ε#1826. 첻ĹûľܼȤǤʤ ([2014-04-27-1]) ǸڤѸˡˤĤƤ褯Τ줿§1Ĥˡ#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) 롥take, mete, side, rose, cube ʤ¿ <-VCe> ıñˤơ첻 V Ĺ첻뤤첻ɤޤ뤳ȤŪ˼ <e> ƤΤǤ롥ġ㳰ϤȤƤ⡤褽§ȾΤƺ٤ʤ
<-ve> ǽñ˴ؤơdove, glove, shove, ƻ -ive ĸ췲ʤɡ㳰¿ˤʤ롥⡤above, give, have, live (v.), love ʤɹٸ¿θǤϡ <ve> Ԥ첻û첻Ȥɤޤ롥gave, eve, drive, grove ʤɵ§ŪʤΤ¿ȤǧĤĤ⡤ΩԵ§ϤɤΤ褦
¤ϡ<-ve> ˤ magic <e> ε§ƤϤޤʤ¿Τϡ <e> ⤽ magic <e> ǤϤʤǤ롥 <e> ϡmagic <e> Ȥ̵ط̤ŪаޤˤȯŸƤΤطʤˤϡѸˤˤ /v/ βDz٤ä¡ڤ <v> ʸǤȤƤΩ٤ä¤ʤβǤʸǤȯŸξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ#373. <u> <v> ʬ (1) ([2010-05-05-1])#374. <u> <v> ʬ (2) ([2010-05-06-1])#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#1230. over offer ϺǾФǤϤʤ ([2012-09-08-1]) Ȥ줿ˡꤷƤС<v> ñȤǸˤ뤳ȤǤ<e> ΥݡȤ <-ve> ȤƤˤ뤳ȤǤʤäơ <e> ϥݡȤ <e> ˤԤ첻̤ɸ뵡ǽôäƤ櫓ǤϤʤʲˡ2ŪͿ桤pp. 166--70 ⻲ȡˡ
(1) űѸǤϡ[v] ϤޤΩǤǤϤʤ /f/ ΰ۲ˤʤäŵŪˤ ofer (over) ʤ첻˶ޤ줿Ķ [v] 줿ľ첻ϼ岽뷹äȤ⤢ꡤѸˤƤ <e> ֤뤳Ȥ¿ʤäΤ褦ˤơ[v] β <ve> ֻ̩ܤ˴ϢŤ褦ˤʤä<e> ΤΤ̵ǤꡤޤǴǤ롥
(2) ҤΤ褦ˡѸȽѸ̤ơ<u> <v> ʸȤƤʬƤǤϤʤä첻ȤƤ <u>ҲȤƤ <v> ȤʬôΤˤǤƤʤäǤ⡤ؤϤä褦Ǥ롥㤨С̤ʬξǤСlove low ϤȤ <lou> Ȥֻ˹줷ƤޤǡȤꤢˡȤơҲ [v] Τˡ̵ <e> ź <-ue> Ȥ3Ĥ첻³ȤϾʤᡤ<loue> ֤С֤ <u> ϻҲɽ魯ϤȤˤʤ롥Ǥ <e> ΤΤ̵Ǥꡤľ <u> ҲǤ뤳ȤôäƤˤʤ䤬ơҲȤƤ <v> ̲ȡΰ֤ <u> Τޤ <v> ؤž줿<v> ҲȤƳΩΤǤ <e> ΥݡȤȤƤפȤʤ뤬 <e> ˤ긽ߤޤǻĤäƤ롥
ơ [v] <-ve> Ȥ֤뽬Ω<-v> ñΤǽϡAsimov, eruv, guv, lav, Slav ʤɡ¯졦ά졤ʤɤμѸ˸ꤵ졤ŪʱѸˡˤƤ⤤Ƥ롥
Noah Webster 䡤Cut Speling μ羧 Christopher Upward ʤɤϡgive <giv> Ȥ֤뤳ȤƤ϶ŪˤϹŪǡ嵭Τ褦Ūطʤܤ뤳ȤפǤ롥
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
Ѹֻȯ¿1Ĥˡ첻ĹûľŪ˼ʤȤ꤬롥Ѹ²ΰȤơ첻ĹûΤˤû첻Ĺ첻첻Ȥ̤ҴǤ롥С첻ñʣŪΩ롥ȤβΩֻľŪȿǤƤʤ㤨Сbat vs bate give vs five ǤƱ <a> <i> ѤƤʤ顤줾ԤǤû첻ԤǤ첻ɽ路Ƥ롥Τˡbat vs bate Τ褦ˡβ <e> ˤäơ첻ɤޤ뤫Ū˼ҥȤͿƤʡ#1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]) ȡˡ첻ΤΤ㤨뤳ȤDzΰ㤤ƤΤǤϤʤȤ̣ǤϡޤǴŪɸˡˤʤgive vs five ǤϡΥҥȤͿƤʤ
