ε#4022. ѸˤˤʸˡѲĬήǤС礫ʬϤءס ([2020-04-27-1]) ˤĤưƤ
١ȤŪߤȳΤˡ (synthesis) ȡʬϡ (analysis) ֤뤬ºŪˤ100%Ūʸ100%ʬŪʸȤΤ¸ߤʤɤθ⡤ʬϤξˤȤľΤɤ˥ץåȤ롥űѸϿľ¦ζ˥ץåȤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǤ˶ᤤȤ˥ץåȤˤʤűѸ⡤λ夫ߤнʬ˿ʿʤǤ뤫ƱͤˡѸʬ¦ζǤϤʤ˶ᤤȤ˥ץåȤȤȤǤ롥Ѹˤư̾ζޤʤɤϤĤäƤ뤫
äơűѸ줫鸽ѸؤʸˡѲĬήħŤ礫ʬϤءפϡľ0100ؤǤϤʤȤȤդʤФʤʤŪˤСľ30餤80餤ؤ٤ȤȤǤ롥Ǥ⽽ʬ˷ŪʥեȤȤϻפ
#191. űѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫 ([2009-11-04-1]) #1816. drift ˬ ([2014-04-17-1]) ǵľ餷ޤϡ0100ؤɽƤ뤫Τ褦ɤ뤬ĥǤ롥οޤϤ⥲ޥɤ˸ꤷ֤Ūʰ֤ΤǤꡤ깭Ūʻ줿ޤǤϤʤνθʤСűѸ줫鸽ѸؤΥեȤϤ֤ƤȤ館Ƥɬפ
Smith (41) 礫ʬϤءפвˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Traditionally, the history of English grammar has been described in terms of the shift from synthesis to analysis, i.e. from a language which expresses the relationship between words by means of inflexional endings joined to lexical stems to one which maps such relationships by means of function-words such as prepositions. This broad characterization, of course, needs considerable nuancing, and can better be expressed as a comparatively short shift along a cline. Old English, in comparison with Present-day English, is comparatively synthetic, but nowhere near as synthetic as (say) non-Indo-European languages such as Present-day Finnish or Zulu, older Indo-European languages such as classical Latin --- or even earlier manifestations of Germanic such as 4th-century Gothic, which, unlike OE, regularly distinguished nominative and accusative plural forms of the noun; cf. OE hlāfas 'loaves' (both NOM and ACC), Go. hláibōs (NOM), hláibans (ACC). Present-day English is comparatively analytic, but not as analytic as (say) Present-day Mandarin Chinese; a 21st-century English-speaker still marks person, number and case, and sustains grammatical cohesion, with concord between verbal and pronominal inflexions, for instance, e.g. I love bananas beside she hates bananas.
礫ʬϤءפϥåե졼ȤƤϤȤƤɤ嵭դĤŪƤɬפ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. "Periods: Middle English." Chapter 3 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 32--48.
Ѹˤ1500ǯʾˤ錄ޤδ֤ʸˡѲĬήɽʤС礫ʬϤءפ˿Ԥޤ⤷ƥȤDZѸˤʸˡѲ⤷ʤȤ䤤Ф줿ʤСΥե졼Ƥ10060ϼޤʢΥƥȤǤϤñäǤϤʤǤ줯餤פȤȤȤƲᤷƤˡ⤦ǫʤСֱѸŪʸ줫ʬŪʸؤȥեȤƤפȤʤޤ
ѸϡűѸ줫ѸФƶʸѸ˻ˤΤʤǡžƤޤűѸŪ (synthetic) Ȥ졤ḽѸʬŪ (analytic) ȤޤѲϡ礫ʬϤء (synthesis to analysis) ؤΰȤȤˤʤޤ
ǤˤơפʬϡפȤϤ⤽ⲿΤȤǤ礦ޤɤѸǤϤʤȾפäƤΤǤĹ餯ΩƤޤäƤΤǻʤȤäƤޤäޤ礦
ˤפȤϡ˴ؤŪʻɸΤȤǤŪʸǤϡŵŪ˸Ūʰ̣ɽ魯ʡʸ촴ˤʸˡŪʵǽôʡʶʤɡˤȤ߹碌ʤäƤꡤԤˤʣʸˡǽƤ뤳Ȥ¿ǤʾʬǤʤ1ĤξʶˡʣʸˡǽŪפ˵ͤƤȤ櫓Ǥʱñ synthesis ϡۤʤΤ1ĤȢ˵ͤ礹륤Ǥˡ
פФơʬϡפޤʬŪʸǤϡѡĤγơŵŪ1ĤεǽбƤꡤ֤ȵǽɳդаñǤʱñ analysis ϡĤäܰܲۤǤˡ
㤨СűѸǡֲȡΡפ̣ hūsa (hūs + -a) ͤƤߤޤ礦촴 hūs Ụֲ̄ȡפô -a ʣͭʤʸˡǽôäƤޤ-a ϷŪˤϤʾʬǤʤǾñ̤Ǥ˿ȳʤ˴ؤ2ĤξͤޤƤ櫓Ǥ顤θŪƤȤޤѸǡֲȡΡפбɽ of houses Ȥʤꡤhouse- Ụֲ̄ȡפôäƤϸűѸӤǤޤʣ -s ˤäơ°ʡʽͭʡˤ of ˤäɽ蘆Ƥޤȳʤγơεǽ̡ΥѡĤɽ蘆Ƥ櫓Ǥ顤θʬŪȤޤ
