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morphology - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2018-06-24 Sun

#3345. ѲưƳ෿γ̿Ǥ [oe][verb][conjugation][inflection][suffix][tense][preterite][germanic][morphology][dental_suffix]

ޥɤκǤΩäħ1ĤˡѲư¸ߤ롥#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1]) ǿ줿褦˻ (dental suffix) դȤǡȤñ˲뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤä˴Ť෿δߤȡˤäƸűѸޤॲޥϡ޸ (inflecting languages) æ (agglutinating language) 뤤ϸΩ (isolating language) ؤȰŤȤˤʤ (cf. #522. ˤ෿ ([2010-10-01-1])) ΰ̣ǤϡѲưƳϡ緶ˤС෿γ̿ŪפäȤ롥von Mengden (287) βʹƤߤ褦

It is remarkable that in a strongly inflecting language like Old English (in contrast to both agglutinating and to analytic), there is a suffix (-d-) which is an unambiguous marker of the tense value past. The fact that this suffix -d- is the only morphological marker in all the paradigms of Old English with a truly distinctive one-to-one relation between form and value may indicate that this morpheme is rather young.


֤ȵǽƩ٤ι⤤11δطˤȤȤϡѸܸΤ褦ʥפθˤƤȡˤʤʤΤΤ褦ʥפǤϤʤäűѸζ޷ǰƬ֤ĤIJƹͤƤߤȡΤ˶ˤȤä-d- ̿1ȤϡθϢŪ˳̿ȤͶȯѸ෿ŪѤƤȤˤʤäΤǤ롥

von Mengden, Ferdinand. "Old English: Morphology." Chapter 18 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 272--93.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-25-1] [2019-05-15-1]

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2018-06-20 Wed

#3341. ƥ󡦥ե󥹼ѸϱѸζѥĸصꤵ [rsr][gsr][stress][germanic][indo-european][gradation][vowel][morphology]

Ѹʹߡƥե󥹸줫μѸ줬Ѹä̤˼ޤ줿ȤˤꡤѸζѥ礭ƤȤˤĤơ#718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1]) #200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥ󥹷Ϥ ([2009-11-13-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ
ƤϡGermanic Stress Rule (gsr) ξ˿ Romance Stress Rule (rsr) դääΤ󤹤뤳ȤǤ뤬˹ŪߤȡĸŪʶѥؤβ󵢤Ȥߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĸǤϲѤäζ֤ޥĸǤϸƬ˸경ƥե󥹸ȤܿˤꡤƤӲѤȤʤäƤȲǤ뤫ơβѤζϡΤδ֤첻μ̤Ѱۤ뤳ȤˤʤäǸθݤϡĸηħŤ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ˤۤʤʤ
Kastovsky (129--30) ǻ̩ʸϤǤθˤĤƾҲ𤷤Ƥ롥

[T]here are . . . typological innovations like the vowel and/or consonant alternations in sane : sanity, serene : serenity, Japán : Jàpanése, hístory : históric : hìstorícity, eléctric : elètrícity, close : closure resulting from the integration of non-native (Romance, Latin and Net-Latin) word-formation patterns into English with a concomitant variable stress system, which reverses the original typological drift towards a non-alternating relation between bases and derivatives and is reminiscent of Indo-European, where variable stress/accent produced variable vowel quality/quantity (ablaut).


Kastovsky ϡѸηˤ෿Ūª٤ȤĥƤ뤬ñʤ붦Ū෿ˤȤɤޤ餺෿Ȥ⤤٤ʻƤǤ⤢褦˻פ롥
ǿ줿2Ĥζ§ˤĤƤϡ#1473. Germanic Stress Rule ([2013-05-09-1]) ȡ#1474. Romance Stress Rule ([2013-05-10-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-07-08-1] [2018-07-07-1]

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2016-09-23 Fri

#2706. ܼ [productivity][word_formation][affixation][hapax_legomenon][lexicology][morphology][neologism][academic_conference]

رʳظʡָѲѰ۸˥åȡ׼Ť3åסȽǤǤʤѲѰۤλ¤ȸ˻äƤʼŤѤäˤʤޤˡؤĹȯɽֱѸƬ a- ѲˤĤơפǤϡܼ (productivity) ν¬ˡˤĤʬ䤹ƤεǤϡĹεĤơΤȤΥϥɥȤ˴ؤ벾פ󤷤
ܼˤ availability profitability ̤롥ԤϡܼѤ§¸ߤ뤳ȤؤˤŪʸ줬֤򤤤ФƸԤϡθ§ºݤ˻Ѥ졤ñȤƶ񸽲Ƥ֤򤤤ĤޤꡤܼͤݤˤϡǽϤȼºݤ˿äǽϤ̤Ƥɬפ롥
ܼ¬ȤȤˤʤȡǽϤ availability ¬񤷤ºݤñȤƶ񸽲ƤʤΤ顤ҴŪ¬褦ʤΤǤ롥äơƸǽϤǤ profitability ¬ꡤ availability 䤷̤äƤߤ褦ȤȤˤʤ롥profitability μפ¬ˡȤ3ĤۤɤƤƤ롥⡤ѥ伭Ѥ뤳ȤȤʤäƤ롥

(1) ܼΥ׿üŪˤϼϿƤꡤѥʸڤñθ (lexeme) ٥ǿĿ
(2) ֤ǤΡܼĿο
(3) ܼ줬 hapax_legomenon ǤΨ٤εϤΥѥˤ줬1٤ʤȤȤȡθι⤵ȤشطˤȤƤsee #938. (4) ([2011-11-21-1]

(1), (2), (3) ¬ˡˤϰĹûꡤɤ줬ǤͥƤ뤫뤳ȤϤ䤹ʤޤ¬Ǥ profitability ȺǽŪ˵᤿ availability Ȥδ֤ˤʤطΤ褯ʬäƤʤ㤨С(1) ͤ⤯Ȥ availability Ϲ⤯ʤȤߤʤ㤬롥㤨С -th, -ment ñΥ׿¿ߡΤܼȤϤߤʤȤǤʤ (cf. #1787. coolth ([2014-03-19-1])) դˡ(2) ͤ㤫äȤƤ⡤äƤ availability 㤤ͽ¬Τפȹͤ륱⤢̾ưʣʤɡˡޤ(3) ǹ⤤ͤ򼨤ȤƤ⡤üԤľŪȤ̷⤹륱褦
üԤľѤȤơʤΤ餷ȤϳΤҴŪ¬ꤹˤϤɤФ褤ΤŪˤŪˤϻĤƤ롥
ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥʲε¾ǰäƤΤ׻ȡ#935. (1) ([2011-11-18-1])#936. (2) ([2011-11-19-1])#937. (3) ([2011-11-20-1])#938. (4) ([2011-11-21-1])#876. Ѹˤ뤫Ф˹⤤ ([2011-09-20-1])#940. ¤ ([2011-11-23-1])#2363. hapax legomenon ([2015-10-16-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2017-07-21-1] [2016-10-10-1]

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2016-08-01 Mon

#2653. [terminology][morphology][morpheme][compound][derivation][inflection]

(morphology) Ȥϡ޷ (inflectional morphology) (derivational morphology) ʬΤǤ롥2ʬˡϡ#456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1])#1761. ޷Ȥʧֹ⤵פȡֹߡס ([2014-02-21-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡŪʤǤϤʤؤǤϹȤƤ롥
2ʬˡˤ˺ʬƤ椯ȤǤ뤬Bauer (33) ŪѸ췲ƳĤķʬ⤷ƤƤΤǡѤ褦ˤϡε#2652. ʣ̾ΰ̣Ūʬ ([2016-07-31-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ʬޤƤ롥

Morphology deals with the internal structure of word-forms. In morphology, the analyst divides word-forms into their component formatives (most of which are morphs realizing roots or affixes), and attempts to account for the occurrence of each formative. Morphology can be divided into two main branches, inflectional morphology and word-formation (also called lexical morphology). Inflectional morphology deals with the various forms of lexemes, while word-formation deals with the formation of new lexemes from given bases. Word-formation can, in turn, be subdivided into derivation and compounding (or composition). Derivation is concerned with the formation of new lexemes by affixation, compounding with the formation of new lexemes from two (or more) potential stems. Derivation is sometimes also subdivided into class-maintaining derivation and class-changing derivation. Class-maintaining derivation is the derivation of new lexemes which are of the same form class ('part of speech') as the base from which they are formed, whereas class-changing derivation produces lexemes which belong to different form classes from their bases. Compounding is usually subdivided according to the form class of the resultant compound: that is, into compound nouns, compound adjectives, etc. It may also be subdivided according to the semantic criteria . . . into exocentric, endocentric, appositional and dvandva compounds.


