ѸˤˤơѸƱޥ췲λǤ Old Saxon ¸ߴǤϤʤε#3819. եå粦ˤ륤ɤγò ([2019-10-11-1]) ǿ줿եå粦ζפ˺ݤơJohn Ȥ̾θťͤ亴̳ƤȤϿ롥ޤGenesis B ȤΤűѻˤϡ9 Old Saxon 줿1ޤޤƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥
Genesis B ˤϡhearra (lord), sima (chain), landscipe (region), heodæg (today) ޤྯ Old Saxon ͳ褹Ȥܤ줬ǧ롥˼ѤʤäȤǤϡѸ˾ΰյϾȤ虜ʤɬפȤФȤñ¿줫ڤȤȯãѸλŪħűѸˤǤ˸ƤȤȤõƤƤ褤 (Crystal 27)
̤ˡѸˤˤơְŪ״طᤤޥ췲μѸ¿ϤʤŪطᤤΤǤС¤θܿ¿äϤǤϤʤ뤬ǤʤȤСʹϡ˥ɥĸ줫μѸϡ#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1])#2621. ɥĸαѸؤܳŪ19 ([2016-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡΤȤƤΩʤʤεϤDZѸ˱ƶͿȤΤϡեޥ줯餤Ͻ줫θŪƶˤĤƤϡ#149. եޥȱѸˡ ([2009-09-23-1])#2645. 줫Ѥ줿ߤΤñ ([2016-07-24-1])#2646. Ѹ˴ؤס ([2016-07-25-1])#3435. ѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ ([2018-09-22-1])#3436. ɤӤȤܿˡ ([2018-09-23-1]) Ȥ줿
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.
ε#3743. Celt λؼоݤŪѲ ([2019-07-27-1]) ³ German ȤλؼоݤˤĤơ
ͤϡ沤̲ˤƵサƤޥϽä̱² Germānī ʥޥ˥͡ˤȸƤǤơбϰ̾ Germany ʥɥġˤϢʤ Germānia ʥޥ˥ˤäŪˤ¾ΤǤꡤΤȤѤ줿ȤϤʤ褦
ѸǤѸ German ޥ˥ͤؤȤƥե𤷤äƤ16ȸ˥ɥĿͤؤ褦ˤʤäˤϡѸǥɥĿͤؤ̾ΤȤƤ Almain Dutch Ūä
German θ츻ˤĤƤϽ⤢롥1ĤϡͤΥޥ˥ͤȸǡٿ͡פȸƤΤǤϤʤȤcf. ťɸ gair ٿ͡ˡˡ⤦1ĤϡƱȸ gairm ʶӡˤͳ褹Ȥ⤢롥Ĥޤ̱פۤɤξΤޤޥǡߤ̱פ̣ *Geramanniz (cf. OHG ger "greedy" + MAN) ƥؼѤ줿ΤȤ⤢롥
θ츻ⲻ夽¾ꡤ̤ܤȤäƤ褤
Ѹ calling ϡʼĥä쥸ǡŷȡפ̣롥ư call ̾ȤơָƤ֤ȡפθǤϽѸ줫ʸڤ뤬ŷפθ16ȾΤȤǤ롥OED ˤȡθ (8c) Ǥνϰʲ̤ꡥ
c. A profession devoted to the service of God; an office or position within the church. Hence in extended use: any profession or way of life which a person feels called or destined to pursue.
. . . .
1544 R. Tracy Supplycacion to Kynge Henry VIII sig. Bviiiv, As the byshop is ignorante in Godes worde, so he admytteth suche as be vnlerned in Gods worde, evyn suche as by noo possybylite can execute the office of their callinge.
ֿˤ뾤פǤ뤫顤ȷӤĤƤɽǤ뤳Ȥͽۤ롥ºݡ㤨 KJV 1 Cor. 7.20 ˡ"Let every man abide in the same calling wherein he was called." ȸ롥
ֿˤ뾤פŷפؤΰ̣ѲϡѸ calling Τߤʤ餺ɥĸ Beruf ˤ⸫롥䡤ΤˤСɥĸọ̇ѲбѸ˵ڤȤ٤Ǥ롥Ĥޤꡤΰ̣ (semantic_translation) beroepǥޡ kaldǥ kallelse ƱͤǤ롥
ɥĸϤȤ륲ޥǤΰ̣Ѳϡ16Υ륿ˤ뽡פȴˤƤϹͤʤץƥƥȤ礭ʼҲưȤȼΰ̣ѲζưԤǤ롥ޥåС̾إץƥƥȻܼ (96--97) ꡤBeruf θˤĤƲ⤷սѤ褦˵ǼƤˡ
ơֿ̡ȡפ̣ͥɥĸΡ֥٥롼աסBerufԤȤΤˡޤƱ̣礤ıѸΡ֥סcallingԤȤΤˤƤˡ뽡Ūʡ餢줿̿ (Aufgabe) ȤǰȤƤꡤġξˤθФۤɡ줬ˤʤäƤ뤳ȤϸȤ̻¤⡤θŪˤĤޤޤʸ̱θˤ錄äɵ椷ƤߤȡޤΤꤦΤϡȥå̤ͥʽ̱²ˤ⡤ޤŵξˤ⡤줬¯Ūʿȡʤϰ̡ϫƯΰȤ̣礤ƻȤäƤBerufԡŷפȤθĴĤ褦ɽФȤǤʤΤˡץƥȤͥʽ̱²ξˤʤ餺줬¸ߤ롤ȤȤΤꤦΤϡξ粿餫̱²ŪȤС֥ޥ̱²פθȤäΤͿƤΤǤϤʤơषθȤ줬ĸߤΰ̣礤ͳ褷Ƥꡤ⸶ʸǤϤʤԤͳ褷ƤȤȤåǤϡޤ֥٥ηáס̵ŵΰͤΰĽʰˤǸȤޤäƱ̣ѤƤ褦˻פ롥θޤʤθϡץƥȽ̱²¯ѸΤʤǸߤΰ̣Ĥ褦ˤʤäƤäˤϤ̱²¯Ūʸɤˤ⤳˨ϤޤäǧʤŪʸǤ⡤Τꤦ뤫ꡤɥĿȤΰͤΤۤˤϤǧ뤳ȤǤʤοȤåˤܤƶϼΤΤȤ
礭ʸŪ郎ʸΰ̣ѲǤ롥
ޥåСˡ ͺˡإץƥƥȻܼ١ȽŹ1989ǯ
[2017-05-02-1]ε˰³ƤꡥαѸ˾ˤϡԤɥĸˤˤƤΤᤤȤΤϡפѤɥĤˤƻϤޤäԥ륿 (Martin Luther; 1483--1546) ȡΩĻγǰѤȯԥƥ٥륯 (Johannes Gutenberg; 1400?--68) λǤ롥
륿Υɥĸ (1521) ¯ɥĸϰ̤¤ˤĤơ (35--36) β
륿ϡɥĸˤǤפʰ֤Ƥ롥ɥĸˤϡ¿ͤ¸ߤŪʶ̸ϤޤƤʤä륿ϡ˺ݤơ餷ʣɽǤϤʤäդ¿Ѥάϡ˼ǻȤƤˡΧθդǤʤ̱θˤ˭ɽȴơ¿Ѥ륿θդϡ߽Ф줿ΤǤϤʤƤɥĤΤ٤ƤθŪη褦Ǥä륿ϡïˤǤ狼ߤΤǤ롥Τ褦˽뤳Ȥˤäƥ륿ϡΤ̱Ω褦ȳƮ륿ϡʤȤƻԾ̤㤵졤̲ɤޤ뤿νʪȤʤäʹߥ륿Υɥĸϡɥĸؤ֤̱ζȤư졤ɥʸؤθΰĤȤʤꡤȤƤΥɥĸΩ˴ͿȤϴְ㤤ʤױư˲äƶŵǤ¯λѤ¥ʤΤǡ̤ȤƤΤȤǤϻŪǤäƥλϰϤᡤ¯ϰ̤뤳Ȥ˷Ҥäޤ륿ϡƥʤɤαˤʱƶͿΤǤ롥