ѸˤŪϤ˴ѻޤư3ñ -s ʤɤϡθƤ̤̾ꡤ1ʤ뾮ʤΤʤ3;ΡñߡʡľˡˤȤʣʸˡͤޤƤꡤŪǤޤ;̾Ǥ I, my, me ʤɤΤ褦˸Ѳ뤳ȤǰۤʤʤɸƤΤ⡤ŪΤȤޤ̾졤̾졤ƻ졤ưʤɤμθˤĤƸűѸȸѸӤƤߤʤСѸ줬οȤ̤ơˤʬƤȤϵ褦Τʤ¤Ǥ
Τ褦˱Ѹˤˤϰ̤ˡ礫ʬϡפؤή줬졤ήοʤ߶ˤäƻ礭3ʬˡŪ˺ΤƤޤűѸ϶ζ̤褯ݻƤִʶޤλ (period of full inflection)Ѹ϶ϻĤäƤΤ1Ĥθ˼̤Ƹߤ˶̤ʤʤäƤֿʿޤλ (period of levelled inflection)ƶѸ϶;üּ줿ޤλ (period of lost inflection) ȤޤơŪʻ塤礫ʬϤؤβϴŪ塤ʬŪʻȸƤǤ褤Ǥ礦Ѹˤˤߤ뤳Ĭήϡ¤ϥޥˤ䡤ҤƤϰˤȤˤƤǧĬήǤ⤢ޤ
ˤ˹ߤ롤οˤäư줿ŪμޤϡĬήפȤˤȤɤޤ餺ФСή (drift) ȤߤʤƤޤdrift Ȥϡꥫθؼ Edward Sapir (150) "Language moves down time in a current of its own making. It has a drift." ȽҤ٤ΤǽȤޤƥޥɤν졤Ȥ櫓ѸϡήˤήƤ1ĤɾƤޤ
⤽ʤѸɮƬȤưˤΤ褦ήΤǤ礦Ĺ餯ƤƤǤޤ̤ǤѲˤήϥήǤϤʤήޤ⡤û֤ήǤϤʤĹϤäƻ³ήǤԻĤʤΤϡѲμΤǤϤüԤγơѤݤ˲θѲήʤɰռƤʤˤ⤫餺θѲή䤷ʤᡤƱήؤȰѤǤ椯ȤǤѲήȤϡüԤΰռĶȤǺѤƤ롤ߤϤʤΤǤ礦Ȥ⡤ưϤ̤ΤȤˤΤǤ礦Ǥ
ήθϤƤѸʸˡ礫ʬϤءѲƤȤϳΤǤʸˡˤθϡñ㲽ƤС礫ʬϤءפȤӤعˡ͡ʳ٤ŤܤդꤷƤΤȤäƤǤϤʤǤ礦
Ǹˡ˴ϢΥ֥ΤפʤΤʲ˵Ƥޤɤߤ
#2669. ѸܸʸˡˤĬή ([2016-08-17-1])
#522. ˤ ([2010-10-01-1])
#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1])
#1816. drift ˬ ([2014-04-17-1])
#656. "English is the most drifty Indo-European language." ([2011-02-12-1])
#2626. űѸ줫ѸˤƤζο ([2016-07-05-1])
Sapir, Edward. Language. New York: Hartcourt, 1921.
2֤ε ([2020-03-23-1], [2020-03-24-1]) ˰³ɸεˤĤƵޤƥʸˡѸ modus ˤĤĴ٤ƤߤȡȻפȤޤOED mode, n. θ츻˼Τ褦ʸڤޤ
In grammar (see sense 2), classical Latin modus is used (by Quintilian, 1st cent. a.d.) for grammatical 'voice' (active or passive; Hellenistic Greek ĦάȦŦҦς ), post-classical Latin modus (by 4th-5th-cent. grammarians) for 'mood' (Hellenistic Greek ἔæʦ˦ɦҦς ). Compare Middle French, French mode grammatical 'mood' (feminine 1550, masculine 1611).
Ĥޤꡤmodus ϸŵΥƥǤŪʡˡפΰ̣ѤƤΤΡŵƥǤϤष̤ưʸˡƥǤ֡ (voice) ΰ̣ѤƤȤȤˤʤޤʸˡƥɽ魯Ѹ췲ƱƤ뤫Τ褦˸ޤϤɤФ褤Ǥ礦
¤ voice ȤѸ켫Τˤ褦ʻ𤬤ޤ#1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸˤơvoice ϸŪʡ֡פΰ̣Ѥˡ̤ưʸˡƥǤֿ;Ρ (person) ɽ魯Ȥ⤢ޤ̾ʸˡƥǤֳʡ (case) ɽ魯Ȥ⤢ޤ˥ƥѸƤߤޤȡ֡פɽ路Ѹ1Ĥ genus ޤθϸ gender ȯŸ̾ʸˡƥǤ (gender) ̣ȤʤäƤޤ
ʾ夫鸫ƤΤϡդѸ췲κƱŪˤϤäȤȤǤͤƤߤСߤǤư̾ʸˡƥɽ魯ѸƤߤȡˡ (mood) (aspect) (voice) (gender) (case) ʤɡ鸫Ǥϰ̣ȽȤޤʤΤ褦ѸܸǤѸǤˤƤƤΤʤΤ¿Ȥ˵դޤŪʬ䤹Τϻ (tense)(number); (person) 餤ǤϤʤǤ礦
Ѹ mood/mode, aspect, voice, gender, case ܸΡˡסס֡ססֳʡפʤɤϡաʤȯݡˤΡˡס¦̡סּ٤̣롤̣ŪˤϤʤ¤ʷ̾ȤäƤ褯kind, type, classּסַספʤɤȸƤ褤ʪǤȤȤϡϤޤصŪʬ̾ˤ˲餫ѶŪʰ̣ǽ餫ɤ߹ޤƤ櫓ǤϤʤäȤǽޤ
ޤȤޤ礦2֤εǡˡפֵʬפ뤤ϡ֥⡼ɡפȤߤƤޤβϡѸεȤ餤ɬƤޤmode ϸ츻ȤƤϡˡ٤̣̾ˤϤѶŪʰ̣ϤۤɴޤޤƤʤäȹͤ뤫ǤҤ٤ȤϤޤѸεȤεǤäơդǤˤ衤䤿ˡֵʬפ֥⡼ɡפȤѶŪʰ̣ɤ߹Dzᤷ褦Ȥ뤳ȼΤ꤬櫓ǤϤޤºݤΤȤŪˤСˡסֵʬס֥⡼ɡפȤϤʤոƤΤǤϤʤȡ伫ȤפäƤޤ
ε ([2020-03-23-1]) ˰³ˡ (mood) ˤĤƤǤεϡmood mode Ϥˡפΰ̣Ѥ졤ˡȤϡֵʬפǤ֥⡼ɡפǤ⤢뤫餽Ԥȹͤ줽˻פޤºݤˤϡξñϸ츻ۤʤޤmood mode ˤ̤פȤϽҤ٤ޤ츻ƱȤϸޤǤˤϾ𤬤ޤ
mode ͤޤ礦ñϥƥ modus ̤ޤƥǤ "manner, mode, way, method; rule, rhythm, beat, measure, size; bound, limit" ʤ͡ʰ̣ɽ路ޤ̤аĸ *med- (to take appropriate measures) ˤɤĤϡּʡˡʤ֤ˡפۤɤä褦ǤΥƥñϤθե mode Ȥʤꡤ줬Ѹ mode ȤƼѤƤޤѸǤ1400ǯ˲ѸȤơ֥ǥʤΰפΰ̣ǽФޤ1450ǯˤϸؤΡˡפΰ̣ǤѤ졤ѸȤ夷ޤν OED ˤȰʲ̤Ǥmoode ȤֻѤƤ뤳ȤդƤ
mode, n.