ʸϤƤʬΤפʽˤĤƿ޼褦Bauer (34) 򾯡ѤƼˡ

                                    [ The Basic Divisions of Morphology ]


                  INFLECTIONAL                                                
                        (deals with forms                                    CLASS-MAINTAINING
                        of individual lexemes)                              
MORPHOLOGY                                  DERIVATION  
                                                        (affixation)      
                                                                           CLASS-CHANGING
                  WORD-FORMATION 
                          (deals with                                        COMPOUND NOUNS
                          formation of                                      
                          new lexemes)              COMPOUNDING  COMPOUND VERBS
                                                            (more than one    
                                                            root)              COMPOUND ADJECTIVES

˴ϢפʽѸˤĤƤϡ#700. 졤ǡܼ캬촴ʣ졤Ρ ([2011-03-28-1]) ⻲ȡ

Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-23-1] [2021-07-02-1]

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2016-07-31 Sun

#2652. ʣ̾ΰ̣Ūʬ [compound][word_formation][morphology][terminology][semantics][hyponymy][metonymy][metaphor][linguistics]

#924. ʣʬ ([2011-11-07-1]) ʣ (compound) ʬ򼨤ʣ̾˸¤ꡤỊ̇δʬहȡ(1) endocentric, (2) exocentric, (3) appositional, (4) dvandva 4ʬ롥Bauer (30--31) ˰͵򤷡ơ⤷褦

(1) endocentric compound nouns: beehive, armchair Τ褦ˡʣ̾줬ʸˡŪʼ (hive, chair) β̸ (hyponym) ȤʤäƤ㡥beehive hive ΰǤꡤarmchair chair ΰǤ롥
(2) exocentric compound nouns: redskin, highbrow Τ褦㡥(1) 褦ʣ̾줬ʸˡŪʼβ̸ˤʤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤredskin skin ΰǤϤʤhighbrow brow ΰǤϤʤषɽƤʤ̣ŪʼʤǤ "person" ۤɡˤβ̸ȤʤäƤΤħǤ롥äơmetaphor metonymy ͿΤ̤Ǥ롥ΥפϡSanskrit ʸˡѸȤäơbahuvrihi compound ȤƤФ롥
(3) appositional compound nouns: maidservant तʣ̾ϡ1Ǥβ̸Ǥ⤢ꡤ2Ǥβ̸Ǥ⤢롥maidservant maid ΰǤꡤservant ΰǤ⤢롥
(4) dvandva: Alsace-Lorraine, Rank-Hovis त줬ʸˡŪʼ׸줬ȽȤ2Ĥ蘆äΤؼΡʣ̾ϡǤβ̸ǤȤ⤤ʤdvandva Ȥ̾Τ Sanskrit ʸˡѸ줫Ƥ뤬ѸǤ 'copulative compound ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥

Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.

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2016-06-28 Tue

#2619. űѸѲ2ưޤ˸ -i- ѸǤξü [inflection][verb][oe][eme][conjugation][morphology][owl_and_nightingale][speed_of_change][schedule_of_language_change][3sp][3pp]

űѸμѲ2°ưǤϡɽΤĤβս "medial -i-" (#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1]) θűѸ lufian ζɽ򻲾) -i- Ѹʹߤ˼ƤüΥߥ󥰤䥹ԡɤƥȤʤɤˤäưۤʤäƤʬۤΰȤƤϡݼŪǤ -i- ٤ޤݤ졤׿ŪǤ᤯˼줿
űѸμѲ2Ǥľˡ3;ñߤζ޸ -i- Ժߤ - Ȥʤ뤬б3;ΡʣǤ -i- -iaþ Ȥʤ롥äơѸʹߤ -i- ξüʤȡ޸ˤä3;Τñʣ̤뤳ȤǤʤʤä
üʹԤƤѸβϴˤϡκ⤢äΤǤϤʤȵ롥㤨СThe Owl and the Nightingale ll. 229--32 򸫤Ƥߤ褦Cartlidge Ǥˡ

Vor eurich þing þat schuniet riȝt,
Hit luueþ þuster & hatiet liȝt;
& eurich þing þat is lof misdede,
Hit luueþ þuster to his dede.


֤ǵưϤűѸμѲ2ͳ褷3;ñμäƤ롥äơ -i- ʤϤschuniet hatiet Ǥ -i- Ƥ롥ʤ嵭 C ܤǤη֤ȿǤƤ뤬J ܤǤб֤Ϥ줾 schonyeþ, luuyeþ, hateþ, luueþ ȤʤäƤꡤ-i- ʬۤǤޤޤǤ롥
schuniet ˤĤƤϡԻ eurich þing ̣ʣȤƲᤵ줿뤤 alle þing ʤɤοʣäΤǤϤʤȤǽŦƤCartlidge (Owl 113) Ǥϡ"it seems more sensible to regard these lines as an example of the Middle English breakdown of distinctions made between different forms of Old English Class 2 weak verbs" Ȥθ򤬼Ƥ롥
Cartlidge ̤ʸǡΥƥȤˤ -i- ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤΤǡβսѤƤ

In both C and J, the infinitives of verbs descended from Old English Class 2 weak verbs in -ian always retain an -i- (either -i, -y, -ye, -ie, -ien or -yen). However, for the third person plural of the indicative, J writes -yeþ five times, as against nine cases of - or -þ; while C writes -ieþ or -iet seven times, as against seven cases of -, -ed, or -et. In the present participle, both C and J have medial -i- twice beside eleven non-conservative forms. The retention of -i in some endings also occurs in many later medieval texts, at least in the south, and its significance may be as much regional as diachronic. (Cartlidge, "Date" 238)


ˤϡ-i- ξüηˤäưۤʤäƤФǤʤɽΥåȤˤäƤ⥿ߥ󥰤䥹ԡɤۤʤäƤǽƤꡤѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) δ鶽̣

Cartlidge, Neil, ed. The Owl and the Nightingale. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2001.
Cartlidge, Neil. "The Date of The Owl and the Nightingale." Medium Aevum 65 (1996): 230--47.

