone followed by the voiceless stop. Thus, we get a three-way opposition in pin [pɪn]--ping [pɪŋ]--pink [pɪŋk], sin, sing, sink, and so on.
Another peculiarity of contrastive /ŋ/ is that it has to be domain-final, that is, the [-g-] is preserved stem-internally, rendering [-ŋ-] allophonic, as in Bangor, bingo, tango, single, hungry, Hungary, all with [-ŋg-]. Note that the preservation of [-g-] does not depend only on syllabification, because in forms derived with -ing or the agentive suffix -er, the [-g-] of the stem is not realised, and the derived form copies the shape of the base form: singing, singer with just [-ŋ-]. In addition to the most frequent -ing and -er, the majority of the native suffixes such as -y, -dom, -hood, -ness, -ish, -less, -ling, also -let (OFr), preserve the shape of the base: slangy, kingdom, thinghood, youngness, strongish, fangless, kingling, ringlet have [-ŋ-]. The addition of a comparative suffix, -er or -est, as in longer, strongest, youngly, however, results in heterosyllabic [ŋ].[g]. The addition of Latinate suffixes generally preserves the [g], as in fungation, diphthongal, but not always, as in ringette, nothingism. Then there is vacillation with some derivatives: prolong and prolonging are always just [-ŋ], prolongation varies between [-ŋ-] and [-ŋg-], and prolongate is always [-ŋg-]. There are some idiosyncrasies: dinghy, hangar allow both pronunciations, and so do English and England. The behaviour of [-ŋ] in clitic groups and phrases is also variable; the variability of [-ŋ] is of continuous theoretical interest. In our diachronic context, the deletion of the [g] and the possibility of phonemic [ŋ] in narrowly defined contexts in late ME and EModE is most notable as an addition to the inventory of contrastive sounds in English.
Ѹʹ [ŋ] ϲDz (phonemicisation) ФˤʬۤŰ줵椨ˡŪʰϺ˻ޤǾ
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ư -ize/-ise ˤĤơΥڥѤ뤫Ȥ顤#305. -ise -ize ([2010-02-26-1])#314. -ise -ize (2) ([2010-03-07-1]) ˤƤ OED εҤʤ顤ˤ⤹롥
-ize/-ise ϥꥷư -ƦŦɦ ̤롥̱ͤ²ɽ魯̾ˤĤơ~̱͡²ˤȤơʤΤ褦ˡ˿פΰ̣ư뤳Ȥ¿äѸбǤ barbarianize, tyrannize, Atticize, Hellenize Τ褦
34ˤϥƥ -izāre ȤƼޤ졤Ϥ夷ƤäꥹȶůؤѸȤ baptizāre, euangelizāre, catechiizāre, canōnizāre, daemonizāre ʤɤ߽Ф줿䤬ơꥷưѤꡤ路ư¤줹ݤΰŪʷȤ夷
ϡƥʥ顼ˤơ䤬ưŪ˥ƥηƻ̾줫ư뵡ǽȯãεǽΰ̲Ϥ餯եˤƺǽǤ -iser ֤褦ˤʤäciviliser, cicatriser, humaniser ʤɤǤ롥
ѸѸե줫 -iser ưѤݤˡե켰˴Ť -ise ֤뤳Ȥ¿äϡ˱ѸǤȼκݤ˥ƥեǤΤȤưˤ -ise ꥷǤ˴Ťˤϥꥷ츻ºŤ -ize Ѥʤɤη⸽줿ηϤޤȾüʤΤäˡ-ize -ise Τ䤳꤬˻롥OED ˤȤƤϡ츻ŪǤꡤ /z/ ʸ̤ɽ魯ڥȤ -ize 줷ƤȤ
ʤѸΤ2첻뤳ȤˤĤơOED ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In the Greek -ιζ-, the i was short, so originally in Latin, but the double consonant z (= dz, ts) made the syllable long; when the z became a simple consonant, /-idz/ became īz, whence English /-aɪz/.
