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consonant - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2016-03-17 Thu

#2516. ҲǤȻҲʸǤбɽ [phoneme][grapheme][spelling_pronunciation_gap][spelling][consonant][phonology][orthography][digraph][statistics]

ε#2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1]) ˰³ (19--21) 򻲾ȤơҲʻˤбɽǤ롥

 consonantal phonemeconsonantal grapheme
1/p/p, gh, pp, ph, pe5
2/b/b, bh, bb, pb, be5
3/t/t, th, pt, ct, ed, tt, bt7
4/d/d, bd, dh, dd, ed, ddh6
5/k/k, c, kh, ch, que, qu, cque, cqu, q, cch, cc, ck, che, ke, x, gh, cu17
6/q/g, gu, gh, gg, gue5
7/ʧ/ch, tch, t, c, cz, te, ti7
8/ʤ/j, g, dg, gi, ge, dj, g, di, d, dge, gg, ch12
9/f/f, ph, gh, ff, v, pph, u, fe8
10/v/v, f, ph, vv, v5
11/θ/th1
12/ð/th1
13/s/s, sci, c, sch, ce, ps, ss, sw, se9
14/z/z, se, x, ss, cz, zz, sc7
15/ʃ/sh, shi, sch, s, si, ss, ssi, ti, ch, ci, ce, sci, chsi, se, c, psh, t17
16/ʒ/s, z, si, zi, ti, ge6
17/h/h, wh, x3
18/m/m, mb, mn, mm, mpd, gm, me7
19/n/n, mn, ne, pn, kn, gn, nn, mpt, ln, dn10
20/ŋ/ng, n, ngue, nd, ngh5
21/l/l, ll, le3
22/r/r, rh, rrh, rr, wr5
23/j/y, j, i, ll4
24/w/w, o, ou, u4
  159


Ǹȡ24βǤФƷ159ʸǡdigraph ޤˤбƤ롥ʿѤ1ǤɽΤ6.625ĤʸǤѤ줦ȤȤˤʤ롥
夲첻ȺλҲȤ绻ȡ44βǤФƷ400Ĥʸǡdigraph ޤˤǧ뤳ȤˤʤꡤʿѤ1ǤɽΤ9.09ĤʸǤѤ줦ȤȤˤʤ롥
ȯֻȤ߹碌¿ͲƤŪװˤĤƤϡ#2405. ֻȯЪΥ --- ѸֻԵ§μŪװ ([2015-11-27-1]) ǿ줿̤ˤƤ褯ޤʣƤΤ

ָѸñ spelling sound discrepancy ˤĤơä˱Ѹˤδ鸫 orthography phonology δطˤĤơסʡؿʸѡ81, 1976ǯ49--75ǡ

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2016-02-28 Sun

#2498. yogh ʸ [grammatology][grapheme][alphabet][consonant][g][yogh][terminology][paleography]

Ѹ yogh /joʊk, jɔux/ ȸƤФ <ȝ> ʸѤƤȤˤĤƤϡ#1914. <g> ֤ ([2014-07-24-1]) Ǽ夲Ѹ <g> ʸμդ˴ؤŪˤʣ yogh ʸŪʤäƹͤƤߤ
ޤפʤȤϡ<ȝ> ϴŪˤѸˤѤ줿ʸ (grapheme) ФƾΤǤȤȤűѸǤ⡤ȤƤϤѤʤʸѤƤΤؤ yogh ȾΤ뤳ȤϤʤűѸΤϡޤ <g> Τˤ flat-headed gˤȸƤ֤٤Ǥ롥
λ⤦褦Ѹ <g> űѸʸϡhalf-uncial Τ饢ɽΤͳä <<Ӡ>> λ (flat-headed g) äƤꡤб벻Ǥ [g, j, ɣ] ǤäΥޥФѸȡAnglo-French ֻαƶΤȤǡ<g> /ʤ/ βˤб褦ˤʤꡤʸ <g> εǽ٤ϹޤäѸˤĤʤ round-headed g ϡΤͳ褷󥬽ΤΥޥ͢뤳ȤˤꡤѸν񵭤ˤƤ夷Ƥǡ<g> εǽ¿äȤưŤ⤢äΤۤʤΤ°뿷 round-headed g (<<g>>) ȸŻ flat-headed g (<<Ӡ>>) ǽʬ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ롥Ԥϥե󥹸ˤʤä [g, ʤ] βбԤϸűѸͳ໤ [j, x, ɣ] ɽ魯褦ˤʤäȤǡԤҤΤ褦˸ flat-headed ǤäƬݤؿʲѸޤǤˤϡ3פ˻ <<ȝ>> ˤʤäƤȤƤϸűѸ̤롤ƬδݤޤäѸʸؤ yogh ȸƤ֤ΤǤ롥Τ褦ˤơ<g> <ȝ> ȤϡѸδ֡ΰۤʤ2ĤʸǤȤơ줾̳̤
䤬 <ȝ> ϡ줬ɽ路Ƥ [j], [x], [ɣ] ơ <y>, <gh>, <w> ֤褦ˤʤ˵ڤӡषƤäѸʸ <g> μդޤȤСűѸ1äΤѸ2ʬθƤ1äơ˻ȤȤǤ롥
ʾ塤 (128--30) 򻲾ȤƼɮ˴Ϣơ#447. Dalziel, MacKenzie, Menzies <z> ([2010-07-18-1])#1651. j g ([2013-11-03-1])#1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1]) ⻲ȡ

סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-05-23-1] [2020-01-27-1]

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2015-12-15 Tue

#2423. digraph (1) [alphabet][grammatology][writing][digraph][spelling][grapheme][terminology][orthography][final_e][vowel][consonant][diphthong][phoneme][diacritical_mark][punctuation]

Ѹˤ <ai>, <ea>, <ie>, <oo>, <ou>, <ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <qu>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> 2ʸǤ1ñ̤ȤʤäβǤɽ魯Ż (digraph) ¸ߤ롥#2049. <sh> Ȥΰֻˡ ([2014-12-06-1])#2418. ꥷƥѸˤ <oe> ([2015-12-10-1])#2419. ꥷƥѸˤ <ae> ([2015-12-11-1]) ۤεǼ夲ƤϤΤ褦 digraph ˤĤbeautiful ˤ <eau> ʤɤλŻ (trigraph) 䤽ʾȤ߹碌⤢뤬ǽҤ٤ digraph ε trigraph ʤɤˤƤϤޤϤǤ롥
⤽⡤ƥΤˡ̤Хꥷ䥻ϤθΤȯãƤ alphabet ȤϲŪˤ礭ۤʤǤѸˡΤޤޤޤŬѤȤȤϡ褦ʤޥ󡦥ե٥åȤƼ줿űѸꡤǤοʸοϰפʤäΤǤ롥ǤΤۤ¿äΤǡ̤ʸɽ褦ȤСɤƤʣʸȤ߹碌1ĤβǤбȤ褦ˡɬפȤʤ롥㤨 /æːa/, /ʤ/, /ʃ/ ϳơ <ea>, <cg>, <sc> digraph ɽ줿 (see #17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1])) ĤޤꡤѸ줬ޥ󡦥ե٥åȤǽɽ뤳Ȥˤʤäǽʳ顤digraph Τ褦ʸȤ߹碌뤳ȤϡȾԲäȹͤ롥Ѹ쥢ե٥åȤϡ餫ѤĤġ¿ͤʲѤäʤѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸؤȯŸƤä
"digraph" ȤѸˤĤƤǤ롥θƾΤϤɤ餫ȤʸǤ2Ȥ߹蘆äȤŪ¦̤˾ƤƤ뤬2Ĥ1ĤβǤбȤǽŪ¦̤Ĵ硤"compound grapheme" (Robert 14) ȤѸ줬ŬڤRobert (14) ˼򷹤褦

We term ai in French faire or th in English thither, compound graphemes, because they function as units in representing single phonemes, but are further divisible into units (a, i, t, h) which are significant within their respective graphemic systems.