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2016-04-30 Sat

#2560. űѸηƻ춯Ѳޤ̾̾κѥ [adjective][ilame][terminology][morphology][inflection][oe][germanic][paradigm][personal_pronoun][noun]

űѸηƻζѲѲζ̤ˤĤƤϡޥɤθħȤơ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#785. ޥ٤¬뤿10ܡ ([2011-06-21-1])#687. ޥɤηƻζѲȼѲ ([2011-03-15-1]) Ǽ夲ѸˤޤοˤĤƤ ilame γƵˤ
ѲȼѲζ̤ϸűѸǤ̾ˤߤ줿Ѳƻζޤ̾ΤȷŪˤ褽ʿԤƤȤäƤ褤㴳κۤ롥Ȥ˷ƻζѲޤǤϡб̾ζѲޤȰۤʤ꤫˸롥Ūˤϡΰ㤤Τսˤ̾ǤϤʤ;̾ (personal_pronoun) ζ޸Ǥ롥ĤޤꡤűѸηƻ춯Ѳޤϡ̾ޤ̾ޤ礷褦ʤΤȤʤäƤ롥ηаޤˤĤơHogg and Fulk (146) ˼򷹤褦

As in other Gmc languages, adjectives in OE have a double declension which is syntactically determined. When an adjective occurs attributively within a noun phrase which is made definite by the presence of a demonstrative, possessive pronoun or possessive noun, then it follows one set of declensional patterns, but when an adjective is in any other noun phrase or occurs predicatively, it follows a different set of patterns . . . . The set of patterns assumed by an adjective in a definite context broadly follows the set of inflexions for the n-stem nouns, whilst the set of patterns taken in other indefinite contexts broadly follows the set of inflexions for a- and ō-stem nouns. For this reason, when adjectives take the first set of inflexions they are traditionally called weak adjectives, and when they take the second set of inflexions they are traditionally called strong adjectives. Such practice, although practically universal, has less to recommend it than may seem to be the case, both historically and synchronically. Historically, . . . some adjectival inflexions derive from pronominal rather than nominal forms; synchronically, the adjectives underwent restructuring at an even swifter pace than the nouns, so that the terminology 'strong' or 'vocalic' versus 'weak' or 'consonantal' becomes misleading. For this reason the two declensions of the adjective are here called 'indefinite' and 'definite' . . . .


Ū˶ѲޤΤɤŪ̾ŪǤϤʤ̾ŪȤȡacc.sg.masc (-ne), dat.sg.masc.neut. (-um), gen.dat.sg.fem (-re), nom.acc.pl.masc. (-e), gen.pl. for all genders (-ra) Ǥ (Hogg and Fulk 150)
ѲѲȤ֤˴ŤޥӸؤŪʶʬѸϡűѸηƻˤĤƤϲȤͭѸʹߤˤϤۤȤ̵̣ȤʤäƤΤǤꡤ̻ŪˤϤӤ졦̣Ūʵǽܤ (definiteness) (definiteness) Ȥ̤Τۤ⤷ʤ

Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-16-1] [2020-04-12-1]

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2016-04-24 Sun

#2554. ͭޤʸ̮ [terminology][inflection][morphology][syntax][derivation][compound][word_formation][category][ilame]

(inflection) ˤϡŪʴߤĸͭ (inherent inflection) ȡŪʴߤʸ̮ (contextual inflection) 2बȤ롥Booij (1) ˤȡ

Inherent inflection is the kind of inflection that is not required by the syntactic context, although it may have syntactic relevance. Examples are the category number for nouns, comparative and superlative degree of the adjective, and tense and aspect for verbs. Other examples of inherent verbal inflection are infinitives and participles. Contextual inflection, on the other hand, is that kind of inflection that is dictated by syntax, such as person and number markers on verbs that agree with subjects and/or objects, agreement markers for adjectives, and structural case markers on nouns.


Τ褦ʶޤ2פζ̤ϡޤǤθǤŦ뤳ȤϤäƥñ urbs ʣ urbes ΰ㤤ϡοΰפˤͿ뤳ȤϤ뤬Ȥựοˤưۤʤ㤤ǤꡤͭޤطƤ롥ʷ urbs гʷ urbem ΰ㤤ϡ̣Ūʰ㤤ͿƤ뤬ȤŪ׵ᤵ뺹ۤǤȤǡδͿضȽǤ롥äơǤʸ̮ޤطƤȤ
ѸˤĤƹͤƤ⡤̾οʤɤ˴ؤͭޤϡ̣ŪŪ¦̤äƤ롥бʣΤʤ̾졤бñΤʤ̾pluralia tantum)ñʣŪʰ̣ۤʤʤʤۤʤ2ǤߤСΤȤϼΤǤưʬδ֤ˤδطߤ롥ϡΤ졦ʣδط˶ᤤ
ʸ̮ޤ꿼˴ؤäƤ뤳Ȥϡɸͭޤɸ⳰¦ղä뤳ȤȴͿƤ褦Booij (12) ۩"[C]ontextual inflection tends to be peripheral with respect to inherent inflection. For instance, case is usually external to number, and person and number affixes on verbs are external to tense and aspect morphemes"
콬δ⡤ͭޤʸ̮ޤζ̡äԤԤͥۤȤϻٻ褦ͭޤȼΰ̣Ĥľܤʸ˹׸뤬ʸ̮ޤΩ⤿ޤŪ˴ŪʰյĤˤʤ
ǤϡѲλˤơ󵯤줿褦ʸͭޤʸ̮ޤζ̡ˤԤθԤФͥۤϡɤΤ褦ɽΤѸˤǤߤ褦ˡʸˡŪǽä̾졤ƻ졤ưʤɤζ޸üƤäȤˡεǽ顤ζ޸ʬ˾üƤäν餫ˤʤСȾ嵭2ĤζޥפȤϢưشطĴ٤뤳ȤǤ⤷ȡѸƻޤλ㤬Ūˡ餫ƶ⤿餷ƤΤǤϤʤȴƤ롥ѸηƻޤˤĤƤϡilame γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿

Booij, Geert. "Inherent versus Contextual Inflection and the Split Morphology Hypothesis." Yearbook of Morphology 1995. Ed. Geert Booij and Jaap van Marle. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1996. 1--16.

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2016-01-07 Thu

#2446. ˤˡ§ [morphology][category][functionalism][redundancy][information_theory][markedness][category]

ε#2445. ܥˤ̵ռ ([2016-01-06-1]) ǰѤˤ Franz Boaz ˴ؤϤκǸ (p. 98) ˡĹ餯Ի׵Ĥ˻פäƤؤθڤä

¿θ줬ñǼƤۤʣǤΤŪʶ̤򤷤ƤʤΤϤʤȤ򡤲ʤΤȤƥܥϰѤƤ롥֥ (Viggo Bröndal) ϡŪγѤʣ򤱤뤿μʤŪ˹֤Ƥ뷹뤳ȤŦФʬΰĤƤ˴ؤʣǤ¾Ƥ˴ؤƤŪñǤ롥Ρˡ§פˤäơñⴰꤵƤʣϡŪɽäƤ롥


ѸˤǤСϤĤηǸ롥űѸˤơ̾ƻʤˤ޷ϡʣñΤۤ¿ʣǤ롥3;̾Ǥ⡤ñǤ (he), hēo (she), hit (it) ˱3ΰۤʤ촴̤뤬ʣǤζ̤¤ hīe (they) Τߤȴά롥ưο;θ⡤ñǤϿ;Τˤۤʤ֤Τ̤ʣǤϿ;Τˤ餺1Ĥη֤뤳Ȥ¿ĤޤꡤʸˡƤιΤͭɸʤΤ˴ؤƤϡ餯̣ǽʣǤ뤤ȤơбŪñʤΤޤ롤ȤȤ
ͤƤߤСϸ줬ǽŪηϤǤ뤳ȤȤΤȤ⤷ʤͭɸǤʣηϤϡѼԤôꤹ¸³Τ񤷤Ϥˡ§פϡ١;ѤȤäǽŪʽǰȤ⿼ط (see #1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1]))
äȤ⡤Ρˡ§פϰŪ˴ѻ뷹Ȥ٤ΤǤꡤ̸ŪˤȿϾʤ餺դ̻ŪѲʤ櫓ǤϤʤ

ظؼ?ػˤäŷ͡ۺͤμ?١īǼҡ2010ǯ

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2015-06-07 Sun

#2232. High Vowel Deletion [high_vowel_deletion][phonetics][vowel][syllable][inflection][morphology][sound_change]

ɸβˤĤơ#1674. Ѳȶ޸οʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1])#2017. foot ʣϤʤ feet (2) ([2014-11-04-1])#2225. hear -- heard -- heard ([2015-05-31-1]) ǿƤϤ⤦ܤβϡi-mutation ˡ餯űѸ (pre-OE) θȤ벻ѲǤꡤűѸβ礭ʱƶڤܤLass (98) üŪˤСHVD (High Vowel Deletion) ϰʲΤ褦ˤޤȤ롥

The fates of short high */i, u/ in weak positions are largely determined by the weight of the preceding strong syllable. In outline, they deleted after a heavy syllable, but remained after a light one, in the case of */i/ usually lowering to /e/ at a later stage.