. . . .
2.
a. Grammar. = mood n.2 1.
Now chiefly with reference to languages in which mood is not marked by the use of inflectional forms.
c1450 in D. Thomson Middle Eng. Grammatical Texts (1984) 38 A verbe..is declined wyth moode and tyme wtoute case, as 'I love the for I am loued of the' ... How many thyngys falleth to a verbe? Seuene, videlicet moode, coniugacion, gendyr, noumbre, figure, tyme, and person. How many moodes bu ther? V... Indicatyf, imperatyf, optatyf, coniunctyf, and infinityf.
mood θ츻ҤȤƤߤޤ礦ߡֵʬࡼɡפ̣뤳αñϼѸǤϤʤűѸǤűѸ mōd ʿʬࡼɡˤѽиȤäƤ褯#1148. űѸ˭ʸϡ ([2012-06-18-1]) Ǥߤ褦˿ʣιǤȤѤƤޤ̤аĸ *mē- (certain qualities of mind) ˤɤĤ mode ȤϵۤˤƤ뤳ȤʬȻפޤ
ơ mood Ѹǡˡפΰ̣Ѥ줿ΤϡOED ˤ1450ǯΤȤǡʲ̤Ǥ
mood, n.2
. . . .
1. Grammar.
a. A form or set of forms of a verb in an inflected language, serving to indicate whether the verb expresses fact, command, wish, conditionality, etc.; the quality of a verb as represented or distinguished by a particular mood. Cf. aspect n. 9b, tense n. 2a.
The principal moods are known as indicative (expressing fact), imperative (command), interrogative (question), optative (wish), and subjunctive (conditionality).
c1450 in D. Thomson Middle Eng. Grammatical Texts (1984) 38 A verbe..is declined wyth moode and tyme wtoute case.
ŤǤ礦c1450νФʸ˵ mode ΤΤƱǤĤޤꡤƥͳ mode ȱѸ mood ־ʰֻ moode ħŪˤˤäơʸˡѸȤƱѸǻȤФΥߥǡ㺮ˤʤäƤޤä褦ʤΤǤOED ϼ¤ΤȤֿפ mood, n.1 ȡˡפ mood, n.2 ̸ФȤΩƤƤΤǤԤθ츻 "Originally a variant of mode n., perhaps reinforced by association with mood n.1." Ȥ褦ˡɤϤ㺮ȲᤷƤޤ̣Ūˤϡֵʬס֥⡼ɡդȤơξñ줬ӤĤȹͤޤäơˡפֵʬס֥⡼ɡפȲ᤹븫ϡθ츻ŪƱͿƤΤΡΤȤ1450ǯˤ櫓Ǥͳ郎Ȥ⤤뤷ʤȤ⤤̯ʻǤ͡εǡˡפֵʬפ뤤ϡ֥⡼ɡפȤߤ֤ʤʤޤǤƤϤΤΡ¤ϼäդ褦ʲפȽҤ٤ΤϡΤ褦طʤäǤ
ǤϡɸεФϲʤΤǤ礦ܤäơƥʸˡѸȤƤ modus ɤΤ褦ʰ̣礤ǻȤƤΤʬСˡ (mood, mode) οˤĤʤꤽǤεǡ
ؤǤϡˡ (mood) ȸƤФưʸˡƥ (category) פȤʤޤ¾ưʸˡƥȤƤϻ (tense) (aspect) (voice) ޤŪ˴طȤǤ̾ʸˡƥǤ (number) ; (person) ⤢ޤΥƥƯơưη֤ޤȤΤħǤκѤϡưγ (conjugation)뤤ϤŪˤưζ (inflection) ȸƤФƤޤ
ĸˡȤƤϡ#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) Ǥߤ褦ľˡ (indicative mood)³ˡ (subjunctive mood)̿ˡ (imperative mood)ˡ (optative mood) 4郎̤ƤޤäȸޥɤǤϺǽ3˽̸˸űѸޤǤˤϺǽ2ؤȽƤޤʸˤ̿ˡΰˤĤƤϡ#3620. ̿ˡפǧָ᤺̿ˡפȤФ褤 (1) ([2019-03-26-1])#3621. ̿ˡפǧָ᤺̿ˡפȤФ褤 (2) ([2019-03-27-1]) ȡˡˡűѸʹߡ³ˡϿΰӤéꡤޤǤŪʲɽ魯ɽƤϤޤѤʤʤäƤޤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤αʸˡǤŪʡ³ˡפȤƤ³⡤ֲˡפȾΤΤŪȤʤäƤޤʤ뤤ϡֽˡפȤƤ̾ʸˡȤ⤤ޤˡ
ơѸˡȤƤϡľˡ (indicative mood) Ȳˡ (subjunctive mood) 2ζ̤ߤ뤳ȤˤʤޤΩܼϲǤ礦̤ˤϡǽŪ˥ǥեȤľˡФơˡüԤ̿Ф벿餫οŪ٤ɲ줿ΤȤޤ餫οŪ٤ȤΤۣʸǤ˿줿ǤʤСŪʲפŵǤIf I were a bird, I would fly to you. ˤ벾ˡ were ϡüԤֻĻǤפȤŪʲοŪ٤äƤ뤳ȤޤäƤߤСۥɤäƤ뤳ȤɸǤ
Ʊͤˡˡ߷ go Ѥ I suggest that she go alone. ȤʸˤƤ⡤üԤƬΤʤǴ˾ȤƤˤʤͤǤפȤ̿ꡤޤäƤʤ줫μ¤˵뤫ɤ狼ʤ̿Ǥ뤳Ȥư֤ˤäƼƤޤۤɥѥȤ϶ʤΤΡۥɤɸǤ
ˡפȤѸֿŪ١פȤⲿȤפ碌֤ɽǤѸȤƤ mood Ǥ顤üԤΡֵʬפǤȤȤ館Τ⤢٤ͭʲǤĤޤꡤˡȤüԤ̿ɤΤ褦ʡֵʬפǽҤ٤ƤΤʤƤϡŪʵʬסˤɸΤǤ롤ȤǤ뤤 mood mode ֥⡼ɡ֡פˤ̤ºݤξñȤѸȤƤˡΰ̣ѤޤΤǡüԤΡ֥⡼ɡפȸƤ褵Ǥˡϡۥ⡼ɤɸΤȤȤǤ
ˡˤĤƤϾ嵭Τ褦ʡֵʬפ뤤ϡ֥⡼ɡפȤ礭ְ㤤ϤʤȻפޤβϡѸˤ֤äƤߤȡʤʤޤǤƤϤΤΡ¤ϼäդ褦ʲȤȤʬäƤޤˤĤƤεǡ
ѸηƻŵŪ (suffix) -al 롥abdominal, chemical, dental, editorial, ethical, fictional, legal, magical, medical, mortal, musical, natural, political, postal, regal, seasonal, sensational, societal, tropical, verbal ʤ˿¿뤳ȤǤ롥ϥƥηƻ -ālis (pertaining to) Ѹ˥եͳäƤΤǡŪǤ롥
褯 -ar ȤΤ⤢롥褷ƾʤʤangular, cellular, circular, insular, jocular, linear, lunar, modular, molecular, muscular, nuclear, particular, polar, popular, regular, singular, spectacular, stellar, tabular, vascular ʤ¿㤬롥εϤϤƥˤꡤƻ -āris (pertaining to) ˤΤܤ롥ξΰ㤤 l r ߤ˴طƤΤ