첻Ȥ߹碌Ĺ첻첻ɽ魯ˡϹΤƤ롥ޤĹ첻Ȥ첻ξûĹդā ă Τ褦ˤˡ⡤ˡȤƤϺѤƤʤŪǤϻѤ뤳Ȥ롥ȤʸηϤȤΤϲΩˤޤȤʤɸ櫓ǤϤʤʾ塤Ѹˡˤ첻ĹûʸξľŪɸʤȤȤϡä˶ä٤ȤǤϤʤΤ⤷ʤ
ξѸˤȤɤޤ餺ޥե٥åȤѤƤ뤢ˤߤȤܤͤ롥첻Ĺû첻ΤΤˤäƼ뤳ȤʤΤǤ롥첻ŤͤĹ첻ɽ魯ȤϤäƤ⡤Ĺ첻û첻Ȥޤä̤1Ĥεˤäɽ蘆ȤϤʤδ餹ȡꥷե٥åȤΦ vs ǡ vs ؤʸΩϡܤڤ褦ʳä
ե٥åȻ˾塤ꥷͤβ̤ϡʤȤ˲ɾ뤬˳Τ˳̿Ūä#423. ե٥åȤˡ ([2010-06-24-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡꥷͤϡҲʸäϥե٥åȤ˽첻ʸƳ뤳ȤˤꡤǤʸΤܴۤʷ¸ΩȤˤȤäƤܼŪŪħФʸȤŪʷƤä줬1γ̿äȤС٤Ƥạ̈Ǥ뤳ȤʤƱ餤ܼͤ2γ̿⤢äϡ첻βǤϤʤ̡Ĺˤʸ˳Ƥ褦ȤȯۡҤ vs ǡ vs ΩϰƤΤȤꥷͤϥե˥ե٥åȤΤʤǥꥷˤȤä;äҲʸ5첻ʸʦšɡϡԡˤžѤ;äƤǤŤĹ첻ǤȤƺѤǦؤʤʸϤĹ첻ǤȤƿΤäʺǸ˺줿Τǡե٥åȤκǸ˲ä줿ˡ
Ȥˤζˤꡤޥե٥åȤˤĤʤꥷե٥åȤˤƤϡ嵭2γ̿ϾͿʤäꥷե٥åȤǤϡǡʸˤϸ褽줬ɽ路Ҳ [h] ɽ魯Ѥ줿ΤǡΤޤޥƥؤҲʸȤƻۤ줿ʸ˥ƥޥ [h] ü<h> ¸߰յȤϼ¤ǤˡޤؤϺΥߥ⡤ƥرƶͿˤ٤ơ2γ̿ϡˤޤäͿ뤳Ȥʤäʾ夬˥Ѥ¿θ줬첻Ĺûľ첻ˤäƶ̤뽬⤿ʤͳǤ롥
סرѸ쥢ե٥åȯãˡʸȲ١ʸҡ1970ǯ
ܥ֥ǤϡѸ˴ؤơθ졤ǡǤʬۤܤȤơϿޤȤȤˡ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1])#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1])#1320. LAEME Ǹ most ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2012-12-07-1])#1622. eLALME ([2013-10-05-1]) ʤɤƤʤۤˤ⡤me_dialect εȡˡޤŪѸʬޤ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) Ǽ
Ѹ˸¤ʤ֤̤벻б (isogloss) ʣϤ褯ΤƤ롥ѸǤ LALME LAEME Ȥܺ٤ʸϿޤǤƤΤǡζŪϿޤƤߤаǤ롥ǡ绨ĤˤǤ礿Ѱۤ䲻бʵڤӤȿǤƤȹֻͤбˤƤΤ褦Ūǡ#1341. Ѹʬ8ĤŪʷ֡ ([2012-12-28-1]) ΩĤLerer (92) μƤʰޤΩLerer ϡ⤤6 ("stone", "man", "heart", "father", "them", "hill") ǡѸ5ʰŪ˿ʲϡLerer ΤΤȤƺäޤǤ롥

äįƤȡͶäƤΤ Ƥhill -- hell -- hull ˸첻ѰۤˤĤƤϡϢơ#562. busy ֻȯ ([2010-11-10-1]) ȡ
ʤ顤Ѹʬϡ奤ɱѸʬȤ̵ǤϤʤ8Ĥθˤ븽ζʬϡ#1030. England θѸʬ (2) ([2012-02-21-1]) Ȥ줿
Lerer, Seth. Inventing English. New York: Columbia UP, 2007.