촴᤬Ťrhyme 3⡼ʾ夫ʤ˾ˡ³夤ι첻 (/i/, /u/) üȤǤ롥Ԥ촴᤬ŤˤϡǤΤȤƽŤΤ顤˹첻³;פ˽Ť櫓ˤϤʤȲᤷƤ褤ơ촴ηڽŤˤꡤ³첻̵ͭڤؤ륱뤳ȤȤʤäLass (99--100) 򻲹ͤˡűѸ줫󤲤褦HVD Ѥ֤ǼƤ롥

Syllable weightpre-OEOE
heavy*ðα:ð-idǣd 'deed'
heavy*wurm-iwyrm 'worm'
light*win-iwin-e 'friend'
heavy*flo:ð-uflōd 'flood'
heavy*xαnð-uhand 'hand'
light*sun-usun-u 'son'
heavy*xæur-i-ðæhīer-de 'heard'
light*nær-i-ðæner-e-de 'saved'


űѸηǤϡʲζޤˤ HVD θ̤ѻ (Lass 100)

(i) a-stem neuter nom/acc sg: light scip-u 'ships' vs. heavy word 'word(s)', bān 'bone(s)'.
(ii) ō-stem feminine nom sg: light gief-u 'gift' vs. heavy lār 'learning'.
(iii) i-stem nom sg: light win-e 'friend' vs. heavy cwēn 'queen'
(iv) u-stem nom sg: light sun-u 'son' vs. heavy hand 'hand'.
(v) Neuter/feminine strong adjective declension: light sum 'a certain', fem nom sg, neut nom/acc sg sum-u vs. heavy gōd 'good', fem nom sg gōd.
(vi) Thematic weak verb preterites . . . .


ΤѸˤޤ HVD θ̤³¸ƤϤ鷺Ǥ롥ʬ heard ʣ sheep ˲餫Ե§򴶤ȤǤϤĤƤ HVD αƶŪˤΤäƤΤǤ롥

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2015-05-24 Sun

#2218. concrete vs abstract word [word][morphology][inflection][terminology][generative_grammar]

Ullmann (43--44) ˡ (word) ߤȤơɸΩ󤲤Ƥ롥츫ȡΩϸΰ̣ŪŪ̾Ǥж̾줫̾줫ȤΩΤȤ뤬ºݤˤ Ullmann ϷŪʴ concrete abstract ȤƻѤƤ롥Ullmann (43--44) "the contrast between 'concrete' and 'abstract' word-structure" ˴ؤߤƤߤ褦

In Latin and other highly inflected languages it often happens that a word does not exist in an abstract state, as a pure designation of the thing it stands for: there is annus, nominative singular, annum, accusative singular, annorum, genitive plural, etc., but no single form denoting the idea of 'year' as such, without specifying its function in the sentence. In this sense, the Latin word is concrete, i.e. grammatically determined, whereas the French an or the English year are abstract, grammatically neutral until they are embedded in a specific utterance.


δ餹ȡƥӤͭűѸθϤƤ concrete ǤꡤФ븽ѸθϤƤ abstract ȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹ stone ϷŪŪˡСסܸθ⤿ƤŪʤΤǤΤޤޥѥƤ뤳ȤǤˤɽ魯ȤǤ뤬űѸ stān ϡСפɽ魯Τߤʤ餺Ūʾ󡤤ʤʡʤ뤤гʡˤǤ뤳ȤƱ˼Ƥ롥षŪʾ򼨤ȤʤñŪˡСפɽ魯ˡʤȸäƤ褤ˤŪ¿ξޤޤʤȤǡűѸ stān ʤꡤζ޷Ǥ stānes, stāne, stānas, stāna, stānum ʤϡŪʸǤȤ롥
Τ褦ʶŪʸϡŪ˻ȤȤ㤨м䥰å꡼ԻȤˤϡǺޤ󼨤롥ɤη򸫽ФȤ٤Ф褤ʤФʤʤ¿οͤˤȤäƼʤη֤֤Τ̾δФ⤷ʤϸسؽ̤Ƽʷ֤ɽǤȴ餵Ƥ⤷ʤΤŪˤʤ¾γʤ椷ۤƤ롤äɽȤФ٤Ǥ롤ȤȤϵǤΤ⤷ʤǤŬڤǤ뤫ɤϤɤΤ褦˷Ф褤Τ㤨СŪˤϺ뤫⤷ʤʸˡˤŪʴĤޤºݤȯäˤΤȤΤʤ֤򡤼θФΩƤȤȤϤꤦ롥ޤűѸưϡΥե󥹸ɥĸʤɤƱͤˡ򸫽ФΩƤΤ㤨ľˡ1;ñߤη֤ǷǤưͳϤʤ褦˻פ롥
ͤƤߤСѸθűѸӤŪǤȤǡ̾ˤʣޤ⤢뤷ưˤϳƼζ޷롥äơФηˤϡϤꤢٶŪʸ줬ФƤȤͤ롥㤨Сstone ϡñͭʤ򼨤Ƥ¤ˤơŪǤ롥ǤϡŪʸȤΤΤ⤷ʤʸˡȤǤСˤ餺 concrete word Ȥ surface form ΤȤǤꡤabstract word Ȥ underlying form ΤȤǤȰŪ򤹤Τ

Ullmann, Stephen. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. 1962. Barns & Noble, 1979.

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2015-05-16 Sat

#2210. think -- thought -- thought γ [verb][inflection][i-mutation][oe][morphology][phonetics][compensatory_lengthening][sobokunagimon]

ɸ think γѤΤߤʤ餺bring, buy, seek, teach ʤɤγѤǤϡʬ˷˸Ȥϰۤʤ첻롥ۤʤ첻˲äơֻξ ght ʤҲϢ³졤Ե§פȤΰݤϷŪǤ롥Ūˤϵ§ŪưǤꡤ-ed դƲʬ˷¿ư֤Ǥ롥¿ΤΤ¿βѲŪ˷иƤˡ̤ȤơԵ§ޤʤɤΤѤ򼨤ȤˤʤäƤ롥
Mitchell and Robinson (48--49) ˽äơŪаޤ⤷褦ޤthink ưθűѸǤηɽ˼ߤޤǤѸȤʤäΡʵ§ѲؤȰܹԤΤޤޤƤ롥

Inf.Pret. Sg.Past Ptc.
brenġan 'bring'brōhtebrōht
bycgan 'buy'bohteboht
cwellan 'kill'cwealdecweald
reċċan 'tell'rōhterōht
sēċan 'seek'sōhtesōht
sellan 'give'sealdeseald
streċċan 'stretch'strōhtestrōht
tǣċan 'teach'tǣhte, tāhtetǣt, tāht
þenċan 'think'þōhteþōht
þynċan 'seem'þūhteþūht
wyrċan 'work'worhteworht