compound grapheme ʣʸǡˤϢ³2ʸǤɬפʤ"[d]iscontinuous compound grapheme" Ϣ³ʣʸǡˤ⤢ꤦ롥ѸΡ#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) Ǥꡤ<name> <site> ˤơ<a .. e> <i .. e> Ϣ³Ȥ߹碌ˤ2첻 /eɪ/ /aɪ/ ɽ蘆Ƥ롥
ʣʸǤˡϡˤ롥Robert ΰѤǼƤ褦ˡ<th> ȤʣʸǤϡñʸ <t> <h> Ȥ߹蘆äκۤ򤷤Ƥʤ顤ñʸǤ뵡ǽ̤ƤȤ¤롥<t> <h> ñΤʸǤȤ1Ǥɽ魯ǽͭ뤬ƱˡΤˤϡͽۤ2ǤǤϤʤ̤1ǤˤбΤλŦϡʣʸǤȤϡΤΤΤ褦ʹ뤫⤷ʤǶĴΤϡʸ󤬲˥եåȤɽ븽ԤαѸ񵭤ˤƤϡ<th> Ȥʸ򸫤Ȥˡ(1) 2Ĥñʸ <t>, <h> ̤λʤǤν¤ΤʤΤ뤤 (2) 1Ĥʣʸ <th> ƤΤȽǤǤʤȤȤ(1) (2) ʸΥ٥뤬ۤʤäƤꡤ餫νʬäƤ褵ʤΤեåȤ th ɽ롥㤨С<catham> <catholic> ˤơƱɤ <th> ǤԤ (1)Ԥ (2) ȤƵǽƤ롥(*)<cat-ham>, *<ca(th)olic> ʤɤȡǫ˶̤ˡäƤ褵ŪˤϹԤƤʤʤɤʬɤ߼ϡʸŪȽǤ򲼤ˡǤζڤ꤬ɤǤ뤫ȤȽǡ뤤ϸȤƤǧΤ˺ѤޤƤΤǤ롥СѸ켰ʣʸǤλѤϡʬŪǤ졤ֻɽäƤ뤳ȤξںǤ롥
ΡʣʸǤפϤۤˤ櫓ǤʤŪˤϤ礭ǤϤʤ⤷ʤκۤƱ <th> ˸ʤ⡤2Ĥΰۤʤ٥ǵǽƤǽȤȤϡʸαդ٤Ǥ뤳ȤǧʤФʤʤǽŪ˥٥ΰۤʤΤ̤ʤ˥եåȤ¤٤ȤפǤ롥

Hall, Robert A., Jr. "A Theory of Graphemics." Acta Linguistica 8 (1960): 13--20.

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2015-11-26 Thu

#2404. <nacio(u)n> <nation> ֻѲ (2) [etymological_respelling][spelling][spelling_reform][consonant][latin][emode]

#2018. <nacio(u)n> <nation> ֻѲ ([2014-11-05-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥnation Ȥ1ñˤȤɤޤ餺̤˥ƥ -tiō ̤ĸäֻѸ -<cion> Ѹ -<tion> ؤѲܤ롥
εǼ褦ˡ <c> <t> Ѳϸ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ȹͤ롥츻Ūֻϡ٤෿ǤΤΡƤϤĤθˤñȯŪΤǤꡤηŪʸݤǤϤʤΤʤǤƥ -tiō 򻲾Ȥ <c> <t> ѲϤ褽§Ū褦Ǥꡤ٤ˤưռŪäȤ롥§ŪǰռŪäȤȤϡˤФѲֻ (spelling_reform) ̤äȸʤʤѸֻפˤˤơ¿ʤȤߤ Noah Webster ΤΤ餤ʤʤȤƤޤʬŪˤȸ뤬Ѹ <c> <t> Ϥ⤦1Ĥ㳰ŪȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
Venezky (38) ϡ-<tion> Τߤʤ餺 -<tial> ޤơѲˤĤưʲΤ褦˿Ƥ롥

. . . a number of graphemic substitutions, introduced mostly between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare, must be treated separately. One of these is the substitution of t for c in suffixes like tion and tial, e.g., nation, essential (cf. ME, nacion, essenciall). Early Modern English scribes, instilled with the fervor of classical learning, brought about in these substitutions one of the few true spelling reforms in English orthographic history.


Venezky, Richard L. The Structure of English Orthography. The Hague: Mouton, 1970.

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2015-11-16 Mon

#2394. ե󥹸ˤ⤫Ĥ¸ߤ th [french][phonetics][consonant][doublet][th]

̾ե󥹸 th ʻ໤ˤϷӤĤʤΤǤϤʤȻפ롥ƥθ d ʤɤΥե󥹸ˤˤƼ岽üƤˤơ໤ʳФȤȤϡĴŪˤ϶ˤƼǤ롥ơʳˤե󥹸ñ줬λ໤Ȥ˱ѸؼѤ줿ȤȤäꤷƤ⡤ۤǤϤʤɤ顤faith Ȥñ줬ޤˤΤ褦ʲФȤƵ󤲤褦
ȯˤֻˤ衤θƤ餷ƥޥϤΤ褦˸롥츻ŵ򷫤餫ʤ褦ˡűѸˤ¸ߤѸμѸǤʬ롥ƥ fidēs (ˤťե󥹸 feid, feit ȤʤꡤθҲ11--12ˤϡҤΤ褦˼岽໤Ƥȹͤ롥໤äƤθαѸؼѤ줿رѸ츻ŵ٤ˤȡfaith ˤ㳰Ū th ĤäΤϤ餯 truth, sooth ʤɤαƶǤפȤ롥
ʤ˥ե󥹸Ǥϸ˾üե󥹸Ǥ foi ؤȯŸƤ롥θҲΤʤѸ fei, fay ȤäƤꡤۤѤ˶ᤤ֤ fay ˤ (cf. PDE by my fay < OF par ma fei) äơfaith fay 2Ÿ (doublet) ȤȤˤʤ롥
Ѹν֤ˤ MED feith (n.) Anglo-Norman ν֤ˤ The Anglo-Norman Dictionary fei 򻲾Ȥ줿
OED faith, n. and int. ιꡤθҲˤĤơѤƤ

The dental fricative in English apparently reflects the pronunciation of the final consonant in the earliest stages of Anglo-Norman and Old French (before its deletion, probably in the 11th cent.), this would make faith the only borrowing from Anglo-Norman to preserve this feature in a monosyllabic word (compare the parallel borrowing FAY n. 1 without it); it may have been preserved under the influence of the semantically related TRUTH n. and TROTH n. (For preservation of the early French final dental in suffixes, compare e.g. DAINTETH n. and the β. forms at PLENTY n., adj.., and adv..

It has also been suggested that the final dental in English faith is -TH suffix 1 (i.e. showing suffixation of fei FAY n. 1 within English), but this rarely combines with nouns and not normally with first elements of non-Germanic origin.


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2015-10-20 Tue

#2367. űѸ <c> Ѹ <k> [grapheme][graphemics][spelling][palatalisation][i-mutation][phonemicisation][anglo-norman][vowel][consonant][causation][language_change]

űѸŵŪ <cyning> 뤤 <cyng> ֤Ƥ줬ѸǤŵŪ <king> ֤褦ˤʤäƤ롥 /k/ ɽ魯ʸ <c> <k> ؤ֤줿ȤȤˤϤʤưŤäΤ
/k/ бʸ <c> <k> ִ줿аޤˤĤơScragg (45) ϵǽŪΩ줫鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

. . . Old English orthography continued to represent the two sounds [= [k] and [ʧ]] by <c> (i.e. both of these words in late Old English were spelt cinn or cynn). Although <c> could still unambiguously represent /k/ before back vowels and consonants (as it still does in cat, cot, cut, climb, crumb), there was no agreed way of distinguishing the sounds graphically before front vowels. The use of <k> for the plosive appeared sporadically from the ninth century but it was not until the thirteenth that it was fully established in words like king and keen, by which time <ch> had been adopted for the affricate.