Yes Ǥ롥ŵŪ l r ΰ۲ (dissimilation) ȤʤäƤ롥ƥˤǥեȤ -ālis Τ l ޤޤȤˤ l νʣäơ l r ؤȰ۲ä˴ΤֻҲ -leפǽˤϡؤȤƻҲθ u (anaptyxis) ƻ -ular ȤȤˤʤ롥
l r ΰ۲ˤĤƤϡ#72. /r/ /l/ ϴְ㤨!? ([2009-07-09-1])#1597. star stella ([2013-09-10-1])#1614. Ѹ title Фƥե titre ǤΤϤʤ ([2013-09-27-1])#3016. colonel ֻȯ ([2017-07-30-1])#3684. l r ϤäѤᤤ ([2019-05-29-1])#3904. coriander 2Ҳ l ǤϤʤ r ([2020-01-04-1]) ⻲ȡ
ñθ츻˴ؤѤɸνѸϡʬˤȤ롥 OED ϤƼμäƤߤǤͭѤʤΤϡإ˥缭ŵ٤ʤΤǤϤʤʲΤ褦ˤ롥
1 ΤȤǤ˸θʣϤΡ˷ǡ
2 ʤñΡ˸ԸѸ two ФűѸ twāա
3 θ졥
äޤäʤ֥ƥסʣ etyma ֥ƥޡסˤȸƤ֤ۤʤߤƤʤָ츻ǡפۤɤ
إ˥缭ŵ٤3ĤθƤȤꡤetymon ϡָ츻פʣ¦̤˸ƤƤꡤ椨˾ʬˤʤäƤ뤬¤ϤȤƤѸǤ롥֡Ȥñθ츻ϲפȤŪʼФ͡ˤбƤ뤫
ȤСpoorly Ȥñθ츻ϲפȤˤĤƹͤ褦Ф1ĤˤϡѸ poureliche ̤פȤΤλ夫ǧСФơpoorly θ츻ȤФ褤poureliche ϡ"the Middle English etymon of poorly" ȤȤˤʤ롥θ2б롥
⤦1Ĥˤϡpoorly Ϸƻ poor -ly ʤäƤǤ롥ϰ츫ȸ츻ȤϸΤ褦˻פ롥Ǥ츻˴ؤŪʼˤƵƤˤϤʤºݡѸ poureliche ηƻ poure -liche Ȥ߹碌¤줷ΤǤ뤫顤ϸ̩ʰ̣ˤƤ츻ˤʤäƤΤǤ롥ξ硤poor/poure -ly/-liche ϡơ etymon ȤȤˤʤʤĤޤ "the two etyma of poorly"ˡθ1б롥
Ǹˡpoorly 1ܤ etymon Ǥ poor/poure ܤƼȡ֤ñϥե povre ѤΡפȤȤˤʤ롥ѸξˤϡѸȤθǤη֡ʡ#901. Ѥʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) Ѹ˽ "model"ˤΤŵŪǤ롥ƤΤ "the French etymon of poor" ȤȤˤʤ롥θ3б롥
ե povre ϡ켫Τ˸Ť츻äƤꡤƥ pauper 䡤˰ĸ *pau- ˤޤ̤롥γơ⡤2ΰ̣Ǥ etymon ȤǤ롥ˡ2ܤ etymon Ǥ -ly/-liche ΤۤܤʤСϤȤƥޥĸ̤˭ˤ etymon äƤ롥ˤ etymon ˻ޤ etymon Ϣ³Ȥ櫓
etymon ϤΤ褦͡ñ̤ؤѤΤǾʬˤ椨ޤʤΤ⤷ʤ֡Ȥñθ츻ϲפȤ䤤ФƤɤΤ褦ȤƤ⡤ϤƤ etymon/etyma λŦȤʤäƤϤǤ롥Τ褦 etymon Ȥ館ȡषʬ䤹ʤΤǤϤʤ
ε#3763. ƻ -ate εȯã ([2019-08-16-1]) ˰³ -ate ꡥư -ate ˤĤƤϡ#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) Ǽ夲ϤεȯãˤĤơOED -ate, suffix1 Ȥʤ顤⤦ܺ٤˹ͤƤߤ褦
Ҥ٤褦ˡ-ate ϥƥ1ưβʬܼ -ātus, -ātum, -āta ̤뤫顤ưθȤϡʲʬ˷ƻθȤ٤ΤǤ롥ư -ate εȤƤΤϡ-ate ˴ؤƷƻ줫ưؤʻž (conversion) äȤȤǤ롥ƻ줫ưؤʻž¿θǧ졤ºݤ˸űѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤˤȤޤʤȤСűѸǤ hwít hwítian, wearm wearmian, bysig bysgian, drýge drýgan 졤줾Ԥư϶ѸˤƶԤȷŪͻ礷Ȥаޤ롥
ƥǤƱͤˡƻ줫ưؤʻžӤäȤСsiccus siccāre, clārus clārāre, līber līberāre, sacer sacrāre ʤɤ줿˥եǤǡsec sècher, clair clairer, content contenter, confus confuser ʤɤ줿Ѹϥƥե줫餳θѤηƻưϤοˤ15ޤǤͻ礷
ήΤʤǡ16ˤϥƥβʬƻΤޤưȤѤ륿פʻžŪˤߤ褦ˤʤädirect, separate, aggravate ʤɤ㤬롥ѸǤΤ褦㤬Ƥȡƥ -ātus ŪˤϲʬбƤϤŪˤϤФбѸưθˤҤŤ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤʬƻŪʵǽβߤʤˡ-ate ľܤưθȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥
ηդޤȡƥʤեˤư촴ڤƤơ -ate ĤСѸ¦ǿưñƳǤȤ1θˡȯã16ˤ fascinate, concatenate, asseverate, venerate ޤɴ -ate ư줬߽Ф줿
äˡΩƤޤСºݤ˥ƥʤեˤ¸ߤɤ鷺֥ƥʤեŪǡפǤСäƤ -ate դ뤳ȤˤꡤȤ⤿䤹ưǤ褦ˤʤä櫓ˤ nobilitate, felicitate, capacitate, differentiate, substantiate, vaccinate ʤ¿ -ate ư줬ḽ߽Ф줿
ΤȤ -ate ȯãϡȤ̤ȤƤ -ate ư췲Ȥδ֤Ρ䤨֤ʤѤȵ§ĥˤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ѸŵŪư1ĤȹͤƤ -ate ϡ¤ϤĤηƻˤߤ롥aspirate, desolate, moderate, prostrate, sedate, separate ưȤƤˡ⤢뤬ƻǤ⤢롥 innate, oblate, ornate, temperate ʤɤϾ˷ƻǤ롥ƻȤƤ -ate εȯãɤäƤߤ褦
ϥƥ1ưβʬܼ -ātus, -ātum, -āta ̤롥եϤˤߤܼ -us, -um, -a æѸƥݤˤæδޤƥեΤ̤ȤơѸ1400ǯ餤顤ƥ -atus ʤɤ -at ʤΤԤ첻ĹȤ e ź -ate) ȤƼཬƤä
嵭Τ褦 -ate εưβʬǤ뤫顤ѸǤʸ̤ưβʬΤۤƻȤƤⵡǽƤȤ̵ʤǤ -ate ưθʬϤ˵ڤǡŪʲʬϡ¿˵§Ū˺줿 -ated Ȥ֤˼ä졤ʬʷƻˤȤƤ -ate ¿ѤȤʤäƤޤäƻȤƼŪ˻ĤäΤ⤢äƬ˵ -ate ƻϡΤ褦ʷаޤǡĤäפΤǤ롥
ʾή⤷սOED -ate, suffix2