ưϡűѸʬˤмѲ1°롥Υ饹ưħϡΩĥޥĸλˡ֤Ⱦ첻 j äƤȤǤ롥ˤ촴첻 i-mutation κѤꡤꤢ뤤Ϲ⤤첻ؤѲi-mutation j ϡθ塤üꡤ첻 i ȤưѤ줿ꤷ
Ѳ1ʬưˤƤϡ嵭 i-mutation κѤߡʬޤޥѥΤ˸줿촴 l 뤤ŪҲġ˰ưˤƤϸ߷ζޤˤΤߺѤΰưǤϡʬˤ i-mutation Ⱦ첻 j 礱ƤΤǤ롥̤ȤơűѸˤ븽ߴȲʬ˴ӤȡԤԤʸꤢ뤤㤤첻ʤȤ⤽κפ򼨤Ȥˤʤäɽ e vs o y vs u Ωǧ줿
cwellann, sellan ˤĤơߤȲʬˤǤ e vs ea Ω򼨤Ūˤ e vs æ ε§ŪΩȤߤƤ褤æ ʬ˷ˤΤҲ ld dz (breaking) 򵯤ea Ѳˤʤ
ޤþenċċan, þynċan, brenġan ˴ؤơʬ˷ ht λҲ򼨤 *nċt η礬§ŪȯãΤǤ롥˻Ū ċ th ؤѲn ϾüȤȤĹ (compensatory_lengthening) ˤԤ첻Ĺ
bycgan, wyrċan ˤĤƤϡͽۤ y vs u Ω򼨤y vs o ȤʤäƤ롥ʬ˷ o Τϡ u βĶˤƲФ i-mutation äˡ߷Ǥͽۤ y Ƥ뤬ʬ˷ˤƤϲη̤Ǥ u ߤȤ櫓
Τ褦ΩĻ͡ʲѲˡűѸζ֤ȤƤϡ⶯ѲưΤȤ첻 gradation (Ablaut) 򼨤褦ˤߤ뤬̤ȤƤΤ褦ˤߤƤˤ򤿤ɤл (dental suffix) դƲʬ˷̾μѲưˤʤȤ롥
ưξܤˤˤĤƤϡHogg and Fulk (273--75) ⻲ȡseek ˤĤƤϡ#2015. seek beseech θҲ ([2014-11-02-1]) Ǥ⿨줿

Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson. A Guide to Old English. 8th ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

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2015-03-07 Sat

#2140. ѲΥ饤ե [phonetics][phonology][morphology][language_change][neogrammarian]

ѲΰǤϡĤƤǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤ "Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze" 㳰ʤѲפȤơľ褦ˤʤäƵפºݤβѲɬ⵬§˽äƤ줤˿ʹԤȤϸ¤餺षʣʽװκΤ̤Ǥ롥ֲѲΥ饤եפǯǤϤ뤬ǯƹͤ褦ˤʤäƤ͡ʹͤ뤬Salmons (103) ϶ǯƤ줹븫򼡤Τ褦ˤޤȤɾƤ롥

   1. Coarticulation and other articulatory factors . . . introduce new synchronic variants into the pool of speech . . . .
   2. As learners . . . and listeners . . ., we build generalizations based on those variants, constrained by our cognitive abilities. This often turns phonetic patterns into phonological ones.
   3. Phonological patterns feed morphological alternations, and as 'active' phonological processes fade, they may be adjusted to fit paradigms, in analogical or other realignments . . . .

   In a sense underlying the life cycle is the notion that phonetic and phonological patterns are constantly reinterpreted, negotiated and generalized by each generation of learners, speakers and listeners.


üŪˤСѰۤϲѲ⤿餷ѲϷѲˤ⤿餷ʤ鸺हȤ饤եѲȷѲΤ褦ʴطˤ뤳Ȥϡ#1674. Ѳȶ޸οʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1])#1693. §ŪʲѲԵ§ŪʷѲ ([2013-12-15-1]) Ǥ⼨Ƥ̤Ǥ롥ޤ#838. ηϤȥȥԡ ([2011-08-13-1]) ƳȥԡδߤȡΥ饤եϡȥԡ硤ڤӤ³ȤƵҤǤ롥
ΰѤ2ˤ褦ˡǯʹŻ뤷ѲˤʤäƤƤ롥ԤˤäƤϡ٤ƤβѲˤʹ꤬򰮤äƤȼĥԤ⤤롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1932. Ѳ monitoring (1) ([2014-08-11-1])#1933. Ѳ monitoring (2) ([2014-08-12-1])#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1])#1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˡ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1])#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ̤ꡤѲʤ餺ȤѲˤʹϤäɾƤ褤

Salmons, Joseph. "Segmental Phonological Change." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 89--105.

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2015-02-07 Sat

#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ [verb][inflection][agreement][conjugation][paradigm][morphology][3sp][3pp][sobokunagimon]

ɸϡѸؽԤ٤ϤѤʵɽʤǤ롥ѸǤư3;ñ߷ȤƸ촴 -(e)s դΤ§ȤʤäƤ롥(1) 줬3;ΤǤꡤ(2) 줬ñǤꡤ(3) ߤǤȤ3Ĥξ郎٤·äȤˤΤղäȤ§ʤΤǡѸؽԤˤȤäƽˤʸ̩ˤ (4) ľˡǤȤɬסˡ伫Ȥ⡤Ѹä񤤤ꤹݤˤϡȤ櫓ư줬Υ줿ʤɤˡ§׵ᤵפ򤦤ä˺Ƥޤ3ñ -s ȤϲʤΤΤ¸ߤΤȳؽԤԻ׵Ĥ˻פΤ϶ˤƼǤ롥
Ѹˤ3ñ -s ϱοȻפäƤ롥ŪʴϡưΰפȤϤʸݤΰȤơεʬϤʤ줦롥Ω줫ϡ㤨ʸˡǤ InflP ȤǽƤΤȤǼ̾ȶ޼Ȥδط򵭽Ҥ뤳ȤǡɤΤ褦ʾư -s ղä뤫Ǥ롥Ͼˤʤ3ñΤȤ -s դΤͳ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ǽΩ줫ϡ-s ̵ͭˤꡤ(1) 줬3;Τ12;Τζ̡(2) 줬ñʣζ̡(3) ߤ󸽺ߤζ̤Ū뤳ȤǤ롤롥㤨С줬 Johnhe ǻؤ뤤 John and Marythey ǻؤΤ줫Ǥͽۤʸ̮ˤơ̾ʬʹʤäȤƤ⡤ʸ߻Ȥǡưθտʹ뤳ȤǤСפǤ롥Τ褦ǽ¤ˤơ-s ̵ͭϵǽŪȤȤǤä3ñ -s Ȥ§ⵡǽŪǤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Ǥ3ñ -s Ρ֤ʤפˤƤʤǽȤǽݤΤǤСä3ñ -s ĤȤˡǤϤʤ¾ˤ͡ˡͤϤʤ3ñ -p Ȥ -g ǤϤʤΤʤ3ʣ -s ǤϤʤΤʤ3ñ -s ǤϤʤΤ뤤ϡβǽ򤹤٤Ȥ߹碌ŬưΥѥǤ⡤Ʊ褦Ѥ­Ĥޤꡤ嵭εǽŪϡ3ñ -s ĸѸΥѥ˸¤餺Ʊ褦Ѥ­¾ΥѥˤѤƤޤȤȤǤ롥ɡǽŪϡʤѸ줬ˤä3ñ -s ĥѥͭƤΤʤ
ŪǤ쵡ǽŪǤ졤Ūʴεϡ3ñ -s ˴ؤͿ褦ȤϤƤ뤬ΰʤƤˤܼŪ䤤ˤƤʤ̻ŪʴߤС֤ʤפؤϤäƤǤ롥
̻Ūʲˡɸȯ⤦褦֤ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤפȤˤϡ֤ʤ3ñȤݥΤ;פʸĤʤФʤʤΤפȤռ롥¾ΥݥǤΤޤޤǤ褤Τˡʤ3ñ˸¤äݤʤȤ򤷤ʤФʤʤΤȡȤ̻ŪʻռȿФǤ롥̻Ūˤϡ3ñ -s ĤȤϡۤȤפʤȤ٤Ȥ¿ʤΤǤ롥ष䤦٤ϡ֤ʤ3ñʳǤϲĤʤʤäƤޤäΤפǤ롥
Ǥϡ򤭤ΤȤäȤơűѸư lufian (to love) ľˡߤζɽǤ褦

lufian (to love)SingularPlural
1st personlufielufiaþ
2nd personlufastlufiaþ
3rd personlufaþlufiaþ