륿ϡ¯ɥĸǽ뤳ȤˤäơưȻפƤƥθҤȤˤơɥĸ˾礭ʰյͭƤ롥ˡΤȥåθҤȷӤĤ졤Ūϰ̤³ƥθҤŪ˱ϤΤǤ롥αƶϤ˶ٹؤꡤɤˤƤ¯줿Ѹؤ˴褵졤ƤȤˤʤäꤷǰϥƥ٥륯ȯȾФơƻ˾Ϥᡤפ٤붯ϤʿϤȤʤäɥĸƱ͡ѸƥйҤȤɤθȤǧ褦ˤʤäƤ
ʾ (41) θդǤޤȤ褦
ױưͻʺ濴Ǥơŵ˰͵¯ǤȤˤäơ̱ˤȤäľܿ뤳ȤΤǤȶ¸ߤؤƤβḢ¯ͤ˳줿ϡ٤ƤμҲؤ˿ƩǮɤޤϤΤǤ롥η̽פϡ衼åѤζˤƥθҤ㲼դȤƤ¯ϰ̤ᡤɸη˴Ϳƥ٥륯γǰѤȯΤ褦ư岡
ʡ֥ɥĽ״ˤȶƱΡסƥȤȶƱΡ١ʸԡ2017ǯ29--42.
ε ([2016-07-13-1]) ǡ衼å¦νǶ̤ have ˤ뱪ŪλΤϡȤȥꥷȯѥ˥ƥ蘆졤˸˽ϰŪ˳Ȼ (areal diffusion) ƤäǤȤ Drinka Ҳ𤷤ε (3) Ȥƿ줿⤦1ĤδϢĥ롥֥եɥĸʤɤǡλεǽεǽؤѲΤϡŪǶνǤꡤȵڤεϥѥΥեäפȤĥǤ롥
ǤϡޤѥΥեDZŪλδλεǽȤƤǤϤʤεǽȤѤ褦ˤʤäȤĥƤ롥Drinka (22--24) ˤСѥΥեǤϡǤ12ޤǤˡǽȤƤˡԤʤƤȤ
It is here, then, in Parisian French, that I would claim the innovation actually began. In the 12th century, the OF periphrastic perfect generally had an anterior meaning, but a past sense was already evident in vernacular Parisian French in the 12th and 13th c., connected with more vivid and emphatic usage, similar to the historical present . . . . During the 16th c., perfects had already begun to emerge in French literature in their new function as pasts, and during the 17th and 18th centuries, the past meaning came to replace the anterior meaning completely in the language of the French petite bourgeoisie . . . .
¾Υޥ٤Ƥή˾äȻȤϡɤζۤƥɥĸˤääʸкѥȤȯŸɥԻԤ Augsburg Nürnberg Ǥϡ1516ˤơλ®֤Ƥä¤ŦƤ (Drinka 25) ե˶ᤤ Cologne Trier ʤɤԻԤǤϡ12--14ȤᤤʳǡλȤѤФƤȤڵ⤢ (Drinka 26)
⤷Υʥꥪ¤ʤСҿ12ΥѥΥե줬λβǽȤƤˡήԤȤƶ٤θ졦ŤƤäȤȤˤʤϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ΰȤʤꤦ롥
Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.
#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡɥĸαѸؤθŪƶϰƳʤ°桦 (20) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ɥĸ줬1824ǯ˻ޤǡѹͤˡۤȤɤޤäȤäƤ褤餤ܤߤʤäΤ⡤ä٤ȤǤ롥ɥĸ줫μѸ16餢ˤϤ뤬ե졤졤ʥʤɤμѸ٤ȡĤ˾ʤΤǤ롥20äƤǤ⡤ѹͤΥɥĸ˴ؤμ٤ʳãƤʤ
ʤ1824ǯȤϡThomas Carlyle (1795--1881) Göthe Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship ǤǯǤ롥
OED3 ˤѸ椷 Durkin (362) ˤȡ19ˤϥɥļѸΩäƤʤä19Ⱦ˰쵤˿ĥȤ19ȾˤϤԡã20ȾȾ塤20ȾˤƲФȤʤ˻롥 *
ɥļѸΤȤѸ줬¿줬̤ΩʤͳDurkin (361) Pfeffer and Cannon ԸȤʤ顤ɥĸѤȻˤĤƼΤ褦Ƥ롥
Pfeffer and Cannon provide a broad analysis of their data into subject areas; those with the highest numbers of items are (in descending order) mineralogy, chemistry, biology, geology, botany; only after these do we find two areas not belonging to the natural sciences: politics and music. The remaining areas that have more than a hundred items each (including semantic borrowings) are medicine, biochemistry, philosophy, psychology, the military, zoology, food, physics, and linguistics. Nearly all of these semantic areas reflect the importance of German as a language of culture and knowledge, especially in the latter part of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century.