Forming participial adjectives from Latin past participles in -ātus, -āta, -ātum, being only a special instance of the adoption of Latin past participles by dropping the inflectional endings, e.g. content-us, convict-us, direct-us, remiss-us, or with phonetic final -e, e.g. complēt-us, finīt-us, revolūt-us, spars-us. The analogy for this was set by the survival of some Latin past participles in Old French, as confus:--confūsus, content:--contentus, divers:--diversus. This analogy was widely followed in later French, in introducing new words from Latin; and both classes of French words, i.e. the popular survivals and the later accessions, being adopted in English, provided English in its turn with analogies for adapting similar words directly from Latin, by dropping the termination. This began about 1400, and as in -ate suffix1 (with which this suffix is phonetically identical), Latin -ātus gave -at, subsequently -ate, e.g. desolātus, desolat, desolate, separātus, separat, separate. Many of these participial adjectives soon gave rise to causative verbs, identical with them in form (see -ate suffix3), to which, for some time, they did duty as past participles, as 'the land was desolat(e by war;' but, at length, regular past participles were formed with the native suffix -ed, upon the general use of which these earlier participial adjectives generally lost their participial force, and either became obsolete or remained as simple adjectives, as in 'the desolate land,' 'a compact mass.' (But cf. situate adj. = situated adj.) So aspirate, moderate, prostrate, separate; and (where a verb has not been formed), innate, oblate, ornate, sedate, temperate, etc. As the French representation of Latin -atus is -é, English words in -ate have also been formed directly after French words in --é, e.g. affectionné, affectionate.
Ĥޤꡤ-ate ϡߤФषƻˤդ路Ȥ٤Ǥꡤưˤդ路ؤѲΤϡѸʹߤοȤȤˤʤ롥ʤ -ate ŵŪưȤʤäΤȤäƤϡʣŪ𤬤롥ˤĤƤϡ#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) ȡʤޤεǤⰷͽˡ
-ate ˤĤƤϡ֤ȯʤɤδ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-30-1])#3686. -ate -ment ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-31-1])#1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]) Ϥᡤ-ate εǼ夲ƤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿
ɸϡѸ˷ˤƤŪʹͤǤ롥ѸǡԵ§פȾΤŪʸݤ¿ϡĤƤϡֵ§פ1äȤȤǤ롥Феդޤʤǡֺε§ϺԵ§פȤȤ¿§ (regular) Ե§ (irregular) ȤϡŪˤϸߤʬۤˤ餫˶̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿ΤŪȤϤ뤬ŪˤХݥؤ뤳Ȥ¿ȤŪʶ̤Ǥ롥
θ§Ҥ٤ƤΤ Fortson (69--70) ΰѤǤ롥Ӹ (comparative_linguistics) κƷ (reconstruction) μˡȤδϢǡŪʰ⤤ȤʤäƤ롥
A guiding principle in historical morphology is that one should reconstruct morphology based on the irregular and exceptional forms, for these are most likely to be archaic and to preserve older patterns. Regular or predictable forms (like the Eng. 3rd singular present takes or the past tense thawed) are generated using the productive morphological rules of the language, and have no claim to being old; but irregular forms (like Eng. is, sang) must be memorized, generation after generation, and have a much greater chance of harking back to an earlier stage of a language's history. (The forms is and sang, in fact, directly continue forms in PIE itself.
ѸˤԵ§ʸݤǧ֤ĤƤϤष§ŪäΤ⤷ʤפ䤦ƤߤȤ褤ƤŪˤϤ̤Ǥ롥դˡʤϲεͯʤ§Ūʸݤ˻פڤƤߤƤۤˤäƤϡϤĤƤԵ§ʸݤɤ櫓ˤβǰ̲褦ˤʤä⤷ʤȡ˸Ūȯۤζ˰դ롥θ§ϱѸˤ⡤ܸˤ⡤¾Τɤθˤ褯ƤϤޤ롥
ֺԵ§Ϻε§פϡˤȤޤʤǤ줿ˤĤơѸˤ鼡ȡ
Ե§פ̾ʣ (ex. feet, geese, lice, men, mice, teeth, women) (cf. #3638.رѸ춵٤Ϣ2֤ʤԵ§ʣΤס ([2019-04-13-1]))
Ե§פưγ (ex. sing -- sang -- sung) (cf. #3670.رѸ춵٤Ϣ3֤ʤԵ§ưѤΤס ([2019-05-15-1]))
3ñ -s (cf. ѸϢ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ)
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.