<c> <k> ؤѲϡ/y/ ߿Ȥ첻ѲͿƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥űѸǤϸ (palatalisation) θ̤ˤꡤ첻Ԥ /k/ [ʧ] ȤƼ¸褦ˤʤäƤ첻Ԥ /k/ [k] ȤƼ¸³ƤꡤߤʬۤʤᡤξϤޤƱ첻Ǥΰۤʤ¸Ǥˤʤääơɽ魯ʸ <c> 1Ĥǻ­ꤿ
Ȥ첻 /u/ i-mutation ˤ첻 /y/ Ȥʤꡤ߿ /i/ ؤѲȡcinn [ʧin] cynn [kin] Ωޤ졤ʬۤ롥 /ʧ/ /k/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤȤƶ̤褦ˤʤäDz (phonemicisation) βǤ롥
ʳˤơۤʤ벻ǤϰۤʤʸɽΤդ路ȤǽŪȯۤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ͤˡϤĤμ¸ȼѤδ֤Ф夤Τϡ/k/ Ф <k> /ʧ/ Ф <ch> 򤢤Ƥˡä <c> ΤΤĤäƤʤȤդ줿
Ѹˤ <k> <ch> Ѥ줿طʤˤϡֻѤ륢󥰥Υޥ̻νͿƤScragg θ򤬲ǤʸǤб˴ؤ뵡ǽŪ˽ϤƤΤФOED K, n. εҤϡ󥰥ΥޥֻˤڤǤꡤХ󥹤μ줿Ȥ롥

Yet, in the Old English use of the Roman alphabet, both the guttural and the palatal sound were represented by C, although in the practice of individual scribes K was by no means infrequent for the guttural, especially in positions where C would have been liable to be taken as palatal, or would at least have been ambiguous, as in such words as Kent, kéne, kennan, akenned, kynn, kyning, kyðed, folkes, céak, þicke. But, even in these cases, C was much more usual down to the 11th century; and K can be regarded only as a supplemental symbol occasionally used instead of C for the guttural sound. After the Conquest, however, the Norman usage gradually prevailed, in accordance with which C was retained for the original guttural only before a, o, u, l, r, and K was substituted for the same sound before e, i, y, and (later) n; while the palatalized Old English c, now advanced to /ʧ/, was written Ch. Hence, in native words, initial K now appears only before e, i, y (y being moreover usually merged in i), and before n ( < Old English cn-), where it is no longer pronounced in Standard English, though retained in some dialects.


űѸǤ⤹Ǥ <k> ѤƤȤˤդ٤Ǥ롥ʸǤֻѲޤᡤѲˤϡʣξװͿƤȤ (multiple causation of language change) ˺ƤϤʤʤ
Ϣơ/k/ бʸŪˤĤơ#1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.

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2015-08-08 Sat

#2294. Ѹ r Ĵ [phonetics][consonant][rhotic]

#2198. 衼åѽ͡ r ([2015-05-04-1]) /r/ ͡ʶŪ¸̻Ūȯã򳵴Ѥ衼åѽΤʤǤ⡤Ѹ /r/ μ¸ϤʤüǤꡤŵŪˤϻܶ᲻ (alveolar approximant) [ɹ] ܶ᲻ (retroflex approximant) [ɻ] ȤĴ롥ŪʸˤСűѸѸǤ /r/ ˤư (coronal trill) [r] ȤƼ¸줿ȤƤ뤬⤷θȤƤ⡤ˤƤθˤˤ [r] ߤüĴؤȯãΤȤʤ롥
Erickson (185) ϡĴؤδ餳ꡤʲȯãƤƤ롥

0. Origin: coronal trill
1. Trill lenites to tap before homorganic consonants
2. Coronals change from dental to alveolar; tongue simultaneously acquires sulcal shape
3. Tap lenites to retroflex approximant before homorganics
4. Approximant articulation generalized to syllable coda
5. Approximant articulation generalized to all positions


ޤޥ /r/ 0 ˼ư [r] äӸŪˤ⡤෿Ūˤ⿮­¬ȤäƤ褵ŵŪʼ¸ϡ΢ʣդ뤨Τä[t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l] ʤɤλѤƱﲻ³ĶǤϡդ뤨ϰ٤ñư [ɾ]ˤȤʤ뷹1ʳˡ
ˡñư˸³ [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l] ʤɤĴ֤ԤؤѲ褬Ԥΰ֤ޤǸह뤳Ȥˤꡤ̤ϥå׷ˤܤ2ʳˡΥå׷幽ˤꡤʳ3μܶ᲻ [ɻ] ؤΰܹԤưפˤʤ롥ѸˤǤС1600ǯˤʳäȤ (Erickson 191)
ʾ /r/ ĴȯãϡƱﲻ³Ķ˸¤Ƥ줬δĶˤȤ4ʳˡ˲ΰ֤ˤ餺̤˳Ȥä5ʳˡ
ѸɸѼǤϡʾȯãʳΤɤǻߤޤäΤ褦Ĵ򼨤Τ⤢Сʬ줷̤ȯã򼨤Τ⤢äޤɸѼˤƤ⡤¸ˤ٤ѰۤϤä嵭ȯãȤƿ뤳ȤˤꡤΡְæפ⤪褽̵ʤǤȤΤ Erickson μĥǤ롥
/r/ ĴȴϢơErickson (184) ޥˤ r ˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ륳ȤҲ𤷤ƤɥĸΤۤ󥰥åȥǤʹ "Northumbrian burr" ȸƤФ r ϡ#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤ ([2012-03-17-1]) Ǹ褦ˡե󥹸줫ŤȤ뤳Ȥ¿ºݤˤŤβǽͤᤤ˥ɥĸ [ʁ] ԤƤȤ⤢ꡤŤǤϤʤȯãȤ⤢褦

Erickson, Blaine. "On the Development of English r." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 183--206.

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2015-07-21 Tue

#2276. 13ʹߤ v (2) [phonetics][etymology][consonant][assimilation][v]

#1348. 13ʹߤ v ([2013-01-04-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡѸˤ¸ߤ [v] 줿줬ʤʤäˡ (156) Ŧ褦ˡ첻Ԥ [v] ƱФƼפϱѸˤǤʤĤ󤲤褦

OE hlāford > lord
OE hlǣfdiġe > lady (cf. #23. "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!"ϴְ㤤 ([2009-05-21-1]))
OE heafod > head
OE havoc > hawk
OE lāferce > lark
OE wīfmann > woman (cf. #223. woman ȯֻ ([2009-12-06-1]))
OE hæfde > had (cf. #2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ ([2015-05-06-1]))

ۤ never > ne'er, ever > e'er, over > o'er of clock > oclock > o'clock ä뤫⤷ʤ
[v] ໤ޤäơ[w] ؤȾ첻䤹줬 [u] ؤ첻䤹Τơ첻ݤ߹ޤƾüƤ椯Ȥ뤳ȤǤ롥

סOE byrðen "burden vs. fæder "fath''er"Ѹˤ˻ȯŪ˸ [d] [ð] θؤˤĤơסظդΤ󤽤ʿءˡ˶࿦ǰʸ١ҡ2015ǯ155--66ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-08-21-1]

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2015-06-22 Mon

#2247. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ (3) [phonetics][consonant][me_dialect][old_norse]

##2219,2220,2226,2238,2247 εǰäƤ "Southern Voicing" ˴ؤꡥ

#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])
#2220. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1])
#2226. ѸǸƬ໤ͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1])
#2238. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ (2) ([2015-06-13-1])

[2015-05-26-1]εǿ줿 Poussa ʸɤǤߤ Danelaw ϰ˸Ƭ [f] ͭʤä뤤Ϥθ̤ŤʤäͳǤϡƱϰ餫 [v] Ժߤäȡ뤤ϾʤȤŪǤϤʤäȤȤ롥Poussa (298) Ϥ¤ȤƤϼƤ餺ޤǿȤ󼨤ƤˤʤդɬפǤ롥

According to Skautrup (1944: 124), the sound system of Runic Danish had labial fricatives, voiced and unvoiced, and did not yet contain the labio-dental [f] and [v], but he believes that /f/ appeared in the following period. The development of the English dialects of the north midlands may have followed a similar time-table. The Runic Danish period corresponds to the period of Viking settlement in England, which was strongest in the north midlands. In the Eastern Division Viking Period settlement mainly affected East Anglia (particularly Norfolk) and part of Essex, which fell within the Danelaw in the late 9th. century. Southern Voicing of OE /f/ in initial position would have been unlikely in East Anglia, therefore, though during the OE/ME period initial [v] should have occurred in the Kentish dialect through the application of the Southern Voicing rule. [Skautrup = Skautrup, P. Det Danske Sprogs Historie I. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1944.]