Ѹϥޥ (Germanic) θǤꡤɥĸ (German) ȡַ״طˤȤϸ뤬˸褦ξŪˡʶḽ˻äƤܿεճ˳äˡֱƶ״ط϶ϾǤ롥ޤˡֱѸϥɥĸαƶƤפȸͤ뤬Ϸطȱƶط㤨Ƥ뤫뤤 Germanic German Ʊ뤷Ƥ뤫ˤ˴ŤƤ롥θˤĤƤϡ#369. ˤƶ ([2010-05-01-1])#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬 ([2012-06-06-1])#1930. ȱƶθ줿ɥ衼åѸ²δطޡ ([2014-08-09-1]) ȡ
° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ѸθüѤȤСޤե줬פ⤫ (#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1]))˥ƥ줬 (#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]), #1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])) μϥޥ졤ťΥɸʤɤθ̾뤬ե졤ƥαǤۤϴʤ
ºݤΤȤѸϾ嵭ʳ¿θȤܿƤΤˤ¾θ줫μѸο¿ϤʤäۤȤɤľܤǤϤʤȤƥեͳƴŪäƤѸǤ롥¿ (multilingualism) ȤѸ̣ǼСѸ쥤ɼҲϳΤ¿ѼҲäȤΤǤ롥ѸˤѸȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Crespo (28) ɽƷ)
| LANGUAGES | Direct Introduction | Indirect Introduction |
| Latin | --- | |
| French | --- | |
| Scandinavian | --- | |
| Low German | --- | |
| High German | --- | |
| Italian | through French | |
| Spanish | through French | |
| Irish | --- | |
| Scottish Gaelic | --- | |
| Welsh | --- | |
| Cornish | --- | |
| Other Celtic languages in Europe | through French | |
| Portuguese | through French | |
| Arabic | through French and Spanish | |
| Persian | through French, Greek and Latin | |
| Turkish | through French | |
| Hebrew | through French and Latin | |
| Greek | through French by way of Latin |
衼åѤμפʸΤʤǡɥĸϱѸμѸ쥽ȤưճΩʤŪˤ٤εϤǥɥļѸ줬ΤϸѸ줫Ǥꡤ϶ϾǤ롥Ѹɥĸ⥲ޥ (Germanic) °̤εĤȤȤΤƤˤϡξ֤ǼѤȤδطϴǤ롥
Ѹ˥ɥĸθŪƶʤȤ Jespersen (143) ڤۤ (258) ʤɤαѸ˳ǤƤ̤ɥĸѤʤȤϤäƤեƥ٤ƤäǤäơºݤˤϤ٤οϼȤѸȤäƤƤ롥ǯˤƤΤ褦 (Algeo 80; #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])) #2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Wordorigins.org "Where Do English Words Come From?" Ǥ⡤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Other European languages remain steady, contributing 3--4% of new words throughout the centuries. The exception is German, which starting in the eighteenth century begins to increase its contribution to English vocabulary, reaching 3% of new words all by itself, and nosing ahead of French by the twentieth century.
Ʊꤷ OED ˴ŤפǥɥļѸŪܤղȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

켣 (115--17) ˤСɥĤ16˹ۻѤѤĹƤΤǡαƶ17--18ˤѸäȿǤƤʥդǤμ㴳ιޤ16Ǥˡ17ʹߤϿ̾μѤ¿ޤɥĤ19ůؤؤޤŪȯŸ뤲ᡤŪѸ䳵ǰѸؤήʥվ19˥ԡޤˡ̾μѤΤۤ (loan_translation) ¿Τɥĸ줫μѤħȤ뤫⤷ʤʲʬ̤˥ɥļѸѤޤˤ褦
ιۻ
cobalt, gneiss, meerschaum, quartz, zinc
ůءʸɾ
folksong, gestalt, leitmotif, nihilism, objective, subjective, superman, transcendental, zeitgeist
Ӹء
ablaut, schwa, strong [weak] (declension), Umlaut
ζ١
kindergarten, semester, seminar
ʪءء
aniline, dynamo, ohm, protein, relativity, saccharine, sarin, uranium
ΰءء
aspirin, heroin, pepsin, Roentgen-ray [X-ray]
οʡ
delicatessen, frankfurter, hamburger, lager, noodle, pumpernickel, sauerkraut, schnitzel
ɥļѸˤĤƻ䤤ƤѸ˳¿ʤCarr, Charles T. The German Influence on the English Vocabulary. London: Clarendon, 1934. Ȥ褦Ǥ롥
Ϣơ#150. ꥫѸؤΥɥĸι ([2009-09-24-1])#756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ʸ嵭2015/09/06(Sun)Begoña Crespo ("Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britan. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. p. 29.) ˤСǤѸ15ˤ⡤ϥɥĸ줫ιʪؤ˴ؤѸ줬äƤȤ