ε#1806. ARCHER shew show ([2014-04-07-1]) ˰³[2014-04-03-1]εǾҲ𤷤#1802. ARCHER 3.2פѤơ̤פࡥɸ between betwixt θѸˤʬۤˤĤơ#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ˤARCHER Untagged ǤϤɤΤ褦Ĵ̤Ф
ˤäƤϡȤ櫓17ʳǤֻޤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤᡤ줾θΰֻθ줿Ūˤϡbetween Ȥ between, betweene, betwen, betwene, betwn betwixt Ȥ betwixt, betwext ֻȤƵäƤƱͤˡҥåȿ12뤪1600--1999ǯ50ǯߤˤ8ʬƿ夲ʲˡ̤ΥդΤʥǡեɽϥHTMLȤ줿ˡʤbetwixt and between ηǤ1⸽Ƥʤ

ΤȤơ17--19ΤɤλˤƤ between ݤƤ뤳Ȥϡ CLMET3.0 ˤĴ̤ͽۤ줿ȤǤ롥P2--P3 (1650--1749) λ˸¤äƤǤϤ뤬betwixt 20%ۤɤΥƤȤ¤ܤƤ褤P1Υ֥ѥ¾γƻΥ֥ѥ1/3ۤɤεϤǤ뤳ȤˤաˡCLMET3.0 ˤĴǤ18ޤǤ bewixt 10%ۤɤΥƤȤ̤ФƤ뤫顤绨Ĥˤä1750ǯ餤ޤǤ betwix between ΰ۷ȤƤʤ¸ߴƤȤǧǤ
ɸθֻѰۤˤĤơ#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1])#1416. shew show (2) ([2013-03-13-1])#1716. shew show (3) ([2014-01-07-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥϡ[2014-04-03-1]εǾҲ𤷤#1802. ARCHER 3.2פѤơѸˤξֻʬۤƳǧ褦
ARCHER: A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers Untagged ǡshew (shew, shews, shewed, shewn, shewing) show (show, shows, showed, shown, showing) θҥåȿ12뤪1600--1999ǯ50ǯߤˤ8ʬƿ夲ǡեɽϥHTMLȤƤ餦Ȥơ̤ղΤΤ

ιθϤƤȤơ̻Ūʿܤܤ褦P1 (1600--49) P4 (1750--99) ޤǡĤޤ17--18ˤϡ٤ shew Τۤ show ͥP5 (1800--49) ξԤ褽¤١P6 ʹߤˤ show 쵤 shew षƤ椯ƤȤ롥οܤγפϡεĴ Helsinki Corpus PPCMBE η̤Ȥ礹뤬CLMET3.0 η̤ȤϾۤʤ롥CLMET3.0 Ǥϡ[2014-01-07-1]εǸ褦ˡ18椫٤ show shew Ū˾äƤΤǤ롥Υѥ֤ΰ㤤ƥѥɽΰ㤤ˤΤʤΤȤ⥸ʬͿƤΤ뤤ʣθ礷ƿȤͳ褹ΤʤΤܤĴƤʤP1Υ֥ѥˤĤƤϡ¾γƻΥ֥ѥ1/3ۤɤεϤǤ뤳ȤաˡξŪǤϤʤshew οȤǹͤΤǤСΥѥȤƤ⡤19ȾνȤߤʤƤ褤
#81. once twice -ce Ȥϲ ([2009-07-18-1]) εǡonce, twice -<ce> ϸ츻Ūˤ°ʸ -s ɽ魯եֻƤ֤ΤǤȽҤ٤¾ hence, thence Ʊͤ츻Ūʣ -s ɽ路 pence Τ褦⤢롥ޤice, mice ʤɤθ캬ΰɽ魯 /s/ Ǥ顤ȴɤΤեŪ -<ce> ֤褦ˤʤäȤƤ /s/ <ce> ɽ路ȤפζäƤ褦οǤ롥
Horobin (88) ŦƤ褦ˡ -<ce> ̯ʬۤƤ롥嵭̤긽Ѹʣ mice -<ce> ñ mouse ǤŪ -<se> ֻݻƤ롥louse -- lice ƱͤñʣΤˤֻͭƤʤȤΤˤʤȤǤ롥Ȥ櫓 -<ice> ȤֻϢޤȤȤΤ褦
Ǥϡ-<ice> ĸ餤Ĵ٤Ƥߤ褦OALD8 곺ʣϽˤФ62줬줿嵭 ice, lice, mice ۤȤɤե쵯Τ츻ˤλҲ <s> ֤ƤΤϰʲ22Ǥ롥
advice, apprentice, choice, coppice, cowardice, device, dice, juice, lattice, liquorice, poultice, price, pumice, rejoice, rice, service, sluice, splice, suffice, surplice, vice, voice
㤨Сadvice ϥե avis бΤǡѸ¦ -<is> -<ice> Ȥˤʤadvice ˤĤƤϡ#1153. ̾ adviceư advise ([2012-06-23-1]) ȡˡƱͤˡrice ϸťե ris ʸեǤ rizˤбΤǡϤѸ¦ -<is> -<ice> ȺեɸŪֻȰۤʤΤ⤢ꡤե¦ǤֻѲθɬפϤ뤬ǤѸȤơˤեŪʳ -<ice> 夷ƤȤ̣
αѸ¦ιưϡ꽤 (hypercorrection) ȸƤǤʤ餳β꽤ϰӤƵä櫓ǤϤʤᡤѸֻηϤˤ⤦1Ĥκ𤬤⤿餵뤳ȤȤʤä-<ce> /z/ ǤϤʤ /s/ դɽ魯ȤǤȤǡξɽ路 -<se> ⵡǽŪȤϸ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