ζɽʬ褦ˡűѸǤ3ñ˸¤餺1ñ2ñ1ʣ2ʣ3ʣǤⲿ餫θդƤѸδϡ3ñΤߤ˸դ3ñȤ̻뤷ƤޤűѸǤϡʤλ⤽ѸˤѸˤʬŪˤ뤬ˤ줾ο;ΡȤ߹碌Ʊ٤ˡ̡פǤꡤˤ줿դʤФʤʤäС3ñߤΤ褦⤤ݥä櫓ǤϤʤ
űѸΡ֤٤ƤΥݥ̡פȤ⤤뤳ΥѥϡѸ줫Ѹˤ礭Ƥ롥űѸʹߡ޸֤褦̵ˤơ岽ĤˤϾüȤ礭ʲѲĬήʹԤ嵭 lufian ǤС1ñ lufie θϼ岽α¿ȤʤꡤѸǤΤʸ첻⤿ʤ love Ȥʤä lufian Τ⡤ƱλҲ첻岽üɡָ love ؤȯŸο;ΤǤⶦ̤θűѸʣ lufiaþ ϡ޸ˤ첻μ岽üη̡3ñ lufaþ ȷŪͻ礷ƤޤäȤطƤȤ櫓Ѹǡ³ˡߤΥѥͳ褹 n Ȥ loven Ȥ֤ѤȤ n Τ岽ü䤹äᡤѸޤǤˤϤ褽Ǥ love ؤ夤2ñ lufast ˤĤƤϡ޸ȤƾüϤΤҲ2ĤäƤꡤǤФۤܤΤޤޤηǸѸޤĤϤäȤ2ñб̾ thou 餯ҲŪװ¸߰յ򼺤Ω you ؤϤƤ˵ڤǡ-ast ζ޸Τ뵡򼺤ѤȤʤä2ñζ޸ϡ2ʣб you Ʊ񤤤򤹤뤳ȤˤʤäᡤΥݥؤ love
Ĥ3ñ lufaþ Ǥ롥˾üˤҲäƤˡѸޤǤϤۤܤΤޤޤݤ줿Ѹͳ褹 -s ϤȤ -þ ֤ȤѲäΤΡ̤ȤƤ -s üˤꤷҲäᡤ줬ѸޤĤä¾Υݥζ޸Ūʼ岽üα¿Ȥʤäꡤ¾μפʸִƤʤɤơĤˤϾääΤФ3ñ -s ϲŪ˶ǤǰꤷƤȤͳǡɤʡˤޤ޺ޤĤäΤǤ롥3ñ -s ľˡߤζޥѥˤǸĤȤ롥
ƽҤ٤뤬̻Ūʻռϡ֤ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤפǤϤʤ֤ʤ3ñʳǤϲĤʤʤäƤޤäΤפǤ롥Ρ֤ʤפγάϾǽҤ٤ƤºݤˤϸġΥݥˤĤƤäʣʷаޤ롥ѸˤǤϡ޸οʿ (levelling of inflection) ȤΤ絬ϤʲΰüȤơפʣǤ롥
3ñ -s ϢνˤĤƤ 3sp γƵ򡤴Ϣ3ʣ -s ȤѸ˾ˤĤƤ 3pp γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿

ʸ嵭2017/03/15(Wed)ϢơҤΥ֥ȾεȤ֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤ񤤤ƤޤΤǡȤ

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2014-11-30 Sun

#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ [spelling][grammatology][spelling_pronunciation_gap][orthography][morphology][centralisation]

#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])#1829. 񤭸եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])#1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡḽѸֻηϤϤ֤ɽŪ (logographic) Ǥ롥ɽʸɸ֤륢ե٥åȤѤƤʾ塤ɽŪȤȤϤꤨʤΩѸΤɽŪֻηϤӤСɽŪʤ򼨤ƤȤȤϤǤ롥
ɽָŪȽҤ٤ƤΤˤɽַǡŪ ("morphographic"?) ɽ٤1ĤηǤˤޤäʸ򤢤Ƥδط򤤤ĤǤɤǤݻȤΤɽַǡܼǤ롥ϡʸˡȤǷ򸦵椹ԤˤȤäƤϤ꤬ŪŪʴ̤˻ѤƤŪˡֻȤ褽פ뤫
Carney (18) ϡѸֻɽַǡˤĤơ첻ȻҲ줾󤲤ʤŪΤͿƤ롥

2.4 LEXICAL SPELLING
Keeping the spelling of a morpheme constant
The English writing system is not simply concerned with mapping phonemes on to letters. To a large extent it tries to offer the reader a constant spelling for a morpheme in spite of the varying pronunciation of the morpheme in different contexts. Children are taught both a long and a short phonemic value for the simple vowel letters. In spite of the very considerable present-day phonetic differences in pronunciation, the pairs /eɪ/ -- /æ/ (sane, sanity), /aɪ/ -- /ɪ/ (mime, mimic), /əʊ/ -- /ɒ/ (cone, conical, /iː/ -- /e/ (diabetes, diabetic) have a constant vowel letter. Only in the pair /aʊ/ -- /ʌ/ (pronounce, pronunciation) do the vowel letters used in the spelling (<ou> -- <u>) sometimes vary to reflect the surface difference. But even here there are long-short differences such as South, Southern where the morpheme keeps its spelling identity. Similarly the different correspondences /s/ <c>, /k/ <c>, and /ʃ/ <c> allow a constant morphemic spelling in words such as electricity, electrical, electrician. The past tense and participle morpheme {-ed} in regular verbs (ignoring forms such as spelt, spent, dreamt) has a constant <-ed> spelling in spite of the phonemic variation /ɪd/ (waited), /d/ (warned) and /t/ (watched).


ΰѤܤΤϡ<pronounce> <pronunciation> ɽַǡ㳰ȤƵ󤲤Ƥ뤳ȤȤdzʤư̾ΥڥˤƤ첻ۤʤäƤΤȤƤŪĴ٤ƤߤͤϤ Carney ˴Ť뤳ȤǤ<south> /saʊθ/ <southern> /sʌðən/ Ǥϡ첻ϰۤʤ뤬ƱǤֻɽ綠Ȥɽַǡθ§ˤꡤ̤ <ou> ֤롥줬ѸֻΤȤƤˤǤ롥/aʊ/ /ʌ/ θؤ˴ؤƤϡ㳰ŪɽѤ <pronounce> vs <pronunciation> Τ褦ʤΤ롥Carney ϤΥڥͣΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ뤬<denounce> vs <denunciation>, <renounce> vs <renunciation>, <abound> vs <abundance>, <redound> vs <redundancy> Τ褦⤢롥
Τ褦ʼ䤬ФȤȤϡ<pronounce> vs <pronunciation> ˼ɽѸֻȤƤ㳰ȤľȤȤդˤС<south> vs <southern> μɽΤۤ§ȤľƯƤΤ

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.