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ
Algeo, John. "Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 57--91.
Ѹˤˤ final_e ϡȯˤƤֻˤƤפǤ롥űѸ줫ѸˤʹԤοʿ (levelling of inflection) νɾΤfinal e ξüϸαѸˤ˺ǤϤʱƶڤܤȤäƤ褤ˤꡤűѸ줫̾졤ƻ졤ưʤɤζηϤǷѸǷ뤳ȤȤʤää˷ƻ -e ˤĤƤϡilame γƵǰäƤ
ѸޤǤˤϡ final e ϲŪ̵ȤʤäƤȹͤ뤬ֻݻ줿褷ꤹ뤳Ȥ¿ŪʵǽĤĤäChaucer νܤǤϡʼ⤤Τۤ final e 褯ݤƤʤɤλ¤ǧƤꡤ final e ΤݼȵռƤȤ롥ѸޤǤ϶ȤƸŪǽͭƤ final e Ѹʹߤˤʤ˵ڤǼҲŪʸŪǽô褦ˤʤäƤΤǤ롥˶Ѹˡؤδؿޤꡤֻ final e ¸ε§ˤĤƤε⤫ޤӤʤä
final e μҲȤƤ٤ʾ嵭αѸ˾θݤϡ̣Ȥˡɥĸˤ㤬ߤ롥 (113) ˤСɥĸˤ final e βξüϡ15˳礷16ȾڤȤ (ex. im Lande > im Land) ϡѸۤ٤ޤ17 e ֻξǰտŪ褷ͻҤ륿ǤʪθŪ顤ޤʸˡˤߤ뵬ŪʥȤΤ롥17դޤǤˤϡe ղäŪȤʤäƤ褦
⤷ΤϡƥȤˤ뤬̾ñͿʤ e aus dem winde in ihrem hause ʤɤΤ褦褷ФǤϤʤ;̾ؼ̾Ϳʤ e zu ihme sieder deme Τ褦褷Ƥꡤ-ung, -in, -nis νˤ e ղä Zuredunge, nachbarinne, gefengnisse Τ褦˸뤳Ȥ e 16ʹߤ˰̤ˤ褻17ʸˡǤȤƤΤǤʹġp. 114ˡβ꽤 (hypercorrection) Ȥ롥
Ѹˤ final e ȤʤΤϡˤ뤬Ѹ줫ѸȤäƤ褯Ѹ˸ԤˤȤäƤĹƬˤμǤ³ƤɥĸˤǤγϤ٤ۤĹ³ΤǤϤʤä褦ˡʤɤθŪϤǤȤʤäǡξݤӤ롥οʿȤޥν̿Ūʸݤ˵ final e ϡ˻ǤϤ뤬̣ӸؤΥơޤȤʤΤǤϤʤ
ԡ֥ɥĤȽĴ1649ǯˤ˵줿ȤСס˸ʸˡԶɽȯù١١ʶ ҡ ԡ̾ ҡԡˡˡҤĤ˼2014ǯ105--32ǡ
Ѹˤˤ2;̾˴ؤŪꡤ T/V distinction ȯãȿϡt/v_distinction ΤĤεǼ夲ƤϡĤ˵äƥɥĸ T/V distinction ˤָ
ɥĸˤϡT/V distinction ˤĤƲַɰˡ§פιƤ롥ɥĸ du/Sie 2ʬˡϡ;ޤˤФ夤̤ȤƤ2ʬˡǤꡤ˻ޤǤˤϡȤ櫓ˤʣʳиƤ17--18ˤϡ͡ؤΤˤɤɽȤФ褤ΤפǺߡ2;̾ˡ٤餵夬³ƤҲŪʻȸƤǤ褤ʲϡ (145) ΤޤȤ֤ҤȤФɥĸƾ̾λŪȯãפɽǤʾѺѤߡˡʤˤ̾ۤɡμҲŪʬ⤤뤤ϼʬ±ʴطˤ뤳Ȥ

ɽϡɥĸˤˤ2;ñ̾ηɾΤ˼߽ФƤͺۤʪäƤ롥ޥʳǤϡűѸʤɤƱͤˡ2;ñ̾ȤƤTη֤1ĤˤʤäűѸ þū б du Ǥ롥λˤϲФƤ⾤ȤФƤ du ΤߤѤƤ
9Ⱦˤʤȡ2;ʣ̾Ǥä Ihr ɰդɽñȤѤϤ켫Τϡ#1126. 衼åѤμˤ T/V distinction ε ([2012-05-27-1]) #1552. T/V distinction face ([2013-07-27-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸˤեˤˤߤ줿ݤǤꡤФиϤʣȤμ (iconicity) ˤ롥ɥĸˤǤϱѸˤ٤Ƥʤˤˡ줿Ȥܤ٤Ǥ롥9Ⱦ˻Ϥޤä du/Ihr 2ʬˡϡ11ޤǤˤڤҲŪʸϤϰ̡ʤ power Ȥѥ16ޤ¸³
16ˤʤĹˤ錄äưꤷƤ du/Ihr 2ʬˡϤIhr ηɰդҲŪϰ̤ι⤯ʤͤˤޤǻȤ褦ˤʤäؼʤȤ der Herr, die Frau Ȥäʪ̾ΤѤϤ֤ȤˤĤơ̾3;ñ̾ er sie 켫ΤƾΤȤѤ褦ˤʤä˻äơ Er/Sie, Ihr, du 3ʳƥबǤä
18ȡɥĸθƾ̾ϡϩפ¤κޤǤˤϡ̤οͤ˴ιȤ Eure Majestät Ųˤ Eure Ehre ʳղˤ Eure Gnaden ʳղˤΤ褦ˡְҸס̾סֲפʤɤ̾ʤƤ̾ˤդƾΤȯãƤν̾ȱǡ3;ν̾ sie ѤƤϤޤ3;ʣ̾ƱäˡԤˤɾΤεǽܤä˻äơSie, Er/Sie, Ihr, du 4ʳƥबä
18Ⱦˤϡ4ʳƥˤǾ̤ Sie Ǥɰα¿Ȥʤꡤؼ̾ʣ Dieselben ʺǾ̤ηɾΤȤ߽Ф졤5ʳƥDieselben ̾ȾȱǤѤʤäդ˸ꤵƤˡ̲뤳ȤϤʤä
Ѥܤ˸ơƾ̾ᤰҲκϼ«˸ǤŤǤ̤ du ˡͧҡ (Freundschaftskult) ȤҲŪʲͤդ졤ѶŪɾ褦ˤʤäƤΤdu positive politeness εǽդ褦ˤʤäȤäƤ褤ҲŪ餢뤤 power ˴ŤƾηϤʹִط뤤 solidarity ˴ŤƾηϤؤȰܹԤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ (cf. #1059. ϽŻ뤫ְռŻؿܤƤ T/V distinction ([2012-03-21-1])ˡ19ʹߡdu Ūʾ徺ȡ٤ʾ̶ʬβäˤꡤߤ褦 du/Sie 2ʬˡؤ夤Ƥ椭ɥĸ϶μҲŪϩæФ뤳Ȥ
ɥĸˤδϢȤƤϡ#185. Ѹˤȥɥĸˤˤ T/V distinction ([2009-10-29-1]) ȡ#1865. Ф thou ѤΤϤʤ ([2014-06-05-1]) ǤƤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿
ԡַɾΤū٤餵뷧18Υɥĸž̾ס˸硡Υߥ˥١ʹ ԡ̾ ҡ ŵҡˡˡ罤ۡ2011ǯ143--62ǡ
ܸθ줬ƻޤ줿Τϡ16ȾФǤ롥#1879. ܸˤˡ ([2014-06-19-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡݥȥͤ褬äꥹȶѸȤȤ˰ŪѸ⤿餵줿Ԥϸ˶ضȤʤäȤ⤢ä夷ʤäԤǤϡإȥͭʿ(alfeloa) ƥ (Castella)å (capa)ܥCambodia)륵ʷסcalsãnˡ륿 (carta)ڥȥʶʿconfeitosˡ饵ʹӡsaraçaˡܥ (zamboa)ܥ (sabão)ХۡgibãoˡХʱtabacoˡ (charamela)ȥ (tutanaga)ѥ (pão)ӥɥ (vidro)ӥåȡʥӥåȡbiscoitoˡӥ (veludo)ե饹 (frasco)֥ (blanço)ܥ (bolo)ܥ (botão) ʤɤĤä16ˤϥڥäƤ夷Τϥ䥹 (medias) 餤ä
ؤȡμѸ줬ήǤ롥ʳؤθä¿˷طθääޤءؤǤϡƥ (ether) (extract)֥顼 (oblaat)륷 (calcium)ե (kamfer, kampher) (cholera)ꥹ (digitalis)ݥ (spuit)ڥ (pest) (mes)ҥ (morphine)ءʪŷʸǤϡ륫 (alkali)륳 (alcohol)쥭ƥ (electriciteit)ѥ (kompas) (soda)ƥ쥹 (telescoop)ԥ (brandpunt) (lenz)طǤϡ르 (orgel)ޥ (diamant) (koffij)å (kok)åסkop; cf. #1027. åפȥåס ([2012-02-18-1])ˡ (gom)å (siroop)å (schop)å (doek)åסʥסsoepˡå (jak)ӡ (bier)֥ꥭ (blik)ڥ (pen)ڥ (pek), ݥ (pomp)ۥå (hoek)ۥå (hop) (lamp)طǤϡ٥ (sabel)ԥȥ (pistool)ɥ (ransel)