츻ֻ֤ (etymological_respelling) ˤĤơ#116. 츻֤֤ --- etymological respelling ([2009-08-21-1]) #192. etymological respelling (2) ([2009-11-05-1]) ϤȤ¿εǼ夲ƤѸѸˤơ¿αñֻȤƥƥͳֻαƶơľäƤƥؤοˤȤŤηϡФбѹͥ16ȷӤĤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤĴ٤16ĺޤ봶Ϥ뤬ºݤˤѸ黶ȯŪ㤬뤳ȤդƤ٤Ǥ롥ޤƱϤ٤Υեǡ餯ɤ¿ȯƤȤõƤΤȤˤĤƤϡ#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) εǾ줿
եǤϡ13Ⱦդˡƥθ츻ŪֻδĤϤ褦֥å (77) ˤСΥԡϤϤ16Ȥ
եñθ츻ޤϤμθ츻˶Ť褦Ȥؿ16ĺã롥㤨СΥեñˤˤơr a e ꡤλϡºݤˤϡ1517ˤޤdzȤäƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥첻줿ΤϸŤեηˤäƤǤϤʤ츻ǤƥˤäƤǤ뤳Ȥǧ롥armes ͤϤ a arma ˡsemon ⶵͤϤ e sermo гʤǤsermonem äƤ롥ˤϡ16ƬˤƼƤͣηǤ erres ôݡݾڡͤϥκʤˤƤ arres ֤夨졤Τˤʤä arrhes ˤȤä뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬꼡Ĥ֤夨Ϥޤ˸츻Ǥ arrha ˴ŤƤʤ줿
եˤȱѸˤȤǡƥˤȤŤ츻ֻ֤ήԤʿԤƤ뤳ȤϡۤɶäȤǤϤʤ⤷ʤѸ˸Ǹ츻ֻ֤Ȥˤϡʤ츻ȤʤäƥֻΤۤ˶ؿ졤եǤʿŪʸݤˤդ뤳ȤʤξηΤˤɤ٤ľܡܤδطΤ̤ĴɤΤ褦ʤΤǤ졤饢ץ뤳ȤǡαѸ˾ζ̣꤬ޤޤ̣ΤˤʤǽΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
롦֥å ⳤ ϯ ظ츻ء١ҡʸ˥ӡ1997ǯ
whole ϡűѸ (ġe)hāl (healthy, sound. hale) ̤ꡤ켫Ȥϥޥĸ *(ȝa)xailaz˰ĸ * kailo- (whole, uninjured, of good omen) ̤롥heal, holy ȤƱǤꡤhale, hail Ȥ3Ÿʤäơ<whole> <w> 츻ŪѸˤʸƬ줿
MED hōl(e (adj.(2)) ǤϡֻȤ wholle Ƥꡤʲ15 <wh>- Ǥ˸줿Ȥ狼롥
a1450 St.Editha (Fst B.3) 3368: When he was take vp of þe vrthe, he was as wholle And as freysshe as he was ony tyme þat day byfore.
15μȤΥƥȤ˸ǽ <wh>- ϡwhole ƬҲ /h/ æȯ (h-dropping) diacritical ̤Ƥ褦Ȥ̤θǡ16ˤ /h/ æΤǤϤʤñֻθɤΤߤ˴ؤ <w> Ԥ褦ˤʤäɽŪ츻Ū <w> ϡѸ whore (< OE hōre) ˤǧǤwhore ˤ <w> 16ǡMED hōr(e (n.(2)) Ǥ <wh>- ϳǧʤˡ16ˤϡۤˤ whom (home), wholy (holy), whoord (hoard), whote (hot)) whood (hood) ʤɤ졤<o> ֤Ǥ츻Ū <wh>- 䤫ĬήƤȤ狼롥whole whore ΤߤɸѸޤʤ館ͳˤĤƤϡHorobin (62) ϡ줾Ʊ۵ hole hoar Ȥζ̤Τˤ뤹뤳ȤǤ뤫ǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Helsinki Corpus Ǥä whole ΰֻƤߤȤʡַפ hole ʤɤϼȤǽѤߡˡѸޤǤ <wh>- 1⸡ФʤäѸˤʤȰʲΤ褦˰쵤˿ƩȤʬä
| <whole> | <hole> | |
|---|---|---|
| E1 (1500--1569) | 71 | 32 |
| E2 (1570--1639) | 68 | 2 |
| E3 (1640--1710) | 84 | 0 |
ɽŪʸηϤˡֻ֤ȤȤŪʲȤбطƤʤˤĤơ#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) ˤ§ŪɽŪǤ륢ե٥åȤΤ褦ʸηϤˤơʸȲȤ̩ܤбƤ뤫ΤˡˡΡפֿפȤɽȤ뤳Ȥ롥ѸȤѸˡŬѤСֱѸˡϻ֤ȤȤ˿ʤäƤפȸ롥˴ؤơHorobin (34) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The degree to which a spelling system mirrors pronunciation is known as the principle of 'alphabetic depth'; a shallow orthography is one with a close relationship between spelling and pronunciation, whereas in a deep orthography the relationship is more indirect. It is a feature of all orthographies that they become increasingly deep over time, that is, as pronunciation changes, so the relationship between speech and writing shifts.