<wh> Ȥ2Ż (digraph) ϵΤ褦ʹٸ˸Τ߿2ŻбȯˤĤƤ褯ƤѸؽԤ¿ʤ
what, which ֥ۥåȡס֥եåפȥʽȯꤹͤ¿⤷ʤꥹɸѸˤƤϡ֥åȡס֥åפǤ롥ĤޤꡤWatt, witch ȤޤäƱȯȤʤ롥Ūˤ̵ [ʍ] ǤϤʤޤͭ [w] ȤȤ
嵭ϥꥹɸѸäǤꡤꥫѸϤθ¤ǤϤʤ what, which ϳơ [ʍɑt], [ʍɪtʃ] ŪȤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ºݾͭ [w] ǤȯޤäƤƤ褦
<wh> ɽ魯ҲθˤĤ Cruttenden ȤƤߤ褦
In CGB (= Conspicuous General British) and in GB speech in a more formal style (e.g. in verse-speaking), words such as when are pronounced with the voiceless labial-velar fricative [ʍ]. In such speech, which contains oppositions of the kind wine, whine, . . . /ʍ/ has phonemic status. Among GB speakers the use of /ʍ/ as a phoneme has declined rapidly. Even if /ʍ/ does occur distinctively in any idiolect, it may nevertheless be interpreted phonemically as /h/ + /w/ . . . . (Cruttenden 233)
ʤߤ˾嵭ʸ "CGB (= Conspicuous General British)" Cruttenden (81) ˤȡ"that type of GB which is commonly considered to be 'posh', to be associated with upper-class families, with public schools and with professions which have traditionally recruited from such families, e.g. officers in the navy and in some army regiments" Ȥ롥 "RP" (= Received Pronunciation) ˶ᤤΤªƤ褤͡ͳ RP ȸƤ֤٤ǤʤȤΩ줬ꡤΤ褦Ѹ츯ƤΤǤ롥
¾ѼˤĤƤϡΰѤͤˤʤ
The only regional variation concerns the more regular use of [ʍ] in words with <wh> in the spelling. This happens in Standard Scottish English, in most varieties of Irish English and is often presented as the norm in the U.S., although the change from [ʍ] to /w/ seems to be more common than is thought by some. (Cruttenden 234)
긵ˤä Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.) "wh Spelling-to-sound" Ƥߤ
Where the spelling is the digraph wh, the pronunciation in most cases is w, as in white waɪt. An alternative pronunciation, depending on regional, social and stylistic factors, is hw, thus hwaɪt. This h pronunciation is usual in Scottish and Irish English, and decreasingly so in AmE, but not otherwise. (Among those who pronounce simple w, the pronunciation with hw tends to be considered 'better', and so is used by some people in formal styles only.) Learners of EFL are recommended to use plain w.
ѤκǸˤ̤ꡤ䤿ѸؽԤϰ̤ <wh> /w/ ƤƤĤʤ
<wh> ȴϢơ#3870. Ѹˤ wh- ʤ q- ֻ ([2019-12-01-1])#3871. åȥɱѸˤ wh- ǤϤʤ quh- ֻʸ Alexander Hume ([2019-12-02-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Cruttenden, Alan. Gimson's Pronunciation of English. 8th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2014.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
<ch> ۻ (silent_letter) Ȥʤñ줬4ĤȤȤƤäʵŤʾ꤬Ȥˡdrachm /dræm/, fuchsia /ˈfjuːʃə/, schism /sɪzm/, yacht /jɑt/ Ǥ롥ŵϡ#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲 (7) Ǥ롥
4Τ yacht ܤƤߤθ16Υ jaght(e) ѤΤǡOED ˤȽϰʲʸǤcf. #4444. Ѹĺ15 ([2021-06-27-1])ˡ t λҲߤʤΤˤʤȤǤϤ롥
a1584 S. Borough in R. Hakluyt Princ. Navigations (1589) ii. 330 A barke which was of Dronton, and three or foure Norway yeaghes, belonging to Northbarne.
ѸǤνֻʤ餯ȯˤϡ gh ȯɤΤ褦ˤƼफɤ줬ä餷͡ä褦OED βˤȡ
Owing to the presence in the Dutch word of the unfamiliar guttural spirant denoted by g(h), the English spellings have been various and erratic; how far they represent varieties of pronunciation it is difficult to say. That a pronunciation /jɔtʃ/ or /jatʃ/, denoted by yatch, once existed seems to be indicated by the plural yatches; it may have been suggested by catch, ketch.
<t> <ch> ȿž yatch Ȥʣֻ EEBO ǸƤߤȡ1670ǯ夫1690ǯޤǤ50ۤɾ夬äƤʤߤˡΤ褦ֻȿžѸǤʤȤ櫓 "guttural spirant" ؤˤϤ褯줿Τạ̇̄ǤϤʤѸˤޤǤϤ߽ФƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
yatch ȯֻˤĤƤϡDobson (371) Τ褦˸ڤƤ롥
Yawt or yatch 'yacht' are two variant pronunciations which are well evidenced by OED; the former is due to the identification of the Dutch spirant [χ] with ME [χ], of which traces still remained when yacht was adopted in the sixteenth century, so that it was accommodated to the model of, for example, fraught and developed with it, while OED suggests that the latter is due to analogy with catch and ketch---it is certainly due to some sort of corrupt spelling-pronunciation, in the attempt to accommodate the word to native models.