ˤθΤʤǤϱѸ줬ͥȤʤäƤ뤬ˤϤޤ֥åסס֥ɥȥפʤɥѸλѤƤʹߤϱѸϤȾ褦ˤʤꡤΡ֥åספѸΡ֥ספִ줿褦ˡȯѸؤ줵Ƥ롥ѸʳθȤƤϡ龼¤ˤƥɥĸʼ˰ءлůشطˡեʼ˷ݽѡطˡꥢʼ˲ڴطˡ⸫褦ˤʤä줾Ƥߤ褦
ɥĸ졧ΥNeuroseˡơKarteˡGazeˡץKapselˡ說VakzinˡǥIdeologieˡߥʡSeminarˡơޡThemaˡơTheseˡååRucksackˡSeilˡҥåơHütteˡ֥顼 (Oblate), 쥪 (Kreosot)
ե졧ǥådessinˡconcoursˡchansonˡޥromanˡץespritˡgenreˡȥꥨatelierˡcrayonˡ롼rougeˡͥꥸnégligeˡġomeletteˡ˥åcognacˡѥchampagneˡޥ͡mayonnaise
ꥢ졧ڥoperaˡʥsonataˡƥݡtempoˡեʡfinaleˡޥˡmacaroniˡѥåƥspaghetti
졧åvodkaˡѡkampaniyaˡڥpechkaˡΥޡnorma
θ8䤬ѸϤǤꡤѤоݤȤʤѸѼȤƤʿϤDZѤƤؤڤؤä
ʾ塤ƣ (179--80, 185--86) Ӳƣ¾ (74) ȤƼɮϢơ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1])#1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ ([2013-07-01-1])#1067. Ѹȸܸθüѡ ([2012-03-29-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿
ƣ س⡡ܸˡ١īҽŹ1995ǯ
ƣ ɧ ɹ ԡܸ쳵١դ1989ǯ
#1506. The Rhenish fan ([2013-06-11-1]) εǡϥɥĸϥɥĸʬˤäƸߤ˰פʤ¤ǧλ¤ˤϡǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ˤ벻ˡ§ΰΧŬѤȤΤǤϤʤषȾ (wave_theory) Ȥơ줴Ȥ˳礷Ƥ椯ΰ褬ۤʤΤȤߤʤɬפ롥
The Rhenish fan ̤ؤľ˽ǤϢΰۤʤϰ1--7̾դ褦ļ˼ꡤѰۤθҲޤ6 (ich, machen, dorf, das, apfel, pfund) ˼롥ȡSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) θ̤ˤĤơʲΤ褦ʳʾʬۤ뤳ȤǤRomain, p. 138 "Isoglosses between Low and High German consonant shift: /p t k/ /(p)f s x/" ˡ

1Ǥ SGCS θ̤ϥ2Ǥ ich ˴ؤƤΤ߸̤Ƥ롥3Ǥ machen ˸̤ڤӡ4Ǥ dorf ˤڤ֡³Ƥ椭Ǹ7ˤäơ6줹٤ƤҲѲФȤˤʤ롥1--7ŪľϢ³Ǥ뤳ȤפФСɽϡѲȾ˳礷Ƥ椯ͻҡʤȾɽ魯ΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫
ơ1--7ľܤɽ魯ΤǤϤʤ1ˤɽ魯ΤȤƲᤷ褦ˤơ1ˤƤ SGCS θ̤ϤޤƤʤ2ˤƤ ich ˴ؤƸ̤Ƥ롥34ˤ machen, dorf 줾ѲФơ缡7 pfund ޤ³λˤäƤ褦䤯٤Ƥθˤ SGCS λ롥βȤСɽϡ֤ȤȤ SGCS ä˥褦ˤƿʹԤóȻ (lexical diffusion) ɽ魯ΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫
ļ1--7Ȥ٥ϡŪľ¤ΤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤС֤ΤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥ԤȾԤϸóȻɽ路Ѳˤξδط褯ΤǤϤʤ
ˡɽϸѲȼްռ (implicational scale) ƤǤͭյǤ롥6Τ줬 SGCS Ǥ˷ФƤȤ狼äƤΤǤС뤤Ϥλˤơθ꺸¦ˤ뤹٤Ƥθ SGCS ФƤϤǤ롥ΤȤϱ¦θϺ¦θްդɽǤ롥ѲνȤ̻Ūʼȡɤθ줬 SGCS θ̤ͽ¬ǽǤȤŪʼȤߤȤͻ¤Ƥ롥
Ѳ implicational scale ˤĤƤϡ#841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1]) ⻲ȡ
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
ε#1505. ˤ "mouse"-line "house"-line ([2013-06-10-1]) ǡƱ첻Ǥޤ2ĤθˤĤơ줾첻 (isogloss) פʤϡƱͤͭ̾⤦1ĸƤߤ褦ɥġ̤ή饤 (the Rhine) ڤäƤĤäƤꡤϴߤ40餤ϴߤظ褦˿ӤƤ뤿ᡤؤǤ "The Rhenish fan" ȤΤƤ롥Bloomfield (344) ˷ǺܤƤ Behaghel ϿޤǺܤ롥

ޥؤǤϡ"make" 2Ҳ [x] [k] ʬäơϥɥĸϥɥĸʬΤŪǤ롥ͤͤŪȤȤˤʤ뤬#1317. פ ([2012-12-04-1]) ˤŬäƤ롥ϡ¦Ǥ Berlin ˱ӤƤ뤬¦Ǥ Benrath ȤĮǥ饤Ϥ롥¦ "Benrath line" ȸƤФƤ롥ϡˤ Berg ʥ饤ˤ Jülich ʥ饤ˤڤʬ붭ä
Ʊ [x/k] ѰۤǤ⡤1;ñ̾ I ˤƤϰۤʤǧ롥Benrath 鲼ήؤФ餯ԤäȤˤ Ürdingen Ȥ¼̤äƥ饤Ϥ [ix/ik] ǡ "Ürdingen line" ȸƤǤ롥Benrath line ǤϤʤ Ürdingen line ϥɥĸζȤߤʤԤ⤤롥ϡʥݥ쥪θΤȥΤȤʬ붭ä
Benrath line ܤܤȡ¼פɽ魯θҲ˴ؤ [dorf/dorp] äƤ롥Ūˤϥȥ졼ΤζȤ褽פ롥ˤϡ"that" [das/dat] ˱ӤƤ롥ϤŪڤζȳͰפ롥
Benrath line Ürdingen line ˤ [x/k] Ѱۤפϡǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ˤ벻ˡ§ΰΧŬѤȤޤƤϤޤʤǤ롥ƱǤޤफȤäơġθפȤϸ¤ʤפͳϡġġŪҲŪʶбƤ뤫Ǥ롥 chaque mot a son histoire "every word has its own history" ([2012-10-21-1]) ǧ롥ζκǸθ "history" ˷ƻ "social" Ȥ
ʾ塤Bloomfield (343--45) ȤƼɮ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.