Ѹܼ (affix) ϡֲŪʴ2Ĥμ˶̤롥줾쥯饹 I ܼ饹 II ܼȸƤФƤ뤬ξԤ¿оŪǤ롥 (89--90) ˤäơޤȤ褦
| 饹 I | 饹 II | |
| -al, -ard, -ative/-itive, -ian, -ic, -ion, -ity, -ous, in- ʤ | -er, -ful, -ingN, -ish, -less, -ly, -ness, -ship, -yADJ, un- ʤ | |
| ʥ˶ְư (stress shift) | ʤ | |
| párent vs. paréntal | párent vs. párentless | |
| Cánada vs. Canádian | Fíinland vs. Fínlander | |
| átom vs. atómic | yéllow vs. yéllowish | |
| prohíbit vs. prohibítion | óbvious vs. óbviously | |
| májor vs. majórity | ácid vs. ácidness | |
| móment vs. moméntous | cítizen vs. cítizenship | |
| ʥ˻û첻 (trisyllabic shortening) | ʤ | |
| divíne vs. divínity | gréen vs. gréenishness | |
| sáne vs. sánity | bríne vs. bríniness | |
| obscéne vs. obscénity | ráin vs. ráininess | |
| deríve vs. derívative | róse vs. rósiness | |
| ʥ (velar softening) | ʤ | |
| electric vs. electricity, electrician | traffic vs. traffickingN | |
| panic vs. panickyADJ | ||
| ʥ˻Ҳά (consonant cluster simplification) | ʤ | |
| elongate cf. long | singer | |
| bombard cf. bomb | bomber | |
| hymnalADJ cf. hymn | crumby | |
| condemnation cf. condemn | condemner | |
| ʥƬɡƱ (nasal assimilation) | ʤ | |
| immoral | unmoral | |
| impatient | unpack |
Ѹ (suffix) ˤϡȸ촴Ȥζ֤ΰưȤ顤礭3ब̤롥(1) 촴ζ֤ݻΩ (stress-neutral suffix)(2) 촴ζ֤ưư (stress-shifting suffix, stress-affecting suffix)(3) Τ (stress-bearing suffix) 뤤Ͷܼ (stress-attracting suffix) 3Ǥ롥ʲʡ (88--89) ꡤƼ
ΡΩ
-dom: ˈfreedom, ˈkingdom
-en: ˈthicken, ˈwiden
-ful: ˈcheerful, ˈpocketful
-ish: ˈchildish, ˈfoolish
Ρư
A. 綯ľβˤ
-fic: scienˈtific, speˈcific
-ic: alˈlergic, eˈlectric
-ics: matheˈmatics, phoˈnetics
-ion: diˈversion, exˈpansion
-ity: faˈtality, hospiˈtality
B. 綯2βˤ
-cide: ˈgenocide, ˈhomicide
-fy: ˈmodify, ˈsatisfy
-gon: ˈhexagon, ˈpentagon
-tude: ˈattitude, ˈsolitude
C. 綯1ޤ2βˤ
-al: uniˈversal, geoˈlogical
-ar: faˈmiliar, ˈsingular
-ide: diˈoxide, ˈfluoride
-is: syˈnopsis, ˈemphasis
-ive: exˈpensive, comˈpetitive
-ous: treˈmendous, harˈmonious
Ρ
-ade: blockˈade, gingeˈrade
-eer: engiˈneer, volunˈteer
-ese: officiaˈlese, Japaˈnese
-esque: gardeˈnesque, pictuˈresque
ʡ 5ϡȡꥺ ԡˡزءīоȸإ 2īҽŹ2012ǯ84--103ǡ
Encyclopaedia Britannica "English language" εƬˡѸδŪħ3ĵƤ롥ޤñ㤵 (simplicity of inflection) ǽν (flexibility of function) äγ (openness of vocabulary) Ǥ롥ޤñ㤵ȸäγˤĤƤϡ#151. Ѹ5ħ ([2009-09-25-1]) Ϥ pde_characteristic εʤɤǼ夲Ƥǽν𤵤ѸδŪħ1Ĥ˿夲븫ŪΤǤϤʤȻפʲBritannica Ѥ롥
Flexibility of function has grown over the last five centuries as a consequence of the loss of inflections. Words formerly distinguished as nouns or verbs by differences in their forms are now often used as both nouns and verbs. One can speak, for example, of "planning a table" or "tabling a plan," "booking a place" or "placing a book," "lifting a thumb" or "thumbing a lift." In the other Indo-European languages, apart from rare exceptions in Scandinavian, nouns and verbs are never identical because of the necessity of separate noun and verb endings. In English, forms for traditional pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs can also function as nouns; adjectives and adverbs as verbs; and nouns, pronouns, and adverbs as adjectives. One speaks in English of the Frankfurt Book Fair, but in German one must add the suffix -er to the place-name and put attributive and noun together as a compound, Frankfurter Buchmesse. In French one has no choice but to construct a phrase involving the use of two prepositions: Foire du Livre de Francfort. In English it is now possible to employ a plural noun as adjunct (modifier), as in "wages board" and "sports editor"; or even a conjunctional group, as in "prices and incomes policy" and "parks and gardens committee."
ˤʤäƤֵǽν𤵡פȤϡѸȤСפʻž (conversion) 뤤 (zero derivation) ΤȤǤ롥֤餺˵ǽ̣ͳѤƤޤȤϡΤ˱ѸΤäħȤäƤ褤ѸΤͻ̵ϡޤο˵ָ캬פȤطѸν˿߹üȤʤäƤcf. #655. ޤο캬ξ ([2011-02-11-1])ˡ
Ϣơ#190. ʻž ([2009-11-03-1]) ɮƬ conversion εȤ줿
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2008.
ε#3576. ͱѸ (= AAVE) θŪħ --- ȯ ([2019-02-10-1]) ˰³McArthur ˰͵ AAVE θŪħˤĤơʸˡܤ롥
(1) ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬¿̤Ѥ롥No way no girl can't wear no platform shoes to no amusement park.
(2) ¸߹ʸ there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It ain't no food here.
(3) ʣͭʷ3ñ -s -ed ʤɤά뤳Ȥ롥He got three cent. / That's my brother book. / She like new clothes. / They talk all night.
(4) ʸ֤ʤʤȤ롥What it is? / How you are?
(5) be ư do Ѥ뤳Ȥ롥It don't all be her fault.
(6) be νˡThey be fightin. / He be laughing.
(7) Τ been ˤνŪʹ٤ɽ魯I béen see dat movie. / She béen had dat hat.
(8) ˾ a ˤջ֤ɽ魯I'm a shoot you. (= I'm going to shoot you.)
(9) steady ʹԷ֤䡤ʸΰ֤ˤƶȼäŪʰ̣ɽ魯We be steady rappin. / We steady be rappin. / We be rappin stéady. (= We are always talking.) / They steady be high. / They be stady high. / They be high stéady.. (= They are always intoxicated.)