ѸˡԵ§ˤĤƤϡ#503. Ѹֻϵ§ŪԵ§Ū ([2010-09-12-1]) #1024. ѸֻԵ§줳 ([2012-02-15-1]) ۤ¿εǼ夲ƤԵ§ŬڤɾΤϰƳऺ[2010-09-12-1]εǤ⼨褦ˡñ type ǤߤԵ§ֻϰճȾʤΤtoken ǤСŪǹ٤θԵ§ʤΤ¿ˡѸˡΤȤԵ§˸ƤޤȤ𤬤롥Ѹˡϰ̤ˤϡֿפȤߤʤƤ뤬Crystal (72) ϡοϸΤΤǤȤơʸΩ
There are only about 400 everyday words in English whose spelling is wholly irregular --- that is, there are relatively few irregular word types . . . . The trouble is that many of these words are among the most frequently used words in the language; they are thus constantly before our eyes as word tokens. As a result, English spelling gives the impression of being more irregular than it really is. (Crystal 72)
ΤŪʹٸ줬Ե§ǤȤΤ "trouble" ǤϤ뤬ξԵ§ֻ˽ƤޤСȾ뤳Ȥˤʤ櫓Ǥꡤݥƥ˹ͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ɤˡ֤ȤȤ˿ޤäƤ椯Τ̿ǤȤСֻפε⡤ʤȤ⤳ν̿ξǤʤ٤
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ڤӺε#1752. interpretor interpreter (2) ([2014-02-12-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ
Marchand (221--22) ˤȡѸ줫ѸˤƤξؤΤȻפ뤬-er, -or, -ar ʤɤμư -er ذܲ礭ήȡФ -or, -ar ʤɤؤȸʵήȤ¸ߤȤ
Variants in -or are sailor 1642, orig. sailer LME, vendor 1594 (AE also vender), editor (cp. to edit), conqueror (cp. conquer), visitor (formerly -er, cp. visit), operator(cp. operate), survivor (coined as a legal term 1503; in law terms the spelling -or with pronunciation [ɔ(r)] is usual), director (cp. direct) and many others. / . . . . Original loans from French (ending in -ier, -our, -oir) which had a verb or a suffixless noun to go with, naturally came to be felt as derivatives. Examples are: farmer, jeweller, gardener / miner, commander / dresser, counter. On the other hand, classical influence produced a certain counter-action in the 16th and 17th c. insofar as -er words received a Latinizing spelling in -ar or -or . . . . There are thus two opposite currents: one is to assimilate foreign elements to the native -er, and the other to introduce a learned or pseudo-learned element. The latter is responsible for the frequent AE pronunciation [ɔ(r)] in creator, actor a.o. / Latin-coined words in -ator also contain the sf -er for the present-day linguistic feeling. Their stress is dictated by that of the underlying verb in -ate: génerate/génerator, oríginate/oríginator. Between 1550 and 1750 the stress was often on the penult, after the Latin accentuation (see B. Danielsson 137--142).
Marchand θ̤Ȥȡinterpreter ϡ-or -er ؤΤŪĬή˾ä1ĤȤȤˤʤ롥ɤθ줬ɤĬή˾뤳ȤˤʤäΤȤФơŪˡŪˤɤޤڤ뤫Ϥ狼餺ʾƧ߹ΤϤ뤬塤ݤˤդƤȻפ
Marchand, Hans. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation: A Synchronic-Diachronic Approach. 2nd. ed. München: Beck, 1969.