ΥޥɤüԤʬۤϿޤ˼ȡü Continental Scandinavianü High Germanü Englishü Icelandic ˤĻշ롥Ͽޤ붽̣ϡĤǼ English Continental Scandinavia Ū˶ޤ㤷פƤޥǤꡤ֤Ǽ Icelandic High German Ū˶ޤǤ褯ĤƤޥǤȤ¤ơŪ졦üݼŪü˰Ϥޤ줿ФǼշ˴ޤޤ Faroese, Dutch, Frisian, Low German ϡޤ٤פƤ뤬٤ݻƤȤŪʤȸѲشطϸΤΤ뤤ϼ¼ŪʤΤ
ˤĤƹŸƤΤO'Neil Ǥ롥
Now from the point of view of their inflectional systems, it is in the languages of the extreme southwest and northeast areas, among the Scandinavians and the English, that things are farthest from the state of the old languages, where --- in fact --- the old inflectional system has become so simplified that the languages can barely be said to be inflected at all. It is in the other two areas, in the northwest in Iceland and in the southeast among the High Germans (but most especially in Iceland) that an older inflectional system is best preserved. Between these two extremes and their associated corners or areas and languages, lie other Germanic languages (Faroese, Frisian, Dutch, etc.) of neither extreme characteristic: i.e. not stripped (essentially) of their inflections, nor heavily inflected like the older languages. (250)
ľܤ˸Ѳ˱ƶڤܤȤȤϤʤüԤŪΩ˱ƶڤܤŪΩ줬ˤ˱ƶڤܤˤȯŸ˱ƶڤܤȤŪʴطꤹ뤳Ȥϲǽ
ޤ礤ñ㲽Ѹξ硤ťΥɸ (Old Norse) Ȥܿñ㲽ηŪʰȤʤäȤϡǤϹƤ[2009-06-26-1]ε#59. ѸˤˤťΥɸΰյäפȡˡǡɸ (Icelandic) Ū˸ΩƤ뤬椨ˡŤޤޤǤ褯ĤƤȤȤ褯[2010-07-01-1]ε#430. Ѳ˳װפȡˡŪ˷иƤܿ٤ȤδؿȤƤ뤬θܿˤȤؾװˤä礤˾դƤΤǤ롥ǤϸѲŪˤŪưŤƤȤ
ǤϡѸ䥢ɸʳΥޥˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤǽO'Neil ϡΦʥӥζޤñ㲽ѸΤʿŪʴطˤȼĥ롥ξ硤Φʥӥ줬ܿΤϥɥĸ (Middle Low German) Ǥ롥
It is clear then that Continental Scandinavian is inflectionally simple like English, with --- however --- its idiosyncratic sense of simplicity. The reasons for its simplicity seem to be exactly those that led to the development of the neutralized northern Middle English inflectional system: language contact between Middle Low German and Danish in the countryside and between Middle Low German and all Continental Scandinavian languages in the centers of trade. (267)
ˡѸΦʥӥƱ褦ñ㲽ޤĥեꥫ (Afrikaans) ˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤεΩġǤϡ (Dutch) ϥޥ (Low German) ȤܿͿƤ롥
. . . the original population that settled Capetown and then the Cape was not a homogeneous Dutch-speaking population. The group of people that arrived in Capetown in 1652 was first of all predominantly German (Low German mercenaries) and the Dutch part of it was of mixed Dutch dialects. Thus just the right conditions for the neutralization of inflections existed in Capetown at the time of its settlement. (268--69)
¾ˤ⡤եꥸ (Frisian) ȥ (Dutch) ȤԻǸܿи̤ȤƤ "Town Frisian" (268) 롥
ȿФˡʣʶޤŪ褯ݤäƤȤơɸ¾˵ƤΤϥɥĸ (High German) Ǥ롥Ǥ O'Neil ϡϥɥĸ⥢ɤۤɤǤϤʤŪ˸ƳΥƤƤ롥
. . . High German has not been so completely isolated as Icelandic. But then neither is its inflectional system as conservative. Yet in fact the area of High German has been generally isolated from other Germanic contact --- the sort of contact that would lend to neutralization, for the general motion of High German has always been away from the Germanic area and onto its periphery among non-Germanic peoples. (277)
ǸˡϿλշǼޤŪʶ٤췲ˤĤƤ O'Neil ŪشطǧƤΤǡŦƤʲϡե (Faroese) ζޤŪħŤƤʬΰѤǤ롥
. . . the Faroese fished and worked among the Icelanders and still do, at the same time being administered, educated, and exploited by continental Scandinavians. Thus for centuries was Faroese exposed to the simplified inflectional systems of continental Scandinavia while in constant contact with the conservative system of Icelandic. Unless this conflict was resolved Faroese could neither move toward Continental Scandinavian, say, nor remain essentially where it began like Icelandic: neither completely neutralize its inflections, nor simplify them trivially. The conflict was not resolved and as a consequence Faroese moved in a middle state inflectionally. (280)
O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.
[2010-12-11-1]ε#593. ˤߤäŤ -wiseפ³ԡ
Foster (100) ϡ-wise ϡꥫѸǻϤޤꡤطʤˤ American-German ˡαƶäΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
It cannot be denied that such expressions as 'engineeringwise' are very readily coined in modern English and that this habit comes from America where in turn the astonishingly free use of the ending '-wise' owes something to the equally free application in German of the parallel -weise (as in beispeilsweise 'for example', gastweise 'as a guest', and others). . . . It may well be that the old usage had lingered on in the United States to a greater extent than in the English of Britain, but it can scarcely be doubted that its blossoming forth in the twentieth century was due to a more or less unconscious transference of a German habit, whether on the part of scholars or --- more likely --- of immigrants.