Ƭ໤ͭ򼨤ŪʬۤȤŪʳ硦̾ƼҲŪطʤ˾Ȥ餻С Poussa ̥ŪǤϤ뤬ǽפȤʤϤβŪʻ¤ΤƤʤȤΤԹ礬̤ϡ1ĤβȤƤȤɤƤۤʤ

Poussa, P. "Ellis's 'Land of Wee': A Historico-Structural Revaluation." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 1 (1995): 295--307.

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2015-06-17 Wed

#2242. ʥѸβŪħ [vowel][diphthong][consonant][rhotic][yod-dropping][merger][phonetics][phonology][canadian_english][ame][variety]

ε#2241. Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles ([2015-06-16-1]) ˰³UBC Ǥ SHEL-9/DSNA-20 Conference ä;äơʥѸꡥ
ʥѸϡ#313. Canadian English ([2010-03-06-1]) ǤŦ褦ˡŪ American English British English ˵ϤĤǤǯ AmE ؤλָ褦μФ˰ĥ뤫ϡȯʸˡáˡʤɤˤäƤۤʤ뤬ȯˤĤƤϡʥѸϥꥫѸȶ̤Τ񤷤ۤɤƤȸ롥ΤʤǡBrinton and Fee (426--30) ɸ५ʥѸ (Standard Canadian English; ʲ SCE ɽ) βŪħȤưʲ8˸ڤƤ롥

(1) Canadian Raising: ̵Ҳ [aʊ] -> [ʌu], [aɪ] -> [ʌɪ] Ȥʤ롥äơout and about ϡoat and a boat ˶᤯ʤ롥ͭҲǤϾ夲ʤᡤγƥڥǤϰۤʤ2첻ʹ롥lout/loud, bout/bowed, house/houses, mouth (n.)/mouth (v.), spouse/espouse; bite/bide, fife/five, site/side, tripe/tribe, knife/knives. åȥѼ󥰥ѼMartha's Vineyard Ѽ (cf. [2015-02-22-1]) ʤɤˤƤ⡤褦ʾ夲ϴѻ뤬Canadian Raising ϤȤϴطʤΩѲȹͤƤ롥

(2) Merger of [ɑ] and [ɔ]: 85%ΥʥѸüԤˤߤ븽ݡ19ȾФѲȤ졤General American ǤƱݤѻ롥βѲˤʲΥڥϤƱȤʤäƤ롥offal/awful, Don/dawn, hock/hawk, cot/caught, lager/logger, Otto/auto, holly/Hawley, tot/taught. GA Ȱۤʤꡤ[ɹ] Ǥ [ɔ] ݤäƤȤħ (ex. sorry, tomorrow, orange, porridge, Dorothy) ͻˤĤƤϡ#484. ǿΥꥫѸ첻ͻȿǤ MWALED ȯɽ ([2010-08-24-1]) 򻲾ȡ

(3) Voicing of intervocalic [t]: 첻˶ޤ줿 [t] ͭ [d] 뤤 [ɾ] Ȥʤ븽ݡ̤ȤơʲΥڥϤ줾ƱȤʤ롥metal/medal, latter/ladder, hearty/hardy, flutter/flooder, bitter/bidder, litre/leader, atom/Adam, waiting/wading. SCE Ǥϡβ¾δĶؤڤǤꡤfilter, shelter, after, sister, washed out, picture ʤɤǤ뤳Ȥ롥

(4) Yod dropping: SCE ǤϡҲθΤ錄겻 [j] κ (glide deletion) GA Ʊͤ s θǤ뤬GA Ȱۤʤ [t, d, n] θǤݻȤȤŪ˼ĥƤºݤˤϡGA αƶǡԤδĶˤƤ yod-dropping ƤƤȤ (cf. #841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1])#1562. Χߤ yod-dropping ([2013-08-06-1]))

(5) Retention of [r]: SCE ϰŪ rhotic Ǥ롥Ūˤ New England β (Loyalists) ˤäƤ⤿餵줿 non-rhotic Ѽαƶ⶯äϤrhotic ʥꥹ̱ȤȤľܤ⤿餵줿аޤ⤢ꡤԤͥȤʤäΤ

(6) Marry/merry/Mary: ɸ।ꥹѸǤ3첻̤뤬ʥѸȥꥫѸΤĤѼǤϡMary merry [ɛr] ͻ礷marry [ær] Ȥƶ̤2ʬˡǤ롥ˡʥѸǤϱƽѼȰۤʤꡤBarry, guarantee, caramel ʤɤ [æ] 㤯Ĵ롥

(7) Secondary stress: -ory, -ary, -ery ǽ (ex. laboratory, secretary, monastery ) ǡGA Ʊͤˡ2ݤġ

(8) [hw] versus [w]: GA ηƱͤˡwhich/witch, where/wear, whale/wale, whet/wet θƬҲΩ򼺤ƱȤʤ롥

Τ褦˸ƤȡSCE ͭβŪħȤϡGA ȶ̤Τ¿Ȥ狼롥Ͷ̤ƤȤǡʬŪ˿ޤ㤦夲ơʥѸȼФȤȤBrinton and Fee (526) Bailey (161)) Ƹ褦ˡ"What is distinctly Canadian about Canadian English is not its unique linguistic features (of which there are a handful) but its combination of tendencies that are uniquely distributed" ȤȤ
ꥫѸȥꥹѸκˤĤƤ⡤٤ƱȤȻפäƤ롥#2186. Webޥε֥ѥõѸαƺԡס ([2015-04-22-1]) ǾҲ𤷤WEBޥ Lingua شƤǤҤ٤褦ˡŪˤꡤꥫѸȥꥹѸκۤϡñɽλѡԻѤȤƸΤǤϤʤλ٤ΰ㤤ȤƸۤˤפǤ롥Ѥ̵ͭǤϤʤʬۤΰ㤤Ѽ¾Ѽ狼̤ͭʻɸʤΤȻפҲŪʳǰǤѼפˡŪʴ⤦ȤΤǤСΤ褦̯ʺۤդʧȤɬפ

ʸ嵭2015/06/19(Fri) Bailey (162) ϡ٤ΰ㤤Ȥ򤵤˥ʥѸνѼ֤δطˤŬѤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥"The most useful perspective, then, is one in which Canadian English is viewed as a cluster of features that combine in varying proportions in differing communitites within Canada." (Bailey, Richard W. "The English Language in Canada." English as a World Language. Ed. Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1983. 134--76.)

Brinton, Laurel J. and Margery Fee. "Canadian English." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 422--40 .
Bailey, Richard W. "The English Language in Canada." English as a World Language. Ed. Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1982. 134--76.