<t> <ch> ֻȿžȡ³ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) η߽Ф줿 yacht ̯ʰ۷ȤȤˤʤ롥
Silent Consonant Letter ʬϡä˱Ѹˤδ鸫濴Ȥơסʡؿʸѡ51, 1973ǯ117--45ǡ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
<ch> ۻ (silent_letter) Ȥʤñ줬4ĤȤȤƤäʵŤʾ꤬Ȥˡdrachm /dræm/, fuchsia /ˈfjuːʃə/, schism /sɪzm/, yacht /jɑt/ Ǥ롥ŵϡ#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲 (7) Ǥ롥
4Τ yacht ܤƤߤθ16Υ jaght(e) ѤΤǡOED ˤȽϰʲʸǤcf. #4444. Ѹĺ15 ([2021-06-27-1])ˡ t λҲߤʤΤˤʤȤǤϤ롥
a1584 S. Borough in R. Hakluyt Princ. Navigations (1589) ii. 330 A barke which was of Dronton, and three or foure Norway yeaghes, belonging to Northbarne.
ѸǤνֻʤ餯ȯˤϡ gh ȯɤΤ褦ˤƼफɤ줬ä餷͡ä褦OED βˤȡ
Owing to the presence in the Dutch word of the unfamiliar guttural spirant denoted by g(h), the English spellings have been various and erratic; how far they represent varieties of pronunciation it is difficult to say. That a pronunciation /jɔtʃ/ or /jatʃ/, denoted by yatch, once existed seems to be indicated by the plural yatches; it may have been suggested by catch, ketch.
<t> <ch> ȿž yatch Ȥʣֻ EEBO ǸƤߤȡ1670ǯ夫1690ǯޤǤ50ۤɾ夬äƤʤߤˡΤ褦ֻȿžѸǤʤȤ櫓 "guttural spirant" ؤˤϤ褯줿Τạ̇̄ǤϤʤѸˤޤǤϤ߽ФƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
yatch ȯֻˤĤƤϡDobson (371) Τ褦˸ڤƤ롥
Yawt or yatch 'yacht' are two variant pronunciations which are well evidenced by OED; the former is due to the identification of the Dutch spirant [χ] with ME [χ], of which traces still remained when yacht was adopted in the sixteenth century, so that it was accommodated to the model of, for example, fraught and developed with it, while OED suggests that the latter is due to analogy with catch and ketch---it is certainly due to some sort of corrupt spelling-pronunciation, in the attempt to accommodate the word to native models.
<t> <ch> ֻȿžȡ³ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) η߽Ф줿 yacht ̯ʰ۷ȤȤˤʤ롥
Silent Consonant Letter ʬϡä˱Ѹˤδ鸫濴Ȥơסʡؿʸѡ51, 1973ǯ117--45ǡ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
ܸθޤˤ첻¤ӤδܤϡޤǤʤ [a, i, u, e, o] Ǥcf. #2104. ޡ ([2015-01-30-1])ˡư5ʳѤǤֹԤʤסֹԤޤסֹԤסֹԤȤסֹԤСסֹԤסֹԤפȾ褦ˡ[a, i, u, e, o] ¤ӤȤʤäƤ롥ʤ¤ӤʤΤ
ϡ¤ӤŪ̵ɸ (unmarked) ͭɸ (marked) ؤν˱äƤ뤫Ǥ롥
(6) ˤСθϤȡ3첻ηϤθˤ [a, i, u] Ǥ¿4첻ηϤǤ [a, i, u, e] 5첻ηϤǤ [a, i, u, e, o] Ǥ¿ȤĤޤꡤŪˤäơ첻ͭɸ (markedness) ϡ㤤⤤ [a, i, u] [e] [o] ȤΤ褦ʤΤǤ롥
ҲˤƱͤͭɸν롥 (9) ϡΤߤʤ餺콬ᤵǰƬˤĤġ̵ɸʻҲͭɸʻҲνΤ褦ͿƤ롥ʲ A > B ϡA B Ū̵ɸǤ뤳Ȥ
a. Ĵξ >
b. Ĵˡĺ >
c. ĺ˻ ̵ > ͭ
d. ĺ˻ʳͭ > ̵
λҲͭɸǰƬˤƸޤΡ֤ʤϤޤפ¤ӤįȡɬŪʽǤϤʤ¤⤫Ӿ夬äƤʡ֤ϡפλҲϸŤ [p] äȤաˡ
ͭɸȤϸؤˤƤʤʤǰǤ롥#550. markedness ([2010-10-29-1])#551. ͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§ ([2010-10-30-1])#3723. ͭɸ ([2019-07-07-1])#4745. markedness ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2022-04-24-1]) ʤɤεȤ줿
ס1ϡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ
űѸޤޥ졤̥ޥ졤ƥƥʤɤˤˤѻƤ rhotacism ϡ첻֤ [s] [z] ʤɤ [r] Ѳ벻ѲǤ롥IJ (sonorisation) üȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤷 "lenition" 1ȤߤʤȤǤcf. #4684. æ ([2022-02-22-1])ˡBybee (32) ΤȤ˸ڤƤ롥
Another form of sonorization is rhotacism, a change by which an [s] or [z] becomes an [r]. Such a change occurred in Latin as exemplified by the alternation corpus, corpora 'body, nom./acc.sg. and pl.', opus, opera 'work, nom./acc.sg. and pl.' and In Germanic where Old English infinitive cēosan 'to choose' has a past participle coren, and wæs alternates with wǣre/wǣren 'were'. This change involves voicing and loss of fricative closure; it takes place intervocalically.