ɸηˤĤƤϡ#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ȡ#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) ǿƤνȯǤ롤16 interpretor interpreter ִ줿ȤڤˤĤơ¤ɤǧƤɬפ롥θڤϡرѸ츻ŵ٤ǤʤƤꡤ餯 OED "In 16th cent. conformed to agent-nouns in -er, like speak-er" ˰͵ƤΤȻפ뤬ˤ16λΤĤΥѥܺ٤Ĵ٤Ƥߤ
ޤϡMED ѸֻΤƤߤ褦 Wycliffite Bible, Early Version (a1382) ޤᡤ33ޤǤ -our 뤤 -or ޤߡ-er Τ Reginald Pecock ˤ Book of Faith (c1456) 2ΤߤǤ롥а衤ѸΰŪֻϡ-o(u)r äȤäƤ
ƱѸξPPCME2 ǤߤƤߤȡPeriod M4 (1420--1500) Interpretours 1Τߵä
ˡѸ (1418--1680) 45줫ʤʥѥΥץ CEECS (The Corpus of Early English Correspondence Ǥ⸡Ƥߤ2˶ʬ줿ѥ2ʬ (1580--1680) interpreter interpretor 줾1㤺Ĥäˤʤ
³ơMEMEM (Michigan Early Modern English Materials) Υ饤ѥϡΥڡΤȤꡤѸ켭ԻΤ˽줿ȤˡưΤʸǡ١ؤʥѥȤѤǤ롥ĤֻǸȤinterpretour 2㡤1535? Thomas Elyot ˤ The Education or Bringing up of Children 줿Ū interpreter(s) ֻϡ9ΰۤʤƥȡ3Ĥ166Ĥ17ˤ16ǧ줿Τˡ16餸露 -er ӤƤƤ褦
LC (The Lampeter Corpus of Early Modern English Tracts) ϡ1640--1740ǯ罰ʪ119Υѥ줿7Ϥ -er ֻä
Ʊͤη̤330ζḽѸ쥳ѥ ARCHER 3.2 (A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers) (1600--1999) Ǥǧ줿1672ǯǽȤơ13㤬 -er Ǥ롥
ǸˡѸ줫Ѹˤ̻ŪˤߤƤߤ褦HC (Helsinki Corpus) ˤȡE1 (1500--70) Henry Machyn's Diary ꡤ"he becam an interpretour betwen the constable and certein English pioners;" 1Τ߸줿HC 礵 PPCEME ˤȡ嵭ޤ17λʬۤϰʲ̤ꡥ
| -o(u)r | -er(s) | |
|---|---|---|
| E1 (1500--1569) | 2 | 1 |
| E2 (1570--1639) | 3 | 5 |
| E3 (1640--1710) | 0 | 6 |
#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ˤ -er -or ˤĤơξԤϤȤ˹ټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ȸƤФ빴«Ǥ̣֡ʬۤʤɤ˴ؤơߤˤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤϡŪʻȤϸѸζŪʻ顤ξԤΰƱ
Carney (426--27), Huddleston and Pullum (1698) (170--73)ĤʤɡĤλʸäƤߤȤȡʲ̤ˤʤ롥
| -er | -or | |
|---|---|---|
| ¿ | Ūʤ | |
| Ū | Ū | |
| ܼ饹 | Class II | Class I |
| ³Τθ츻 | Romance Ϥ˸¤ʤ | Romance Ϥ˸¤ |
| ³Τμͳ | ͳ˸¤ | ͳ˸¤ʤ |
| ư | ʤ | |
| Τؤζ | ʤ | |
| ʤղ | ʤ | Class I դ |
| Ending | Word types | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| -ator | 291 | indicator, navigator |
| -ctor | 63 | contractor, predictor |
| -itor | 29 | inheritor, depositor |
| -utor | 16 | contributor, prosecutor |
| -essor | 15 | successor, professor |
| -ntor | 14 | grantor, inventor |
| -stor | 12 | investor, assistor |
ǯɸֻŪ˴ؤ
߷˧ͺ ԡرѸ츻ŵʽ̺ǡˡ١ʸҡ1999ǯp.731ˤˤޤȡinterpreterȤˤơ -er Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤ16ȤƤޤ-er ͥˤʤäطʤˤϤɤʻ𤬤äΤǤ礦鹬Ǥ
줫龯Ĵ٤Ƥߤ interpreter Ȥ1ǤϤʤư -er, -or 롤ŪΤ褦ǤꡤŪʣȤߤ롥ܳŪ˲ˤϾĴ٤ʤФʤʤȻפΤǡϼޤΤΤ
-or -er ִ줿ΡޤεִϡѸ˾夷Фи롥ˤĤƤС -er ϱѸΤΡ -or ϥƥͳ褹ΤǤ뤬Ѹ衤ξԤѤ뤤ʻѤ㤬롥Ѹˤƥƥ -or ıñδŪįȡUpward and Davidson (143--44) ˼Τ褦ʵҤ롥
-OR, -OUR: The ending -OR was originally Lat, and many of the words with that ending in ModE are exact Lat forms: actor, doctor, professor, poerator, error, horror, senior, superior, etc.
Many other words with -OR may have it modelled on the Lat ending, but derive more directly from Fr forms with other endings which were often used in ME or EModE:
* Ambassador, author, emperor, governor, tailor were often written with -OUR in EModE.
* Bachelor, chancellor were often written with -ER in ME and EModE.