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2015-06-13 Sat

#2238. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ (2) [wave_theory][phonetics][consonant][me_dialect][old_norse][language_change][geolinguistics][geography]

ˤĤƤϡǶᡤʲεƤ (##2219,2220,2226,2238)

#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])
#2220. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1])
#2226. ѸǸƬ໤ͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1])

ѸˤƬ໤ͭ ("Southern Voicing") 򼨤ʬۤϡߤʬۤ⤺äΰ褬ˤޤdzȤäƤؤ򸫤ºݤޤʬۤεڤ⤢äˤζؤȲᤵ줿Ȥаޤ롥ؤβᤷޤơǤʤ "Southern Voicing" ʤäΤ
βᤷʬۤ˴ؤ Danelaw ΰȴϢŤΤε ([2015-05-26-1]) Ǥ̾󤲤 Poussa Ǥ롥Poussa ϡ#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1254. ѸäդθѲϽ񤭸դߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1]) Ǥ夲Ѹ᥯쥪첾μĥԤǤ롥Poussa (249) ηϡ

In sum, I submit that, whereas the original advance of the initial fricative voicing innovation through the OE dialects is a natural and not unusual phonetic process (it has its parallels in other Germanic dialects on the continent), the halting and then the reversing of such an innovation in ME is an unexpected development, requiring explanation. It can only be explained by some kind of intervention in the dialect continuum. The Scandinavian settlement of the north and east Midlands in the late OE period seems to supply the right kind of intervention at the right place and time to explain this remarkable linguistic U-turn.


Poussa ζŪʵ2롥1ĤϡťΥɸȤܿˤԥ󲽤뤤ϥ쥪벽桦αѸѼˤƤϡȤ෿ŪͭɸǤƬͭ໤ϺѤʤäȤ (Poussa 238) ⤦1ĤϡѸ East-Midland μҲŪʱƶϤɥɸѼη礭׸褦ˤʤˤĤơƬ໤⤿ʤƱΰҿޤäˡζ˲줿ΤȤҲŪǤ롥פˡθƬͭ໤Ͽˤդ路ʤȯȤɾȽEast-Midland üԤ濴˳ȤäȤȤǤ롥
Poussa (247) ѤƤ˼ҲؤʹͻȤƶ̣

   It seems to me that the voicing of initial /f-/, /s-/, /θ-/ and /ʃ-/ in OE and ME, which Fisiak convincingly argues are caused by one and the same lenition process, is precisely the type of rule which is typically jettisoned when a language is pidginized or creolized, and acquired only partially by learners of a new dialect. Furthermore, why should the speaker of a Danelaw dialect of English want to sound like a southerner, whether he lives in his home district, or has been transplanted to London? It would depend on what pronunciation he (or she), consciously or unconsciously, regarded as prestigious.
   If this explanation is accepted as the reason why such an expansive lenition innovation stopped at approximately the Danelaw boundary during the late OE or early ME period, then the reason why the area of voicing subsequently receded southwards is presumably related: migration of population and the rise in the social prestige of the East Midland dialect meant that the phonologically simpler variety became the standard to be imitated.


Poussa, Patricia. "A Note on the Voicing of Initial Fricatives in Middle English" Papers from the 4th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Eaton, R., O. Fischer, W. Koopman, and F. van der Leeke. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1985. 235--52.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-06-22-1]

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2015-06-05 Fri

#2230. Ѹ໤̵ͭʸ [spelling][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation_gap][consonant][phoneme][grapheme][degemination][x][phonemicisation]

516դΡѤʵפˡ<s> <x> ֻȤ̵Ҳ /s, ks/ ǡȤͭҲ /z, gz/ ȯˤĤƼ䤬󤻤줿Ƭ <s> ɬ /s/ б롤Τ첻Ԥʤ <x> /gz/ б뷹ʤɡŪ˻ͤȤʤ뵬§⤢ˤϤ뤬ǽŪˤñ줴Ȥ˷ޤäƤ륱¿Ūʥ롼ߤʤΤǤ롥Τ褦ˤϡŪۤʤ
ѸŪˤϡ/(k)s, (g)z/ ˤȤɤޤ餺໤󤬤֤ƤӸƤɬפ롥ȤΤϡŪˡűѸǤ໤ΩϤʤäȹͤƤ뤫Ǥ롥űѸˤ໤Ȥ /s/, /θ/, /f/ ۤβǤäбͭ໤ [z], [ð], [v] ͭ˶ޤ줿Ķˤ۲ȤƸ줿ˤǤȤΩƤʤä (cf. #1365. űѸˤ뼫IJˤϤޤ줿̵໤ͭ ([2013-01-21-1])#17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1])ˡʸϲñ̤бΤ̾Ǥ뤫顤ʬۤʤ໤̵ͭγƥڥФ1ĤʸǤбƤнʬǤꡤ<s>, <þ> (or <ð>), <f> ʾ塤<z> <v> ʤɤʸפä
ͭ໤ϡѸˤƲDz (phonemicisation) θˤĤƤϽ⤬ƤƤ뤬פʤΤ󤲤ȡȤΤŪʱѡæŻҲ (degemination)ˤƬ໤ͭ (cf. #2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])#2226. ѸǸƬ໤ͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1]))ͭ໤ĥե󥹸äμѤʤɤǤʤ˴ؤǿʸȤơHickey 򻲾Ȥ줿ˡʲǤϤȤ櫓ե󥹸äμѤȤװǰƬˤƵʤ롥
ͭ໤Ǥϰ̤ȡбΩʸǤԹ礬褤/v/ ˤĤƤϡȤͤե󥹸줬 <v> ʸäƤˡѸ <v> Ƴ뤳Ȥ⤿䤹ä⡤ե󥹸Ǥ /f/ = <f>, /v/ = <v> ʼºݤˤ <<v>> ¤ <<u>> Ѥ줿ˤδطꤷƤᡤƱ괶Ѹˤܿ졤ᤤʳ夷ߤ˻롥Ѹ /f/ = <f>, /v/ = <v> 㳰ƾʤͳǤ (cf. of)
/z/ ˤĤƤϻ𤬰ۤʤäƤűѸǤťե󥹸Ǥ <z> ʸϤä/s, z/ ΤβФƤ <s> ѤΤ̤äե󥹸Ǥ /s/ = <s>, /z/ = <z> ΰꤷطۤƤʤäΤǤꡤѸ /z/ DzǤ⡤/z/ = <z> δطꤢưŤ /v/ = <v> ξ夫äȻפ롥̤Ȥơ<s> ̵ͭΤɽ魯ȤűѸ줫νѸˤ줺Ρפߤˤޤ³Ƥ롥
/ð/ ˤĤƤϡ˻𤬰ۤʤ롥űѸ <þ> <ð> ϸ򴹲ǽǡⲻ /θ/ ΰ۲ [θ] [ð] ɽ魯ȤǤѸꡤ̵ͭ줾ΩǤˤʤäƤ⡤줾ΩʸǤͿ褦ȤʤäͳΰϡöŪǤϤ뤬ե󥹸ˤβ¸ߤʤäȤ
/v/, /z/, /θ/ ΩʸǤͿ줿ɤȤǰۤʤ뿶񤤤򼨤Τϡե󥹸б벻ǤʸǤδطäɤȤ礭ƤۤˤϳơβDzߤ˰ۤʤ륿ߥ󥰤ǡۤʤװˤ줿餷ȤͿƤDzᤵȡǤȿʸǤȤδطΰȤϢưƤ褦ˤ⸫롥Ѹˤ໤ȯֻδطˤäƤϡŪ˹ͻ뤳Ȥפ

Hickey, Raymond. "Middle English Voiced Fricatives and the Argument from Borrowing." Approaches to Middle English: Variation, Contact and Change. Ed. Juan Camilo Conde-Silvestre and Javier Calle-Martín. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2015. 83--96.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-08-04-1] [2015-07-25-1]

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2015-06-01 Mon

#2226. ѸǸƬ໤ͭäͳ [wave_theory][consonant][me_dialect][causation][language_change]

#2220. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1]) Ǽ夲"Southern Voicing" ȸ븽ݤˤĤƺƤӡεǤϡβʤʤäΤȤöŪʴʤȤѶŪʸƤϤʤäԤδؿ붽̣ͻ򸫤ĤΤǾҲ𤹤롥
βȤơΦϥޥ줫αƶ⤬Ƥ롥Nielsen (246--47) ˤСLow Franconian ǤϾʤȤ1100ǯޤǤƱͭƤڵ򤬤ꡤΦۤ󥰥ɤŤΤǤϤʤȤѸˤƤϡͭθ̤ե󥹼ѸˤϤۤȤɤߤ줺ͭˤߤ뤳Ȥ顤βϸűѸ줫ѸˤƵäȤ롥Υߥ󥰤ϡΦŤȤˤȤäԹ礬褤