ѸˤˤƤ⡤ޤѸθäͤǤ⡤űѸƥǤ rhotacism θ̤ǧƤȤϽפǤ롥Ѥˤ was/were ˤȤɤޤ餺us/our, lose/lorn, raise/rear, ƵŪˤ is/are δط⡤rhotacism λŶȤǤ롥
ƥѸ줫ϡѤˤߤ opus/opera, corpus/corpora ñʣΤۤcorpus/corporal, Venus/venereal, virus/viral Τ褦̾졦ƻδطˤ rhotacism θ̤ߤƤȤ롥
rhotacism ˿ˤϡεʤɤȡ
#36. rhotacism ([2009-06-03-1])
#393. Venus ˾θ ([2010-05-25-1])
#3192. ̡쥲ޥ췲δ֤ˤߤ벻֡μפʺ ([2018-01-22-1])
#3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1])
Bybee, Joan. Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2015.
ޤʹʤæ (debuccalisation) ȤѲ롥Ĵ⤫г˰ܤ뤳ȤŪˤϡĴα˰ܤäˤ뤳Ȥ¿Crystal (130) θѸ켭ŵ debuccalized ιѤ롥
debuccalized (adj.) A term used in some models of non-linear phonology to refer to consonants which lack an oral place feature, such as glottal stop or [h]. The process through which such consonants are formed is called debuccalization) (also deoralization): examples include [t] > [ʡ] and [s] > [h].
̸Ū˰ŪʲѲΤ褦ǡѸˤܸˤȤǤ⡤㤬ĤäƤ롥ޤˡ§ (grimms_law) ̵ҲѲƤߤ [kh] > [k] > [x] > [h] Τ褦ʷϩꤵ롥ǽã "debuccalised" [h] Ǥ롥
嵭Ѥˤ⤢뤬åˡ (cockney) ʤɤħȤ롤[t] ĺ [ʡ] Ѥ븽ݤæȤʤ
ܸˤˤΤֿಽ ([p] > [ɸ] > [h]) æŵŪ1Ȥʤcf. #1271. ܸಽȤθ ([2012-10-19-1])ˡ
¾Bybee (27) ˤСڥ /s, f/ > /h/ 㤬Ƥ롥ޤäХġϤ Lumasaaba ˤơĶ˱ [p] > [h] ǧҲ𤵤Ƥ롥
ʾǤϼ [p] Τ褦ʿæȤƤԲ [t] [k] ʤɡ¾ĴλҲˤĤƤ⡤ƱǤ롥̣ǤϤɤʸ⡤岽æƤޤСǽã [h]ˤ̵ȤʤȤ櫓ǤϡæȤΤϡ"lenition" Ȥ礭ʲΰȤƤȤ館Τ褤Τ⤷ʤBybee "Path of lenition for voiceless stops" ɽǤƤ (29)
| Voiceless stop | > | Affricate | > | Fricative | > | Voiclessness | > | Zero |
| p | > | pf | > | f | > | h | > | ø |
| t | > | ts/tθ | > | s/θ | > | h | > | ø |
| k | > | kx | > | x | > | h | > | ø |
ϧޡפ̣ kiln 䡤ꥹλ͡ȡƸúȤ Milne (1882--1956) ˴ޤޤ ln ȤҲϢϡήȯǤϤΤޤ /ln/ ȯ롥n ʤ /l/ Τߤȯ⤢ˤϤ롥
Ūˤϡ/ln/ λҲϢϡѸ˼ /n/ 졤/l/ ؤȴάp. 419ˡ㤨СűѸ eln, cyln, myln ϡ줾츽Ѹ ell, kiln, mill бp. 319ˡ kiln, Milne μȯ /ln/ λҲϢޤबϡ#2518. Ҳۻ ([2016-03-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) ˤΤǤ롥
ơѸȤ /ln/ > /l/ βѲϡλŦ̤ /n/ κªƤΤؤǤϤ뤬Ѳμ֤ȤƤϽƱ (progressive assimilation or "carry over") Ȥ³åŻҲ (degemination) η̤äȤǽ⤢롥ȤΤ⡤Bybee (24) mill ʾʤȤƱʬ˴ؤơˤΤ褦1ĤȤƵƤ뤫Ǥ롥̸Ūʴ顤褯ѻ벻ѲȤƼ夲Ƥ롥