(10) Come ˽ưȤѤ롥He come tellin me some story. (= He told me a lie.) / They come comin in here like they own de place. (= They came in here like they owned the place.)
(11) like ֤ۤȤɡפΰ̣ŪѤ롥I like to die(d). (= I almost died.) / He like to hit his head on that branch. (= He almost hit his head on that branch.)
ΤˤΤ褦ʱѸäС狼ϤʸʹʤȻפ롥ۤʤȤۤɤεΥǤϤʤΤ¤Ǥ롥AAVE ΰ֤ŤǮӤӤ櫓
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
̻ŪݤȤƤɸνѸ췲ˤĤ⡤« (bound morpheme) ȼͳ (free morpheme) δ֤ιԤ˴ؤѸ졦ǰǤ롥 (111--12) Ѥ롥
̻ݤȤơ (agglutination) ȤϡΩ줬岽Ωä¾ǤղäܼˤʤؤȤСѸ friendly -ly εΩ̾ līc ΡΡפǤä
εդβ Jespersen (1922: 284) ʤġ(secretion) ǤꡤŪʬϤʤñ̤ʬ (metanalysis) η̡Ūϰ̤ơܼΤ褦Ǥ¤ƤѸǤϡ?ΥϥСפ̣ -burgerֽʹפ̣ -gate ʤɤǤβޤ졤줾 cheeseburger, baconburger Koreagate, Irangate ο줬Ƥ롥
դΤϡפȤѸ϶ˤơȤ櫓ʬˤơ̤γǰɽ魯Ȥʡ#522. ˤ ([2010-10-01-1]) ȡˡ夲Τϡ̻ŪʸݡʸѲˤ˴ؤѤפǤ롥ȤƵƤ līc -ly ϡȤΩƤͳǤ«DzȤʤäǤ롥
СפפƱ«Dz1ͳǤǤϤʤȤȤʤ̣ͭñ̤ǤʤäΤǤħ롥˵Ƥ burger ϡȤ Hamburg + er Ǥ hamburger ʬ (metanalysis) ηָ̡äơڤФ줿Τ줬«ǤȤ夷ƤޤäǤ롥äȤ⡤burger hamburger û̷ȤƤѤΤǡ«Ǥ餵˿ʤǼͳDzȤƤ뤳ȤǤ (cf. hamburger)
Ǥ˴ط붦ŪѸ췲ˤĤƤϡ#700. 졤ǡܼ캬촴ʣ졤Ρ ([2011-03-28-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿ޤȤƿ줿 -ly ˤĤƤϡ#40. -ly ([2009-06-07-1])#1032. -e ο -ly ȯãס#1036. ֻѷפ -ly ([2012-02-27-1]) ⻲ͤޤǤˡФ¾ȤƤϡ#97. ֥åס ([2009-08-02-1])#98. ֥åפ֥˥åפǤϤʤ֥åפڤФͳ ([2009-08-03-1])#105. ܸä֥å ([2009-08-10-1])#538. monokini trikini ([2010-10-17-1]) ʤɤȡ
ůȡ6ϡѲä ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ106--30ǡ
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
récord ̾ˤ recórd ưˤΤ褦ˡ̾ưݤ2ˤƶ֤̾ưפȤʤ븽 (diatone) ˤĤơ#803. ̾ư̻Ū ([2011-07-09-1])#804. ̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ̾ưפñ16Ⱦ鸽ˤƽƤϢ夲ƤѸŪʥեȤȤįƤߤȤ⤷ (cf. [2018-07-07-1], [2018-07-08-1], [2018-07-09-1]) ѸϳάȤƤϸűѸ줫鸽Ѹˤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ȥեȤƤȲǤ뤬̾ưפϤŪĬήФ뾮ʵήȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫
record ǹͤƤȡѸǤ̾ recórdư recórd(en) Ǥꡤ֤2ǰפƤưθ -en ϾüäƤ̵ͭˤ餺̾졦ưȤ recórd Ȥ̤ˤѤθ촴äƤΤǡξδطϻ¾ʻž (conversion) ȤֲˤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǺѤƤϡword-based morphology ȤäƤ褤
Ȥ16Ⱦʹߤ̾ˤƶưˡޤǶͭƤ1Ĥθ촴̾촴 récord ư촴 recórd 2Ĥʬ뤳ȤˤʤäʸβϤ줾 /ˈrɛkəd/, /rɪˈkɔːd/ˡޤѤθ촴˴Ť stem-based morphology ǽƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ѸˤϡŪĬήȤƤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ȲǤ뤬ˤγʳƤġѲη̤ȤơʬŪ word-based morphology stem-based morphology εήΤ⤢ꤦȤȤָűѸ stem-based morphology λ塤Ѹ word-based morphology λפΤ褦˥ƥꥫʬहΤǤϤʤߤ٤ȤƤȤ館ΤǤ롥
2֤ε ([2018-07-07-1], [2018-07-08-1]) ˰³root-based morphology ʰĸˢ stem-based morphology ʥޥĸˢ word-based morphology ʸűѸʹߡˤȤѸ礭ĬήˤĤơ
űѸϤŪեȤˤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ؤȰܤѤȤǽʳȤ뤬ޤʤ stem-based morphology ǻ˻ĤäƤLass (191) ϸűѸθˡμब˭٤ʤȤˤĤơKastovsky ѤĤļΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
One of the most striking features of the OE lexicon is the extensive involvement in WF, not only of transparent affixation, compounding, and conversion, but of other devices of varying ages: ancient ones like ablaut, and newer ones like i-umlaut. This results in what Kastovsky (1992: 294) calls 'large morphologically related word-families'; considerable portions of the lexicon 'cohere' in a rather special way, characteristic of older IE and to some extent more archaic modern languages like German, but quite alien to Modern English.