Since there are other indications of late linguistic cross-Channel relations between the south of England and the Netherlands, there is nothing extraordinary about interpreting the presence of initial voiced fricatives in both places in terms of late contact. . . . / Samuels . . . is probably right in placing the innovatory centre within Franconian. The voicing of fricatives has perhaps spread from here into Upper German . . . , and similarly it may have crossed the Channel --- from Flanders to the south of England. (Nielsen 247)


Nielsen ûΤʤǤβˤĤƹͻƤˤڵϽʬȤˤϤۤɱ󤤤̣ǤϤ롥εƤȹ碌ȡΦؤꡤ̤ؤŸťΥɸ첽ͭʲĶäƤؤϿƩʤäȤڽ񤭤뤳Ȥˤʤ롥

Nielsen, Hans F. Old English and the Continental Germanic Languages: A Survey of Morphological and Phonological Interrelations. Innsbruck: Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenshaft, 1981.

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2015-05-29 Fri

#2223. ФˤҲ̵ͭ [phonetics][oe][consonant][analogy][diatone][derivation][word_formation][conversion][homonymic_clash]

̾ (53--54) Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡطˤǡҲͭ¾̵ʤСͭưΤۤǤפȤ§롥ʲ໤ͿƤꡤۤȤɤư̾ФǤ롥

[f] <f> vs [v] <v>: life--live, proof--prove, safe--save, belief--believe, relief-relieve, thief--thieve, grief--grieve, half--halve, calf--calve, shelf--shelve
[s] <s> vs [z] <s>: close--close, use--use, excuse--excuse, house--house, mouse--mouse, loss--lose
[s] <s> vs [z] <z>: grass--graze, glass--glaze, brass--braze
[c] <s> vs [z] <s>: advice--advise, device--devise, choice--choose
[θ] <th> vs [ð] <th>: bath--bathe, breath--breathe, cloth--clothe, kith--kithe, loath--loathe, mouth--mouth, sheath-sheathe, sooth--soothe, tooth--teethe, wreath--wreathe

close--close Τ褦λҲֻƱΤ⤢Сadvice--advise Τ褦˰ۤʤΤ⤢ (cf. #1153. ̾ adviceư advise ([2012-06-23-1])) ޤưϸ e ĤΤ⾯ʤʤ (cf. #979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1])) <th> ˴ؤΤˤĤƤϡԤ첻βۤʤΤ¿
ФθҲ (voicing) Ωˤϡ¿ξ硤ŪʲͿƤ롥١̵̾ưͭפΥѥ󤬳Ωȡ줬פȤʤä (analogy) ˤ㤬ȤȤ⤢줾ФΩǯʤɤĴɬפ롥
ߤطˤ̾ưΤβ֤ˤƤˡƱ (homonymic_clash) 򤱤뤿ΩѤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ƱưŤϡ֤㤨 récord vs recórd Τ褦ʡ̾ưפΥڥ (diatone) ˤѻ褦˻פ롥

̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-09-30-1] [2015-08-05-1]

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2015-05-26 Tue

#2220. ѸǸƬ໤ͭʤäͳ [old_norse][consonant][me_dialect][causation][language_change][methodology]

ε#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1]) ǡѸˤƬ໤ͭȤѲҲ𤷤ǤϤͭʤäᡤפȤʤäƸȯãɸѸˤ⡤θ̤ȿǤƤʤˡɸѸä vane, vat, vixen ŪˤϰۼʤΤǤ롥
Ǥ̤ǤʤäѲȤΤϡѲ˸¤餺¿¸ߤ롥षΤ褦Ѳ̵ͭŪơʬߤƤȤäۤμεҤȤƤΤäơʤƬ໤ͭˤơˤʤäΤȤ䤤ϡ⤽פĤ⤷ʤä䤦ȤƤ⡤̾ϡʤ̵໤ͭΤȤ˰ռΤǤꡤʤ줬ǵʤäΤȤˤ
Knowles (41--42) ϡԤΤꤽˤʤۤε "speculative" Ȥʤ⡤ͳθȤơťΥɸˤƬͭ໤Ժߤ󤲤Ƥ롥

Danish may also have influenced the pronunciation of an initial <s> or <f> in words such as fox and sing. In the Danelaw, as in North Germanic, these remain unchanged [s, f], but there is widespread evidence of the pronunciation [z, v] in the area controlled by Wessex (Poussa, 1995). The distribution is confirmed by placename evidence (Fisiak, 1994). Similar forms are found on the European mainland: for example, the <s> of German singen is pronounced [z], and the <v> of Dutch viif ('five') is more like an English [v] than [f]. Some [v]-forms have become part of Standard English: for example, vat (cf. German Faß), and vixen alongside fox, but otherwise the [s, f] forms have become general, and [z, v] survive only in isolated pockets.


ͤ٤ȤưʲΤΤ󤲤Ƥ

Poussa, P. "Ellis's 'Land of Wee': A Historico-Structural Revaluation." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 1 (1995: 295--307).
Fisiak,J. "The Place-Name Evidence for the Distribution of Early Modern English Dialect Features: The Voicing of Initial /f/." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 97--110.

ѲǵʤäȤ˴ؤťΥɸδͿȤǽȡϡǤɾǤʤƤϡѲˤפʥåޤǤȹͤ롥#2115. ݻȸѲؤ񹳡 ([2015-02-10-1]) Milroy θѲҲ𤷤ʤѲΤƱͤˤʤѲʤäΤȤϡä٤ѸǤϸƬ໤˴ؤƸűѸθݻ줿ˤ䤦Ȥʤ˸뤬ʤݻ줿Τ䤦ɬפȤΤ Milroy ŪȯۤʤΤǤꡤKnowles ⤽Τ褦˸ƤȤȤˤʤ롥ӸƤƤʤФʤʤѲФžȯۤ⤷

Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.

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2015-05-25 Mon

#2219. vane, vat, vixen [phonetics][phonemicisation][consonant][me_dialect][cornish][map][etymology]

ɸ3ϡŪ˵ʷϩ̤ɸѸꡤ夷Ǥ롥vane סˡvat ʾ¤Ѥʤɤβˡvixen ʻ󥮥ĥ͡ˤϡƬͭ໤ v äƤ롥Ƭ v ǤϵǤⲿǤʤΤͺ˥ĥͤɽ魯 fox Фƻ󥮥ĥ vixen ٤Ƥߤ褦ˡ3ˤƤϸ츻Ū̵໤ f ͽۤȤͭ໤ðۤʤΤǤ (cf. OE fana, fæt, fyxen) ŪˤϡѸǤΤ߸Ƭ̵໤ΧͭʬۤŪ˸¤Ƥ3ˤĤƤϤɤ櫓ɸѸؤȯŸѼ˼ޤ졤̲ΤǤ롥ȤʤäƤϤۤȤɵŤʤ3ϻҲΡ¤äȯͳ褹ΤǤ (cf. vixen ˤĤƤϡAmerican Heritage Dictionary ˤ vixen ⻲ȡˡ
Ρ¤פϡΥ󥰥ɤǤ¸³Ƥ롥ǤϸƬ [f] Τ٤Ȥ [v] Τߤʤ餺[s], [ʃ], [θ] Τ٤Ȥdzơ [z], [ʒ], [ð] Ȥä褦ˡ໤Τбߤ롥Upton and Widdowson (52) Ͽޤꡤfinger θƬˤĤʬۤ򼨤