* Councillor was formerly not distinguished from counsellor. Both derive from Fr counseiller and were often written counseller in ME.
* Warrior (OFr werreor, ModFr guerrier) was in ME generally spelt -IOUR.
* Ancestor, anchor, traitor have ModFr equivalents ending in -RE (ancêtre, etc.) and were often spelt with -RE in ME.
* Mayor was adopted in EModE as a more Latinate form (compare major) in preference to ME mair(e) from Fr maire.
ƥȤ -or ĸ줬ѸäƤȡ-or ݤΤϳΤ¿DZѸեδ˽ä -(i)our -er æƥ⤢äȤ狼롥
Τ褦ʺޤδΤʤ顤٤ηϤ㤬ˤǤäƤ#1349. procrastination ([2013-01-05-1]) #1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]) Ǥˤ褦ˡƥ줫μѤ˴ƤˤäơƥñѸȤƼݤδˤ䤫ʡֱѸ첽§פŬѤ褦ˤʤäƤȤȤο㡦§1Ĥˡƥ -ator ư̾ -er ȤƼʤ뤤ϼʤˤȤΤäΤǤϤʤ㡦§ȤϸäΤΡºݤˤϤٳΩޤǤˤϻ֤⤫ä櫓Ǥꡤδ֡ŪѰ̻ۤŪѲäΤȻפ롥ƥ -ator ϡޤ -eur, -or, -our ʤɤΥեŪʷ֤ФơǽŪˤϱѸ -er ˼äΤǤϤʤ̤ȤƤߤСƥ -ator ȱѸ -er бΩȤˤʤ롥ˤĤơUpward and Davidson (110) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The -ER may have developed from Lat -ATOR through MFr/ME -OUR to ModE -ER: e.g. Lat portator > OFr porteour > ME porteour > ME portour > ModE porter. Similar histories underlie controller, counter, recorder, turner, and partially also waiter (< OFr waitour).
ơΰѤκǸˤ⤦1դä٤ȤơˤƤ LL interpretātor (explainer) ΤǤϤʤ顤OF interpreteur AF interpretour ͳơ ME interpretour interpretor Ԥʤ졤ModE interpreter ؤȻäȹͤ롥
ʾСƥ -ator ˵İ췲θ줬Ѹ -or ¾η֤ФΤѸ -er ػ㤬¿äȤȤǤϤʤ16 interpretor > interpreter ϡλ1ĤȤߤʤȤǤǤ롥
ˤĤƤϡ⤤Ĵ٤ƤͽǤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
#1720. Shakespeare ֤ ([2014-01-11-1]) ǡȤθ¸뼫ȤƤϡߤɸŪֻ Shakespeare ϸʤȽҤ٤ֻ5ढä <k> <s> Τ첻 <e> ʤäΤǤ롥ɽ魯ֻȤ <e> Shakespeare Shake-speare ¿ԤƤȤΤǤ롥Ǥϡ <e> ̵ͭϤɤΤ褦Τ
Crystal and Crystal (72) ˤȡShakespeare ֻǽ˰ʪ˸줿Τϡ1593ǯ Venus and Adonis νǤȼμˤƤǤ롥ʹߡȼԤϤֻ³뤳Ȥˤʤä<e> Τϡ餯 <k> <s> γ٤碌ˤΤ뤿äȤΤϡ٤碌ˤȡ<k> αεӤѶʤ long <s> κεӤѶʤȤ֤ĤäƤޤ줬뤫δ֤ <e> ʤƤ³ƥϥեȡγϲ褹ʲȡˡĤޤꡤ䤿θƤ뤢ֻϡꥶ٥īγǰͭλˤȼԤκФֻäȤȤˤʤ롥

long <s> ˤĤƤϡ#584. long <s> graphemics ([2010-12-02-1]) ȡ
Crystal, David and Ben Crystal. The Shakespeare Miscellany. Woodstock & New York: The Overlook Press, 2005.