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2014-08-25 Mon

#1946. ǽŪʴߤû [shortening][clipping][word_formation][morphology][function_of_language][style][semantics][semantic_change][euphemism][language_change][slang]

shortening ûˤȤϡˤƽפˤˤߤˡ1ĤǤ롥ѸˤǤߤƤ⡤Ȥ櫓Ѹ shortening ˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥϡ#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1]) dzǧϢơ#893. shortening ʬ (1) ([2011-10-07-1])#894. shortening ʬ (2) ([2011-10-08-1]) Ǥûˤ͡ʼब뤳Ȥǧ#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])#1102. Zipf's law ȸοա ([2012-05-03-1]) ǤϾãθΨȤûͻ
嵭Τ褦ˡûϼȤƷȤơ뤤ϾȤδϢǸΤ̤Stern ϵǽỤ̄ŪʴûβܤƤ롥Stern ϡ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) Ǽ褦ˡụ̂ѲʬΤʤ˴ޤƤ롥٤Ƥụ̂Ѳȼ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ʤ㤨 private soldier ʼ´ˤ private ûȤ¸θʷƻˤǤ private Ͽʡ̾Ρ˸Ȥˤʤꡤδߤа̣ѲȤˤʤ롥
private soldier Τ褦ˡṳ̂θ¸θƱȤʤ뤿˰̣ѲȤȤ̤ˡrhinoceros rhino, advertisement ad ʤɤ clipping ڳˤΤ褦ˡ̤θùܤȤʤ륱롥Ǥΰ̣ǤΡְ̣ѲפϤʤ̣Ū˸٤ΤϤʤ褦ˤפ뤬rhinoceros rhino ΰ̣κadvertisement ad ΰ̣κ⤷ȤСûϰ̣ŪʴްդȤȤˤʤ롥
Stern (256) ϡûŪʲǤȤȤˡǽŪʴפʲǤȤߤƤ롥ºݡûθΤʤǺǽפΤΤϡǽŪװǤȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥Stern (256) μĥѤ롥

Starting with the communicative and symbolic functions, I have already pointed out above . . . that brevity may conduce to a better understanding, and too many words confuse the point at issue; the picking out of a few salient items may give a better idea of the topic than prolonged wallowing in details; the hearer may understand the shortened expression quicker and better.
   The expressive function is partly covered by signals, but a shortened expression by itself may, owing to its unusual and perhaps ungrammatical, form, reflect better the speaker's emotional state and make the hearer aware of it. Clippings are very often intended to make the words express sympathy or endearment towards the persons addressed; nursery speech abounds in nighties, tootsies, etc., and clippings of proper names, transforming them into pet names, are often due to a similar desire for emotive effects . . . . The numerous shortenings (clippings) in slang and cant often aim at a humourous effect.
   Conciseness and brevity increase vivacity, and thus also the effectiveness of speech; brevity is the soul of wit; the purposive function may consequently be better served by shortened phrases.


ΤеŪʴûߤˤȤɤޤ餺ѤŪɽϡʸΤȤäǽŪ¦̤ûȤ館ƶϡStern ǡȤǤ롥֤û뤳ȤǤषǽղä⤬̣
ѤʸϤǸڤƤնɽ nighties ȴϢơ#908. bra, panties, nightie ([2011-10-22-1]) ڤӡ#469. euphemism κ ([2010-08-09-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.

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2014-06-17 Tue

#1877. ưƬ en- -en [prefix][suffix][morphology]

enlighten ַؤפȤưǤϡΤ light Ƭ en- -en ղäƤ롥̾줬ư첽ƤƱ褦ʵǽܼ2դƤΤ̯Ȥ̯Ǥ롥줫ΤߤǤɤʤΤºݤ -en Τߤղä lighten Ȥư줬¸ߤ롥ܼϤɤΤ褦˻ȤʬƤΤ
¤ϡƬ en- -en θ츻ϤޤäۤʤäƤꡤʤƬΤۤϡƥƬ in- ͳ褷ťե󥹸ͳƱѸäܼǤ롥Ѹֻ in ȵŪˤƱǡءפ򸶵ȤספȤưΤǡưƬȤƵǽϤ᤿Τ̾δΤˤĤΤܤƻ䤹ǤưǤΤˤĤȤ⤢ (ex. encase, enchain, encradle, enthrone, enverdure; embus, emtram, enplane; engulf, enmesh; empower, encollar, encourage, enfranchise; embitter, enable, endear, englad, enrich, enslave; enfold, enkindle, enshroud, entame, entangle, entwine, enwrap) Τưξ硤ˤ̤ -en ȤʤäƤΤꡤembolden, enfasten, engladden, enlighten Τ褦ʷ֤ƤѸˤʤäΤȤơencolden, enlengthen, enlessen, enmilden, enquicken, enwiden, enwisen ⤢ˡenclose/inclose, encumber/incumber, enquire/inquire, ensure/ensure ʤ en- in- θؤ⤢뤬츻ŪˤԤϥե󥹸ԤϥƥǤ롥
-en ϡ¾ưűѸ -nian ̤㤨СűѸηƻ fæst (fast) Фư fæstnian (fasten)ˡߤɡϡ -nian κǸ -n ǤϤʤǽ -n ĤäΤǤ롥ηƻ̾δΤˤĤ?ˤס?ˤʤפΰդɽ魯Ȥơdarken, deepen, harden, sharpen, sicken, soften, sweeten; heighten, lengthen, strengthen; steepen ʤɡΤΤϾ嵭Τ褦˸űѸ̤뤬˵󤲤¿ϸѸѸǤ˴Ťη̤Ǥ롥

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2014-03-19 Wed

#1787. coolth [productivity][suffix][noun][derivation][morphology]

ưƻ줫̾ -th ˤĤơ#14. ̾-th ([2009-05-12-1])#16. -th ̾ΤȤˤʤäư졦ƻϡ ([2009-05-14-1])#595. death and dead ([2010-12-13-1]) ˤϸѸǤŪǤϤʤ̾Ͼʤ餺¸ߤ櫓ǤꡤüԤ -th ̾첽ȤƤεǽˤϵŤƤȹͤ롥äơ餫Τä -th Ŀ̾줬׻Ū˸줿ȤƤ⡤ۤɶäϤʤ
coolth ʤ̾ߤĤ̾Ϸƻ cool Ф̾ coolness coolth OED ˤ1547ǯ˽Фư衤ΤȤߤˤޤ³Ƥ롥졼٥Ȥ "Now chiefly literary, arch., or humorous" ȤʤäƤꡤͽ̤̤λȤǤϤʤ褦cool ΡäפθǤϤʤŪʡ֤äפθ̾ȤƤ coolth 1966ǯ˽ФƤ롥̤ᤤ뤤׻Ūʸ촶ϡθѸ줫ʸ˸Ƥ롥

The walls of the house alone have 230,000 lb of adobe mass that can store heat and coolth (yes, this is a word).
Of course, just saying 'hippest' gives away my age and my utter lack of coolness or coolth or whatever term those people are using these days.
How soothing it is, forsooth, to desire coolth and vanquish inadequate Brit warmth.


ѥ餤Ĥ㤬󤬤ΤǡŵŪ׻ (nonce-word) ȤϤʤǡòƤȤۤɤΰ괶ϤʤΤ褦ʸͷӤˤᤤŪ褷Ȥǡ#732. -dom Ū ([2011-04-29-1]) Ǽ夲 -dom Ω˶ܤ롥coolth ϡ-th Ⱦü褯Ƥȸ
Ūˤ׻ȤС#1761. ޷Ȥʧֹ⤵פȡֹߡס ([2014-02-21-1]) δϢơĿŪʻ㤬롥٤Ҥơ뤤ˤĤޤȤ줿줬äȤˡ֤Τߤ줿dzڤˤʤäʤפȸФܸθȤơ֤뤵פϤäƤ֤ߡפ̤ǤϤʤȵŤƶФΤΡ֤뤵פǤϤʤʬΤߤΤäƤ뤢äԲȼ֤뤵סʬˤȤäƤϽʬ˶ŪƤ׻˸òƤ٤֤뤵פɽ魯ˡǤŪ֤ߡפФ̤ȯư֤ߡפФ줿Τʤ
ʤܼ׻¤Ȥǰϸߤ˴طǼ褦ˡñΩȤ褦ʤΤǤϤʤˤĤƤϡ#938. (4) ([2011-11-21-1]) #940. ¤ ([2011-11-23-1]) 򻲾ȡŤԤεǡޤ coolth *դˤ󤲤Ƥ

Referrer (Inside): [2016-09-23-1] [2015-01-04-1]

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2014-02-21 Fri

#1761. ޷Ȥʧֹ⤵פȡֹߡ [suffix][japanese][morphology][derivation][productivity][neurolinguistics]