Map of

󥰥ɤκüCornwall üǤɸŪ [f] ԤƤ뤬 Cornwall αѸήΤǤϤʤ˽Υȷϸ Cornish ֤ɸѸ˥롼ĤĤΤǤ (cf. #779. Cornish Manx ([2011-06-15-1])#2025. 󥰥ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1]
ơߤǤϸƬ [f] [v] ʬۤ˸¤Ƥ뤬Ѹˤϥ󥰥˹äƤιϰϤǡ餯Ǥ˸űѸƬ໤ͭϤޤäƤΤȻפ롥ѸǤ fader vader ʬۤ Plan and Bibliography (9) ˴Ť (101) ϿޤǤߤƤߤ褦

Map of

űѸǤϡǷѲޤǤϡˤ餺 [v] [z] ϸƬ뤳ȤϤʤäȤѸǤϡѲΤߤʤ餺̤ξƬ뤳ȤǽȤʤäLass (58--59) ϡθƬȤƤ [v], [z] ΰŪʵƤͳ1Ĥϡޤ໤ͭˤȤߤƤ (cf. #1222. ե󥹸줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1]))

A third factor, perhaps the most likely, was the existence in Middle English of varieties that had in Old English times undergone voicing of initial fricatives. Many southern dialects had voiced at least initial /f s/ --- a development whose relics survive still in the rural West Country ('Zummerzet'). This parallels, and may well stem from, the same process in continental West Germanic: the <v> in G Vater 'father', now pronounced with /f/, and Du. initial <v> and <z> in vader and zon 'sun' (/f s/ in more innovating dialects, still /v z/ in conservative ones) reflect this. While the voicing in England was mainly southern, it did extend well up into the midlands in Early Middle English, and the standard still has a number of forms with voiced initials like vat, vixen, vane (OE fæt, fyxen, fana). Contact between speakers of these dialects and others without voicing may have facilitated borrowing of French /v z/, making them less 'outlandish'.


Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 23--154.
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
Kurath, Hans, Margaret S. Ogden, Charles E. Palmer, and Richard L. McKelvery. Plan and Bibliography. U of Michigan P, 1954.
סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ38ǡ

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2015-05-17 Sun

#2211. űѸ engel ˤ g λҲ [oe][phonetics][consonant][pronunciation][g][j]

Ѹ angel ϡűѸ engel ̤ꡤ켫Τϸƥ angelus μѸǤ롥ˡangelus ϥꥷ ággelos (one that announces) μѤǤ롥ѸǤȯ [eɪnʤəl] Ǥꡤ<g> 2κǽλҲ˻Ȥʤ뤬űѸǤϤɤΤ褦ȯ줿ΤűѸΤΤǤϡ<g> ͿƤꡤ¾ΤΤǤ <ġ> ͿƤ롥ԤǤ [g] ǤꡤԤǤϤ줬餫λҲʤФܶ᲻ [j] ˤǤꤵ롥ޤHogg (37) ˤС<n> ˸³ <g> ѸƱ褦˻ [ʤ] ȤƼ¸줿 (ex. OE singe (> PDE singe [sɪnʤ])) Ĥ󤲤ƤΤǡȯ˰ [ʤ] Ĵʤ롥˻⡤ʤȤȤΤ1ǤϤ
ŪŵäƤߤ褦رѸ츻ŵ٤ˤСOE /-g-/ 13CޤǻĤ뤬ME OF angele, angel (F ange) (▭ LL) αƶ /ʤ/ ȤʤäפȤ롥ޤűѸ첻 Lass and Anderson (136) ˤСűѸ ġimm (gem; < L. gemma) 椷ƸűѸ engel ͿƤȤ顤[g] ꤷƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
⤦1ĤθűѸ첻 Hogg (223) ϡenġel ɽƤꡤꤷƤ롥μ¸ܶ᲻ [j] ʤΤ [ɟ] ʤΤϤޤ˻ [ʤ] ʤΤȽȤʤ
ΡرѸ I (100) ˤСűѸǤ en- yn- θ֤ [ɟ] 줬űѸ˻ [ʤ] ѲȤȤơޤ enġel (angel) lenġr (longer), hynġran (be hungry) ȤȤ˵󤲤Ƥ롥
̤˸űѸβŪ¸ˤĤƤ͡ʵꡤ狼ʤȤ¿ΤηˤĤƤϡˤ⿨줿 Lass and Anderson (136) ڤ줬褤ΤǰѤƤűѸ <g> βˤĤƸѸΤȤϢŤʤ⤷ƤսǡűѸ engel λҲ˻ [ʤ] äϤϤʤȤ򼨺Ƥֻʬ򻲾ȡˡ

. . . the 'normal' developments:

   (a) [j] before original front vowels: ġeolu 'yellow', ġieldan 'yield'.
   (b) [g] before original back vowels: gōs 'goose', gāst 'ghost'.
   (c) [g] before umlauted back vowels: gēs 'geese', gyrdels 'girdle'.

Some of the major anomalies are these:

   (a) [g] before original front vowels: give, get, gate, gallows, OE ġ(i)efan, ġ(i)etan, ġeat, ġealga. The simplest answer here is the traditional one of 'Scandinavian influence'---however that may have operated. The most likely way would seem to be by direct borrowing of forms, i.e. ON gefa, geta, gata, galgi. Since Old Norse did not at that time have a palatal softening rule, these foms, if they were borrowed as is, would be 'synchronically foreign' in OE dialects that had palatal softening: an OE form beginning with the 'impermissible' sequence [ge] would then be the equivalent of a form like Dvořak, or Vladimir in Modern English. That the OE forms did indeed have [j] is borne out by survivals like yett in place names from OE ġeat, and by the Middle English spelling distributions: basically non-northern forms like yeve, yive, as against northern ones like gyve, give, gyff.
   (b) [ʤ] before original front vowels: gem, OE ġimm < L. gemma. The answer here, as in angel (OE engel) is undoubtedly reborrowing from French after the Conquest.
   (c) [j] before original back vowels. We know of only one clear case of this type, which is yawn. The vowel suggests OE gānian 'gape, yawn', rather than the apparently synonomous (sic) verb ginian (gynian, gionian). The consonantism, however, suggests the latter. The OED (s.v. yawn) proposes, perhaps correctly, a sort of 'conflation': [j]-forms 'influenced by' (whatever that means) the vowel of now obsolete [g]-forms.


Τ褦ˤĤŵäƤϤߤɤΤȤʶȤƤꡤʤҲäꤹ뤳Ȥ񤷤
Ϣơ#1651. j g ([2013-11-03-1])#1914. <g> ֤ ([2014-07-24-1])#1828. j ʸȲбˤĤƺˬ ([2014-04-29-1]) ⻲ȡ

Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. 1992. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Lass, Roger and John M. Anderson. Old English Phonology. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.
С סرѸ I١Ѹ8罤۽Ź1980ǯ

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2015-05-10 Sun

#2204. d th θءѲ [consonant][verners_law][phonetics][me]

ɸϡ#481. father ˵ä໤ ([2010-08-21-1]) ʬŪ˼夲ѸˤǤϡð > d 뤤Ϥεդ d > th Ф줬뤬 (157) ϴϢ22ƼƤ롥ͭפʥꥹȤʤΤǡʲ˵Ƥεǵ󤲤⻲ȡˡ

OE ð [ð]ModE. d [d]OE d [d]ModE. th [ð]
byrðenburdenderfather
ðecouldgad(e)riangather
ð(wi)nes dūnCuddesdonġeardgarth[θ] (? yard)
fiðelefiddlehiderhither
ġeforðianaffordhwiderwhither
morðormurderdormother
ðlneedlesweardswarth [θ] (? sward)
ðorrudderME tedertether
spīðraspidertōgæd(e)retogether
staðolstaddleþiderthither
swæðelswaddlewederweather