Foster ϡ-wise ˸¤餺ꥫѸˤ¿γŪɽɥĸ줫αƶˤΤǤƤ롥ϡ路 The Changing English Language ΤӤĥȤۤɤǡʸ̤˼ȡꥫѸγʤơΥꥹѸؤšˤϡ硤̣ʸˡ˻ޤǥɥĸˡμ̤ǤϤʤȻפƤۤɤǤ롥
ʸ̤˼뤳ȤϤǤʤѤƶƱɬưפǤʤƱΤˤϡѤƶȤξζŪҤʤƤʤФʤ餺¾˼Ҳ¾ܺ٤ʬäƤʤФʤʤȤ¿Foster ⤹٤ƤˤĤƽʬʾڵͿƵƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɾˤϿŤˤʤʤФʤʤ
ȤϤ (loan translation) ̣ (semantic loan) ޤ substitution ([2011-10-15-1]) ѶŪɾ褦Ȥ륿פεϡĿŪˤϹǤ롥ҴŪʾڵƤεǤϤʤʾ塤ǰȤäۤ褤Τ⤷ʤ֤αƶˤ importation Τ褦ɽŪ˸ʾθ̤äȤϤȹͤ롥줫αƶˤĤơɾդ٤ᾮɾˤⵤĤʤФʤʤ褦˻פ
ꥫѸˤƳαƶᾮɾƤаޤˤĤƤϡFoster (86--87) Τ褯ޤȤƤ롥顤ȤʤʬȴФ
Writers on the subject of Americanisms have usually made little of the fact that, in the past, millions of Americans have had a foreign language as their mother-tongue, though in fact it is incredible that the language of the country should not have been affected thereby. . . . In other words there has been a natural tendency to see foreign influences as consisting solely in straightforward loan-words from German, Yiddish, Spanish, Italian or whatever the language of the immigrants may have been. / Fortunately there have been some signs in recent years that scholars are becoming rather more aware that foreign borrowing into American speech has been taking place on a larger scale than had been thought.
ѤƱˤϷ夬ĤʤȤ¿ΤŤ˵ȤץФ뤳ȤϽפ
Foster, Brian. The Changing English Language. London: Macmillan, 1968. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970.
ɥĸϻҲ¿ȸ롥[2011-01-13-1]εǸФ륹ƥ쥪פˤȤ˿줿ɥĸȯˤĤƤиΤä guttural ּʡΡ郎줿ΡפȤƤФʹ guttural OALD8 ˤ "(of a sound) made or seeming to be made at the back of the throat"
ҴŪ˲Ūʴϡ줬ҲŪʸȤȤˤϲ̣Τޤ¾θȤŪʰ̣ǤϤ뤬㤨СηϤˤƻҲμब¿ ( phonotactics ) ˤƻҲȤ߹碌˭٤ǡ¤ȯä˺ݤƻҲ٤⤤ʤɤξ郎ͤΤ褦ʴʣθӤСҲŪʸ첻ŪʸȤʬϰǤǤ롥
㤨бѸ٤Ƥäɥĸ Second Germanic Consonant Shift ( see [2010-06-06-1] ) ˤ /pf/, /ts/, /x/ Τ褦˻ ( affricate ) ( fricative ) ηȯãƤꡤ/s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/ Τ褦ʻ ( sibilant ) ˭٤Ǥ롥ҲȤ߹碌 schlecht ְ, Tschechoslovakisch ֥ХΡ, Zweck Ūפʤɤ˳ָ̤긲Ǥ롥
Ѹɥĸ٤ƻҲäƤ櫓ǤϤʤghosts /gəʊsts/, sphinx /sfɪnks/, streets /striːts/ ʤɤϤʤʤ guttural Ǥ¿ñʤ1Ȥ strengths /streŋkθs/ ˻äƤϡ3Ҳ1첻4ҲפȤ guttural Ǥ롥
ɥĸѸ˸¤餺Τ˥ޥϻҲŪǤ롥ȡʤȤեθؼԤɾƤ롥㤨СѥϡΤ褦ʼ˱ѸˤĤơˤŦʤ顤ޥϡֻҲͥϤäȸƤ (p. 70) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
(1) Ƭ첻ԤΩäƤˡűѸƬƬ˻äƤ
(2) ޥζ ( stress accent ) ϻҲϢ䶯ĤҲϤä⤫Ӿ夬餻롥
(3) ʣҲ ( ex. OE mann, wīfmann, bringann ) ˭٤Ǥ롥
(4) PDE thunder, sound ʤɤ˸褦 /n/ θ /d/ ( insertion ) 롥
(5) ñᲽ˸ѸηΤΤҲΩƤ롥㤨Сڤ ( clipping ) ˤ bus, pop Ф ( blend ) ˤ smog ʤɡ
ɡˤħȤΤϡɡˤȤӤ餷⤫Ӿ夬äƤʤΰ̣ǤϡޥȤؼԤˤ륲ޥɾѸɾȤΤϤФзİͤ롥
ɥ졦ѥ رѸˡ١ҡʸ˥ӡ1980ǯ
Ѳä˲Ѳθͤߤ뤳Ȥϰ̤[2010-06-07-1]εǤߤ New York City /r/ ϸ˵äƤѲǤꡤѻ椨ˡҲŪʸͤߤ뤳ȤǤѲˤĤƤϼҲŪʸ̮ȽȤʤȤۤȤɤǡޤääƤ夲˶ᤤ
ȤϤäƤⲿ餫βΩƤ褦ȤΤԤǤ롥[2010-06-06-1]ǾҲ𤷤 Second Germanic Consonant Shift θ˴ؤơFennell (39) substratum theory 礤˽ФƤ롥substratum theory ȤϡʤɤˤäƤϰ줬ȤȤϤ˵サƤ͡θʡظ [ substratum ] ˤˤƶƤȤǤ롥SGCS ǤȡȤ the Main, Rhine, Danube ϰ˵サƤ̱²ϥޥ̱²ˤƹϥޥȤˡظǤ륱ȸβħȿǤΤǤϤʤȤϥޥ¦ߤСؤΥȸαƶ SGCS ϤޤäȤȤˤʤ롥
SGCS substratum βŬѤȤΤ speculation ʳβΤǤʤڤ뤳ȤԲǽ˶ᤤȤƤ substratum theory ϶ϤǤꡤȤƤǤ¿θβѲŬѤ줦ĸǤϸˤäȤޥĸ첻ؤưѲ䡤ˡ§ޤ First Germanic Consonant Shift ([2009-08-08-1]) ʤɤ⡤ظ줫αƶȤȤϹͤ줦롥
βѲθޤ줿ޤޤǤ롥
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
ʸ嵭2010/06/26(Sat) Wikipedia ˾ܤ⤢ꡥ
[2009-08-08-1]εǡˡ§ ( Grimm's Law ) ޤ켡ޥҲ ( First Germanic Consonant Shift ) ˤĤƿ줿²Τʤǥޥɤ¾θɤȶ̤ηŪʻҲѲǡޥĸˤƵ1000?400ǯȹͤƤ롥 켡Ȥ̾ΤȤȤ롥ϡޥ ( West Germanic ) ιϥޥ ( High Germanic ) ޥҲ ( Second Germanic Consonant Shift ) ˿줿
ޥɤη ([2009-10-26-1]) ʬȤꡤWest Germanic High Germanic Low Germanic ʬ롥Second Germanic Consonant Shift ʰʲά SGCS ) High Germanic Low Germanic ȶ̤ηŪʻҲѲǡ68ΤȤ롥θ̤ϡ㤨иɸɥĸǤϥɥĸ ( High German ) ˸Ƥ뤬ѸˤϸƤʤȤˤʤ롥˱ѸȤʤäƤ Angles, Saxons, Jutes ϤκޤǤˤǤ˥ɥθϤ֥ƥϤäƤꡤѸ SGCS 뤳ȤʤäǤ롥̤θСɥĸȸѸλҲΰϡSGCS 𤷤бطȤȤˤʤ롥
SGCS δŰ٤ϹϥɥˤäƤۤʤ뤬ɸɥĸʿŪȤ졤Ӥˤؤ褤SGCS Ǥ̵ĺ̵˻ءͭĺ̵ĺء̵ͭĺؤȤ줾۴ŪѲˡ§Ѥ۴Ŀ ( [2009-08-08-1] β) ǤСײˤ⤦ꤷΤ롥ˡ§ȰۤʤꡤƷΤ٤ƤλҲ櫓ǤϤʤѸȸɥĸбڥȤƤĤʤޤȤ褦
(1) ̵ĺ̵
/p/ > /pf/: carp/Karpfen, path/Phad, pepper/Pheffer, pound/Pfund
/p/ > /f/ <ff> 첻θǡ: deep/tief, open/offen, ship/Schiff, sleep/shlafen
/t/ > /ts/ <z>: heart/Herz, smart/Schmerz, ten/zehn, tide/Zeit, to/Zu, tongue/Zunge, town/Zaun, two/zwei
/t/ > /s/ 첻θǡ: better/besser, eat/essen, fetter/Fessel, great/gross, hate/Hass, water/Wasser, what/was
/k/ > /x/ <ch> 첻θǡ: make/machen, book/Buch
(2) ͭĺ̵ĺ
/d/ > /t/: bride/Braut, daughter/Tochter, death/Tod, dream/Traum, middle/mittel
(3) ̵ͭĺ
/θ/ <th> > /d/: feather/Feder, north/Nord, thanks/Danke, that/das, thick/dick
SGCS ˻˵äƤ뤿ᡤ۴ŪѲ drag chain ˤäƿʹԤȤ狼äƤ롥顤˻˵ä켡ҲޥҲܤ⤪餯 drag chain äΤǤϤʤȿ¬뤳ȤǤ롥
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006. 141--42.