ܸ֤̾פȡ֤ߡפˤĤơHagiwara et al. ʸɤƻθ촴³̾첽뵡ǽäƤ뤬֤פŪǤǡ֤ߡפϴΤ֤ȤȤΤƤ롥ֲסִŤס뤤סˤסֽŤסֹ⤤סֶסֶ줤סֿסִݤסֽ餫פʤɤϤ뤳ȤǤ뤬䤿סָǤסְ¤פʤɤϡ֤ߡפӽ뤷ʣƻֻҶ餷סֱפʤɤƱͤºݡ֤ߡפ³ǤΤ30ۤɤ˸¤졤ˤƸꤵƤ롥̣⡤̵֤̾ɸͽ¬ǽ⤤֤ߡ̾ͭɸͽ¬ǽ㤤㤨Сֹ⤵פŪֹ̾ߡפϡֹ⤤ȤפۤɤΤŪʰ̣̾Ǥ롥
Ρ֤פȡ֤ߡפηỤ̄Ūΰ㤤ϡѸ -ness -ity ΰ㤤Ȥ褽ʿԤƤ롥Ѹ2Ĥ̾ˤĤƤϡ#935. (1) ([2011-11-18-1]) Ǽ夲Τǡ򻲾ȤƤܸȱѸΥȤǤκۤϡѸŪ -ity ϴΤβ֤Ѳ (ex. válid vs valídity) ΤФơܸŪ֤ߡפϴΤβ֤ݤĤȤȤΤȤƤϡѸ4Τʿˤܤ٤
Hagiwara et al. εϤǤ롥Ѹε§ưγѷϵ§ˤ뤬Ե§ưγѷϵľܰФ롥Ʊ褦ˡܸΡ֤̾ϵ§ˤ뤬֤ߡ̾ϵľܰФƤΤǤϤʤκݤˡѸư϶޷ (inflectional morphology) °ǤꡤܸΡ֤ס֤ߡפ (derivational morphology) °ǤϤ뤬ƱξޤƯƤڵǤϤʤȡ衤޷Ͻ̤٤2ĤȹͤƤζˤƹ⤤βϡषޤ˶ᤤ񤤤򤹤ȹͤΤǤϤʤȤΤ Hagiwara et al. ƤǤ롥ʾεɴԤΥƥȤи (neurolinguistics) δʤƤ롥Ѥ褦

Our investigation of the Japanese nominal suffixes -sa annd -mi led us to the conclusion that the affixation of these two suffixes involves two different mental mechanisms, and that the two mechanisms are supported by different neurological substrates. The results of our study constitute a new piece of evidence for the dual-mechanism model of morphology, where default rule application and associative memory are supposed to operate as mutually independent mechanisms. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the dual-mechanism model is valid for morphological processes in general, and is not limited to inflectional ones. This, in turn, shows that some derivational processes can involve default rules or computation, much like those in inflection or syntactic operations. From the neurolinguistic point of view, our study has contributed to the clarification of the localization of linguistic functions, namely, the Broca's area functions as the rule-governed grammatical computational system whereas the left-middle and inferior temporal areas subserve the unproductive/semiproductive memory-based lexical-semantic processing system. (758)


޷ȤʬŪ˼ʧȤȤοиؾƤϡ㤨С#456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1]) Τ褦ˤ⿷ʸꤲ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ

Hagiwara, Hiroko, Yoko Sugioka, Takane Ito, Mitsuru Kawamura, and Jun ichi Shiota. "Neurolinguistic Evidence for Rule-Based Nominal Suffixation." Language 75 (1999): 739--63.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-08-01-1] [2014-03-19-1]

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2014-02-08 Sat

#1748. -er or -or [suffix][morphology][morpheme][phonotactics][spelling][word_formation][-ate][agentive_suffix]

#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ˤ -er -or ˤĤơξԤϤȤ˹԰ټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ȸƤФ빴«Ǥ̣֡ʬۤʤɤ˴ؤơߤˤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤϡŪʻȤϸѸζŪʻ顤ξԤΰƱ
Carney (426--27), Huddleston and Pullum (1698) (170--73)ĤʤɡĤλʸäƤߤȤ󤹤ȡʲ̤ˤʤ롥

 -er-or
¿Ūʤ
ŪŪ
ܼ饹Class IIClass I
³Τθ츻Romance Ϥ˸¤ʤRomance Ϥ˸¤
³Τμͳͳ˸¤ͳ˸¤ʤ
ưʤ
Τؤζʤ
ʤղʤClass I դ


줾ιܤˤĤƤߤƤߤ褦-er θ˭٤ι⤵ˤĤƤϽҤ٤ɬפϤʤФ -or ϡ˼褦˿¤ƤꡤŪղä뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ܼ饹̤ϡθιܤˤͿƤ롥-er Class II ܼȤ졤ͳʴΤ³ʤɤ˱ƶͿʤĤޤñ˸ղäΤߤǤ롥ͳʴΤ³ȤȤǤСNew Yorker double-decker ʤɤΤ褦ʣδΤˤ³롥ͳʴΤؤ³㳰Τ褦˸Τˡbiographer, philosopher ʤɤ뤬 biography, philosophy 2ŪʷΤθ츻Ф fisher, runner ⤢С㤨Хޥ󥹷Ϥ dancer, recorder ⤢롥-or Class I ܼ˶᤯§ȤƴΤ Romance Ϥ׵᤹ʤsailor ʤɤ㳰Ϥˡޤ-or ˤϡalternator, confessor, elevator, grantor, reactor, rotator Τ褦˼ͳΤˤĤ⤢Сauthor, aviator, curator, doctor, predecessor, spectator, sponsor, tutor Τ褦˹«ΤˤĤ⤢롥ưˤĤƤϡ-or -er Ʊͤ˰ưȼʤΤˈexecute/exˈecutor Τ褦¸ߤ롥
Τ˶ǽˤĤƤϡ̾ -or -er Ʊ̵ͤ /ə/ Ȥʤ뤬θǤ /ɔː(r)/ 򼨤 (ex. corridor, cuspidor, humidor, lessor, matador) ä humidor, lessor ξˤϡƱ۵Ȥξͤ򤱤άȤͤ롥
ʤղäβǽˤĤƤϡambassador ? ambassadorial, doctor ? doctoral ʤɡ-or ξˤϡ Class I ³Ŧ롥
嵭¾ˤ⡤-or ˤĤƤϡĤħŦƤ롥㤨СˡΧ˴ؤѸ졤뤤ŪȤɽˤϡ-or ղä䤹Ȥ (ex. adjustor, auditor, chancellor, editor, mortgagor, sailor, settlor, tailor) ǡȤ˰̣ζ̤ʤ -er, -or ΤȤ adapter--adaptor, adviser--advisor, convener--convenor, vender--vendor Τ褦ߤ롥
ޤ (170) ϡΤκǸ [t] ǽΤ˶ˤ¿դ[s], [l] ǽΤˤ褯դȻŦƤ롥ˡ-or ³θβξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ (129) Walker εӱѤ夲ԤʤäƤ롥˷ǺܤƤ581 -or ΤפʴθĤΤϰʲ̤Ǥ롥Τ -ate ǽưˤĤơб԰ټ̾ -ator Ȥ䤹ȤȤϻŦƤ¤˲Ⱦ -ator ȤȤȽ

EndingWord typesExamples
-ator291indicator, navigator
-ctor63contractor, predictor
-itor29inheritor, depositor
-utor16contributor, prosecutor
-essor15successor, professor
-ntor14grantor, inventor
-stor12investor, assistor


Ǹˡ-er, -or Ȥ̤ˡ԰ټ -ar, -ier, -yer, -erer 󤲤Ƥbeggar, bursar, liar; clothier, grazier; lawyer, sawyer; fruiterer.

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
ͺرѸܼ١ԡ2006ǯ
֡?͡ΤΡϡפɽ -or ˤĤơסضѸ츦١25桤2009ǯ127--33ǡ

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