Skeat ˤ뽾ˤСΤ褦 d ð δ֤ɤϡĤƤ verners_law η̤ȤƤ⤿餵줿ŪǤȤ줿ϡ嵭ѲѸʹߤݤǤ뤳Ȥ顤ǯʾ Verner's Law ʤȤ;ȡˤͿƤȹͤ뤳Ȥˤ̵뤷⤷ Verner's Law ŪʴͿäȤʤС (PIE *t >) d/ð Τߤʤ餺(PIE *p >) [v]/[b], (PIE *k >) [x]/[ɣ], (PIE *s >) [z]/[r] ˤɤ줬ϤºݤˤϸʤȤŦơSkeat ϼ뤳ȤǤʤȤƤ롥ϡѸ d ð ϢξϡषβĶˤ벻ѲȤǤ롥βĶΤȤǤβѲǤȤͤϡJespersen Jordan ˤäƾƤϤ (161) εꤷĶΤ礤ƤȤβǤ󼨤ʸǤ롥Ūˤϡʲ̤ꡥ

12IJ [ð] [d] ž뷹򼨤
15ήɡԤ [d] [ð] ž뷹򼨤


嵭Τ褦˲ĶꤹȡۤȤɤ٤ƤδͿ㤬ޤǤȤ2ĤβϻۤʤäƤꡤߤ˴ͿʤΩѲǤ롤ȡ

סOE byrðen "burden" vs. fæder "father"Ѹˤ˻ȯŪ˸ [d] [ð] θؤˤĤơסظդΤ󤽤ʿءˡ˶࿦ǰʸ١ҡ2015ǯ155--66ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-04-1]

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2015-05-07 Thu

#2201. ǤȤ Princess Charlotte [onomastics][french][loan_word][pronunciation][consonant][personal_name][title][palatalisation][fricativisation]

轵ѹ񲦼Υ٥ӡ Princess Charlotte ꤬ѹܤʨƤ롥Prince William Kate Middleton ׺ʤեȥ͡ Charlotteߥɥ͡ϡ褯ͤȴ졤֤ˤ⹥ɾ Elizabeth Diana Ǥ롥̤ˤϡιդ Her Royal Highness Princess Charlotte of Cambridge ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤ (cf. #440. ˻ĤɾΤ you ([2010-07-11-1]), #1952. Ųפ Your Majesty ˤߤɰա ([2014-08-31-1]))

Carlotte Elizabeth Diana

Charlotte ϡCharles θ캬˽ܼĻؾ (diminutive) դ֤ͳ褷־Ƥ襤 Charles פۤɤǤ롥θ캬ϵŪˤϥޥĸ *karlaz (man) ͳ褷줬ƥ Carolus ȤƼѤ졤˸ťե󥹸ȯŸǸƬҲ [k] [ʧ] ȸ (palatalisation) θҲäťե󥹸βѸؼѤ졤ߤ [ʧɑːlz] ϢʤäƤ롥
ե󥹸ä᤽ե󥹸Ǥ13˻ [ʧ] [ʃ] ؤ໤ (fricativisation) ʸä s ȯ򼺤ߡƱ̾ [ʃaʁl] ȯƤ롥ƱͤˡCharlotte ⸽ե󥹸Ǥȯ໤ǻϤޤ [ʃaʁlɔt] Ǥ롥αѸΥ٥ӡ̾⡤໤ǻϤޤ [ʃɑːlət] 顤ե󥹸ŪȯȤȤˤʤ롥嵭ޤȤȡѸ̾ Charles ˻äƸťե󥹸Ūʶ̾ Charlotte ໤äƸե󥹸ŪʶΤȤ롥
Ѹˤե󥹼Ѹ <ch> ֤Τ˻ [ʧ] 򼨤໤ [ʃ] 򼨤ȤϡФмѻ򸫶ˤΤѤ롥㤨 chance, charge, chief, check, chair, charm, chase, cheer, chant ϤѸ˼Ѥ줿ΤǤꡤchampagne, chef, chic, chute, chaise, chicanery, charade, chasseur, chassis ϤѸäΤǤ롥㤨ƤκƼѤͿʤɡɬ⤳ε§ˤƤϤޤʤ⤢Τǡܰ¤ˤȤɤƤCharles Charlotte λҲκۤˤĤƤŪ˾ܤĴ٤櫓ǤϤʤΰ㤤Ȥϡͭ̾˿ȼ䤹ήԤϹȿǤǤϤʤȵäƤ롥
ʤޥĸ *karlas (man) ϡľܤ뤤ϴܤ˸Ѹ churl carl ޤƤ롥̣Ρˡפֿʬ㤤ˡפؤȲƤΤ⤷դˡ̾ Charles Charlotte ϡѹ񲦼ο͵ˤꡤषͤޤäƤȤʡˡ
ե󥹼Ѹǯ˴ؤƤϡ#117. ե󥹼Ѹǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])#1210. ѸΥե󥹼Ѹΰ ([2012-08-19-1])#1291. ե󥹼Ѹμѻκ ([2012-11-08-1])#1209. 1250ǯ򶭤Ȥե󥹼Ѹζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])#1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1])#678. ƥ衼åŪ18Υե󥹼Ѹ ([2011-03-06-1])#594. ѸʹߤΥե󥹼Ѹħ ([2010-12-12-1]), #2183. ñȥեñ (1) ([2015-04-19-1]), #2184. ñȥեñ (2) ([2015-04-20-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Referrer (Inside): [2018-05-07-1] [2018-04-25-1]

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2015-05-06 Wed

#2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ [phonetics][consonant][assimilation][conjugation][inflection][3sp][verb][paradigm][oe][suffix][sobokunagimon][have][v]

ɸΤ褦ˡѸ have Ե§ѲưǤ롥has -s 뤷, had -d ⤢뤫顤Ե§Ȥϼ㴳Ե§Ȥ٤ʤ *haves *haved ǤϤʤΤ
ŪˤߤСߤǤϵƤʤ haves haved ¸ߤűѸ˾Ȥ餷ƤߤȡưϽ˵§Ūʶޤ򤹤ưǤϤʤä٤˵§ŪǤꡤ̤ϻ¾ε§ѲưȹͤƤƺ٤ʤűѸ䡤Ȥ櫓ѸǤϡhaves haved ֵ§Ūפʽ֤Τ˹ԤƤΤǤ롥
űѸ habban (have) ζɽϡ#74. /b/ /v/ ְ㤨!? ([2009-07-11-1]) ǷǤʲ˰۷֤ޤ᤿ɽƷǤ褦

habban (have)Present IndicativePresent SubjunctivePreterite IndicativePreterite SubjunctiveImperative
1st sg.hæbbehæbbehæfdehæfde 
2nd sg.hæfst, hafasthafa
3rd sg.hæfþ, hafaþ 
pl.habbaþhæbbenhæfdonhæfdenhabbaþ


Pres. Ind. 3rd Sg. βսߤȡűѸ has ֤Ȥơhæfþ, hafaþ 2󤬤äȤ狼롥 Τ褦2ҲܤԤηǤϡѸ˺ǽλҲ f æhath ʤɤη֤ hath ϶Ѹޤ³
3ñθ -(e)th -(e)s ѲаޤˤĤơ#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγס ([2015-03-08-1]) Ϥᡤ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1])#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1])#2156. C16b--C17a 3ñ -th -s Ѳ ([2015-03-23-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤܲδؿǤ븽Ѹ has Ȥ֤ľܤεϡhath ζ޸ִ˵ϡűѸ Northumbria ˳ǧ hæfis, haefes ʤɤ˵٤ -s ĸűѸν֤ϡѸˤϤ¿η֤ȯãf 첻˶ޤ줿Ķæꡤfs Τ褦2ҲܤĶæʤɤơŪ has Τ褦ʷ֤Ϥ줿hath has 鿰æϡΤ褦ˤۤʿŪǤ롥Ϣơhave of ˤĤơ³줬ҲǻϤޤȤ˿æ뤳ȤѸˤƤߤ줿ye ha seyn (you have seen) o þat light (of that light) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿 (p. 411ˡ
ʤ had ˤĤƤϡ#1348. 13ʹߤ v ([2013-01-04-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡ¿θ v νϤȤǤ롥#23. "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!"ϴְ㤤 ([2009-05-21-1]) 碌ƻȤ줿
MED hāven (v.) ԴѤʰֻꥹȤǡhas had ֤ΤƤ餤

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ

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