One type of carry over that occurs in Indo-European languages involves cases where an /n/ assimilates to a preceding liquid, as in the case of Proto-Germanic (PGmc) *wulna > *wullō > OE wull 'wool', PGmc *fulnaz > *fullaz > OE full 'full', and PGmc *hulnis > OE hyll 'hill' . . . . Similar examples are Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *kolnis > Latin collis, 'hill' and OE myln > PDE mill. L. Cambell 1999 also supplies a similar example from alternations in Finnish: kuul-nut > kuullut 'heard', pur-nut > purrut 'bitten', and nous-nut > noussut 'risen'. A similar assimilation is found in Kanakuru, a Chadic language of Nigeria . . . and in Kanuri, a Nilo-Saharan language . . . . In these examples, both consonants are coronal, and a notable feature is that nasality is lost. From a gestural perspective, a nasal assimilating to a non-nasal must be viewed as the loss of the gesture that opens the velum. Thus two things are going on in these examples: the two coronal gestures blend, with the [l], [r], and [s], none of which involve complete closure, affecting the closure of the nasal and the loss of velum opening, perhaps in response to the loss of closure.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Bybee, Joan. Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2015.
Ѹֻ <gn> ˤĤơƬ˸륱ˤĤƤ <kn> Ȥδط#3675. kn k æ벻Ѳβ ([2019-05-20-1]) εǴñ˿줿16--17 [gn] > [n] βȤȤäǤϡƬǤϤʤ <gn> ֻġ˥ե졦ƥͳθˤĤơֻȯδط˴ؤƤʤбCarney (247, 325) ȤƤߤ褦
ޤ <gn(e)> ˤƤߤ褦arraign, assign, benign, campaign, champagne, cologne, deign, design, ensign, impugn, malign, reign, resign, sign ʤɤäƤ롥θˤƤ <g> ۻȤƵǽƤꡤ̤Ȥ <gn(e)> /n/ δطȤʤäƤ롥ʤߤ foreign sovereign Ūֻǡ㤤ޤ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) 뤤 (analogy) λʪȤ롥
嵭ñ췲ˤƤ <g> <n> δ֤˲ᶭȯ /g/ /n/ ̡ȯ뤳Ȥ¿assignation, benignant, designate, malignant, regnant, resignation, signature, significant, signify ̤ꡥ
嵭ñ췲ΥȤʤϤƤեǤ롥եǤ <gn> ϹŸɡ [ɲ] б뤬ѸǤ [ɲ] ΩǤǤϤʤᡤѸ˼ޤݤˤϡɡ [n] Ѥ줿[ɲ] ˶ᤤȤƱѸˤ [nj] ⤢ΤŪ˸ˤϸʤ§ʤΤǡŪ [n] ˽夷Ȥˤʤ롥ʤǤʤ /nj/ Ǽޤ줿⤢롥㤨Сcognac, lorgnette, mignonette, vignette ʤɤǤ롥ꥢ줫 Bologna, Campagna Ʊ͡poignant ˤĤƤϡ/nj/ Τۤ /n/ ȯ⤢롥
ֻˤĤ̯ʤȤäΤϡե ligne ͳ褹 line Ǥ롥ǤХե signe Ѹ˼ޤ <sign> /saɪn/ Ȥ夷褦ˡligne ѸǤ <lign> /laɪn/ ۤɤ夷ƤϤ롥ԤˤĤƤϱѸŪֻ§§ä <line> ֤ؤƸߤ˻롥ƬĤưˤäƤ <align> ֻ̤ʤ aline ʤǤϤʤˤǤ뤷̤ sign/assign Ȥڥ⸫ˡ<line> ϤʤȤ̯Ǥ롥
line/align Ȥ촴ֻͭΥϥϡۤˤ deign/disdain feign/feint ˸ (Upward and Davidson 140)
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
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