[2009-12-24-1]εǡ15Ⱦ Caxton England ˰Ѥ⤿餷аޤˤĤƽҤ٤̤ˡΰѤƳϡ15Ⱦ˿ʹԤƤѸֻɸಽʤȤƲᤵƤ롥ѸˤθŵΰĤȤ٤ Baugh and Cable ϡѤαƶΤ褦ɾƤ롥
A powerful force thus existed for promoting a standard, uniform language, and the means were now available for spreading that language throughout the territory in which it was understood. (Baugh and Cable 201)
Caxton ˤѤƳֻɸಽ˹ɤϵ路ȤФƤƤ롥
The introduction of the press did not at first assist the adoption of the standard, but over time compositors became more familiar with it and helped to ensure its triumph. (Blake 205 as cited in Horobin 79)
. . . while the advent of the printing press was an important factor for the standardisation of written English, this was a gradual process which even by the close of the fifteenth century still remained unfinished. (Horobin 87)
ˡѤϤषޤĤäƤֻ variation ˹̤ɸಽ˵չԤή߽ФȤո餢롥
. . . it is an irony in the history of the development of the standard that the orthography of early printing represented a backward step when compared with the established conventions of chancery English. (Görlach 24 as cited in Horobin 79)
λܤεŪʰոȴϢơϥɥĸνɸಽξפФʲΰѡ
The inflectional system remained unstable during the following Early New High German period. One of the major factors for the instability was ironically the growing standardisation of written language. To quote R. Keller, "the growth of a written standard language spread regional features to other areas and by making them supra-regional increased variation and thus morphological confusion" (German 410) (Hotta 27)
Ѹξ硤嵭ΰոϡCaxton ΰȼԤ spelling λȤܺ٤ʬϤƤߤȤϤʤ餫ˤʤʤεϡĤʸ˾νФ͡ɾǽǤ뤳ȤȤƶ̣
Horobin, Simon. The Language of the Chaucer Tradition. Cambridge: Brewer, 2003.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996.
Görlach, M. Studies in the History of the English Language. Heidelberg: C. Winter, 1990.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Keller, R. E. The German Language. London: Faber, 1978.
[2009-10-11-1]θˤ T/V distinction ñ˾Ҳ𤷤
ѸǤϡѸ thou ʿƾΡˤ you ʷɾΡˤˤȤμҲŪطɸʤ¸ߤ you ˰ܲƤ϶̤ʤʤʤäƤ롥thou Ǥʤ you ˰ܲȤȤϡȤεΥ礭ɤڤäȤȤˤʤ
ӤƤ⤷Τϡɥĸ T/V distinction ̻ŪǤ롥ɥĸǤϡ;οƾ̾ du;ηɾ̾ Sie Ȥƶ̤Ƥ뤬ĤƤϤǤϤʤäȤǽ;ηɾ̾Ȥ;ʣ Ihr žѤƤ餷ĤޤꡤѸŪ;ʣǤä you ɾΤȤžѤΤƱäȤˤʤ롥
Ȥ˻;ñ Er ;ηɾ̾ȤƻȤ褦ˤʤäơ˻;ʣ Sie ô褦ˤʤꡤߤ˻äƤ롥ѸǤȤС;ηɾ̾줬 you he they ƤȤȤˤʤ롥ɥĸǤϡ;ηɾ̾ɽ֤ѲƤεǽϼ鷺ݤäƤȤȤˤʤ
嵭Τ褦ˡѸȥɥĸȤǤϡ;ηɾ̾˴ؤưۤʤˤǤ櫓T/V distinction ȤŪǽϡθǤ⡤ɤ鰷Ť餤ΤΤ褦;ñʡˤ̾ؤϡܸʤ餺Ȥ⡤ϤФȤΤʤΤ
ɥĸǡIhr ʣˤäơ֤ʤפŪ˻ؤƤϤȤ³뤦ˤδޤꡤɤľŪ˻ؤƤΤƱ餤̤ǺƤӿŪǫʡ֤ʤפȤ Er ȤФ⤽Τ˼깤Ĥơľ褦ˤʤ롥ǡ Sie äƤ롦ϡַɰˡ§פȸƤФ뤬ĴҤǤȡʱ˿줬ƤǤ֤ȤȤ֤ȤˤʤꤽѸǤϡزǤڤäơѤζϤãȤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ
ʸŪˤϡֿͤƤ֡סʡ̾ؤˤϡ˿פΤƱͤΥ֡ͭƤȤ졤¿θʸǷŪƾΤȯãƤȤ[2009-10-11-1]ηǧ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬ѤζϤãѸȡǺ³Ƥܸޤ¿θȤǤϡƾΤФʸκϼ¤礭ΤʤȲƴ롥
챺 ָ͡ƾΤΥݥ饤ȥͥסط3812桤2009ǯ32--39ǡ
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