1Ȥơĸθ캬 *bhVr- "carry, bear" űѸñˤɤΤ褦ȿǤƤ뤫ͤƤߤ褦 (Lass 191--92) ΰ캬ˤ ablaut Ȥơ*bher- (e-grade), *bhor- (o-grade), *bhe:r- (lengthened e-grade), *bhr̥- (zero-grade) 4Ĥβä
ޤe-grade *bher- ˴ؤƤϡ*bher- > *er- > ber- ȷФơűѸ ber-an , ber-ende ʸʬ, ber-end "bearer"ber-end-nes "fertility" ˻äƤ롥
ˡo-grade *bhor- ˤĤƤϡ*bhor > *¦r- > bær- ФƸűѸ bær 1ˤ˽夷ۤ bær- (breaking) βФ bear-we "barrow, basket", bear-m "lap, bosom" ˻äΤ⤢롥
³ lengthened e-grade *bhe:r- ˤĤƤϡ*bhe:r- > *e:r- > bǣr ФƸűѸ bǣr-on 2, bǣr "bier", bǣr-e "manner, behaviour" ʤɤ뤷
Ǹ zero-grade *bhr̥- ϡ*ur- ؤѲ塤a-umlaut ˤ bor- *bur- Ϥ줿ԤϸűѸ bor-en ʲʬ, bor-a "carrier" ԤϤ i-umlaut ФƸűѸ byrðenn "burden", byr-ele "cup-bearer" ʤg߽Ф줿
űѸǤ /bVr-/ ȤŪʸ촴 (root) 첻ʣθ촴 (stems) ȤʤꡤŪʶŸƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤؤ "stem-based morphology" 뤤 "variable-stem morphology" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ (Lass 192)
űѸˤ⡤ʻ衤ʤ word-based morphology 뤤 invariable-stem morphology ͽǤǤʬŪ˸ФƤȤˤդƤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
ε ([2018-07-07-1]) ˰³ƤꡥKastovsky ƤθˤСѸˤϳάŪ root-based morphology ʰĸˢ stem-based morphology ʥޥĸˢ word-based morphology ʸűѸʹߡˤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
űѸʤɲϴˤƤϿΥפ¸Ƥ뤿ˡ줫1ĤˤäϤȤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǥǡȤƤȤ館٤ѸǤ鶯Ѳưθ촴ؤ stem-based morphology ѸŵŪ sane : sanity, serene : serenity, Japán : Jàpanése ʤɤθ촴ؤƱͤǤ (cf. #3341. ƥեѸϱѸζѥĸصꤵ ([2018-06-20-1]))
Kastovsky (129) ꡤŪեȤĬή˴ؤǻ̩ʸѤ褦
Modern English morphology is the result of a long-range typological restructuring, triggered by phonological changes in connection with the emergence of the Germanic language family, leading to an erosion of unstressed final syllables. As a result, the originally root-based morphology became stem-based and finally word-based. Also morphology was originally characterized by pervasive phonologically conditioned morphophonemic alternations, which gradually became morphologically conditioned, because of phonological changes. This was replaced by a simplified system with base invariancy and phonologically conditioned alternations of inflectional endings as a default case characterizing the regular inflection of nouns, verbs and adjectives. The irregular patterns continue properties of the original system and can be interpreted as stem-based with morphologically conditioned alternations of the base form. This is also true of many non-native word-formation patterns, which have been borrowed from stem-based languages such as French, Latin or Greek and have re-introduced base alternation into English derivational morphology.
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Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.
#3340. ޥˤưζѲȸƬȤߴط ([2018-06-19-1]) ȡ#3341. ƥեѸϱѸζѥĸصꤵ ([2018-06-20-1]) ǰѡȤ Kastovsky ͤǤϡĸ줫饲ޥĸФƸѸ˻ޤǤΡʳǡ˱Ѹˤˤơ (morphology) ŪѲƤȤĥƤ롥̾ˤŪѲȤС礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ΥեȤפ⤫֤ȤϴϢĤĤΩĬήȤ root-based morphology stem-based morphology word-based morphology ȤŪѲȤ줾ˤĤ Kastovsky (131)
a) word-based morphology: The base form can function as a word (free from) in an utterance without the addition of additional morphological (inflectional or derivational) material, e.g. ModE cat(-s), cheat(-ed), beat(-ing), sleep(-er).
b) stem-based morphology: The base form does not occur as an independent word, but requires additional inflectional and/or derivational morphological material in order to function as a word. It is a bound form (= stem), cf. OE luf- (-ian, -ast, -od-e, etc.), luf-estr-(-e) 'female lover', Grmc. *dag-(-az) 'day, NOM SG', ModE scient-(-ist) vs. science, dramat-(-ic) vs. drama, ast-ro-naut, tele-pathy; thus luf-, luf-estr-, *dag-, dramat-, ast-, -naut, tele-, -pathy are stems.
c) root-based morphology: Here the input to morphological processes is even more abstract and requires additional morphological material to become a stem, to which the genuinely inflectional endings can be added in order to produce a word.
ΤΤ褦ǰƬˡKastovsky (132) root-based morphology ʰĸˢ stem-based morphology ʥޥĸˢ word-based morphology ʸűѸʹߡˤȤˤ䤫ĬήŦƤ롥
The ultimate starting point of English was a root-based morphology (indo-European), which became stem-based in the transition to Germanic. In the transition from Germanic to Old English, inflection became partly word-based, and this eventually became the dominant typological trait of Modern English.
ºݤˤϸűѸǤϤޤ stem-based morphology ǻǡword-based morphology ε̣¿ߤ褦ˤʤäƤʳˤʤ礭ήȤƤȤ館ΤǤ word-based morphology ǽʳȤߤʤȤǤѸˤŤߤ¿ʻǤ롥
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.
ε#3349. ѸˤƻӤζ vs ηװ ([2018-06-28-1]) ³ơѸ˷ƤȤֿפˤĤơ̤ˡѸϰαѸɸಽ뤲줿ΤΡޤѰۤɤ줬ѻ졤Ѹ٤Сֺ𤷤פ褷Ƥȸ롥Mondorf (843) ϡΤ褦ɽŪʺظˤϡʶѹդܻؤǽŪưŤƤꡤषѸ줫鸽ѸˤƿĤĤΤ⤯
When LModE morphology and morphosyntax are addressed, this is often done in reference to a "confused situation" (Poldauf 1948: 240), by portraying this period as undergoing regularization processes that are triggered by standardization or by relating the high degree of simplification of morphology achieved by that time . . . . The present overview sets out to show that what at first sight look like divergent developments of individual morphological structures can occasionally be shown to form part of a larger development towards a new equilibrium governed by functionally motivated requirements.
Ѹˤ⡤űѸʤ뤤Ϥˤ˻Ϥޤä礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) 礭Ĭή³Ƥñ˲᤹ˤȤɤޤ餺ǽŪ¦̤Ȥ̤δळȤǡ츫ȤȿΤ褦˻פ㤬Ǥ褦ˤʤȤȤѹդޤǤȤϤμळۤʤ졽Ѹ˲ѸˤƳΩƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Mondorf, Britta. "Late Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 53 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 843--69.
Poldauf, Ivan. On the History of Some Problems of English Grammar before 1800. Prague: Nákladem Filosofické Fakulty University Karlovy, 1948.
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