Professor Paul Baker - Linguistics and English Language at Lancaster University ȤڡƤäBaker ԻѸ졦Ƹ쥳ѥ BE06 AmE06 ξȡФñꥹȤ롥ΥѥΤϡ桼ID᤹Сؤ CQP (Corpus Query Processor) system ꥢǤ롥
BE06 AmE06 ϡ2006ǯ˽Ǥ줿ꥹѼȥꥫѼνնѹեѥǤ롥Ի乽ϡ#428. The Brown family of corpora Ѿա ([2010-06-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The Brown family ˽सƤꡤ500ƥȡ2000η100ۤɤεϤ
ơΥڡɤǤ BE06 Wordlist in WordSmith 5 format AmE06 Wordlist in WordSmith 5 format ʸФǤϤʤ˸ˤɽФ줾ǡ١ơѼθ٤ӤƤ AmE-BrE Frequency 2006 Comparer ʤġƤߤ
acknowledgment, acknowledgement, aging, ageing, aluminum, aluminium, analyze, analyse, apologize, apologise, armor, armour, behavior, behaviour, center, centre, civilization, civilisation, color, colour, defense, defence, disk, disc, endeavor, endeavour, favor, favour, favorite, favourite, fiber, fibre, flavor, flavour, fulfill, fulfil, gray, grey, harbor, harbour, honor, honour, humor, humour, inquiry, enquiry, judgment, judgement, labor, labour, license, licence, liter, litre, marvelous, marvellous, mold, mould, mom, mum, neighbor, neighbour, neighborhood, neighbourhood, odor, odour, organize, organise, pajamas, pyjamas, parlor, parlour, program, programme, realize, realise, recognize, recognise, skeptic, sceptic, specter, spectre, sulfur, sulphur, theater, theatre, traveler, traveller, tumor, tumour
ޤǤϡäֻ˴ؤƺΥѥˤӤϡ#708. Frequency Sorter CGI ([2011-04-05-1]) ѤꡤBNC Frequency Extractor ([2012-12-08-1]) ȡ#1322. ANC Frequency Extractor ([2012-12-09-1]) Ȥ߹碌ꡤthe Brown Family corpora ʻѤʤɡѼ拾ѥθӤˤн褷ƤΥġˤ¿ʴĶǤ
Ѹֻˤܥ֥Ǥ͡˰äƤŪˤϤ٤Ƥñ˰֤꤬ǧȤäƤǤϤʤShakespeare Ȥ⡤㳰ǤϤʤߤǤϡѸɤϡȤֻ˴ƤǤ뤬Ѹ˾ǧ֤70ʾ⤢롥
ιñǡshake + spear ʤפۤɤΰ̣Ǥ롥13̤뤳ȤΤǤŪǤ̾Ǥꡤ70ʾŪ֤Τʤˤϡ1248ǯʸڤ Shakespere ΤۤShaksper, Chacsper, Schakespere, Scakespeire, Saksper ʤɤޤޤ롥
David Kathman ȤԤȤˤȡ William Shakespeare (1564--1616) ȤƤϡ¸ΤΤȤơ25ΰ֤꤬ǧ줿Ȥ342ĤΤ6ʾ Shakespeare Shake-speare äȤ顤ߤֻŪˤ (?) ȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ
Crystal and Crystal (108) ˵Ƥ롤25ֻʲ褦
Schaksp, Shackespeare, Shackespere, Shackspeare, Shackspere, Shagspere, Shakespe, Shakespear, Shakespeare, Shake-speare, Shakespere, Shakespheare, Shakp, Shakspe?, Shakspear, Shakspeare, Shak-speare, Shaksper, Shakspere, Shaxberd, Shaxpeare, Shaxper, Shaxpere, Shaxspere, Shexpere
ʤȤ Shakespeare ˤ뼫6ĤäƤ뤬Τʤ˼5ֻ (Crystal 131) Shakp (1612ǯBelott-Mountjoy Deposition), Shakspe(r) (1613ǯGatehouse Conveyance), Shaksper (1613ǯGatehouse Mortgage), Shakspere (1616ǯfirst and second sheet of will), Shakspeare (1616ǯthird sheet of will) ⤷ȤˡΤʤ˸ߤɸŪֻϤʤ
Shakespeare λˤϡֻɸಽ塹ȿʹä夷ȤޤǤˤϤ⤦ǯɬפä17ȾФˤϤ褽夷궯ǤʴפǤޤǤˤ18ȾФ Johnson μԤͤФʤʤäȤ櫓ǤϤʤǤϡֻɤϤޤ㤷ä
ߤ Shakespeare ֻϡͤˤȤäƤ⽽ʬ§Ūֻ˸뤬¿ְ㤨ȤѤɬפϤʤShakespeare ȤȤäƤʤäǽϤ뤷ĤƤϤֻ⤢äΤȷڤήФ褤ʤ⤷ʤˤΤǡ
Crystal, David and Ben Crystal. The Shakespeare Miscellany. Woodstock & New York: The Overlook Press, 2005.
#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1]) ȡ#1416. shew show (2) ([2013-03-13-1]) ǰä#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 The Corpus of Late Modern English Texts, version 3.0 (CLMET3.0) ˤˬŪˤϡƱդѥ "\bshow(s|n|ed|ing)?_VB" "\bshew(s|n|ed|ing)?_VB" Ǹơ3ʬȤٿ٤ʲη̤Ф
| shew | show | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 | 335 | 1,545 | 10,480,431 |
| 1780--1850 | 159 | 3,100 | 11,285,587 |
| 1850--1920 | 92 | 5,118 | 12,620,207 |
Why, you have shewn your wit upon the subject, and I mean to show your courage;
Mr. Wright, as well as Nadin, professed they were perfectly satisfied of this, and appeared to shew to me all the polite attention that they were capable of showing.
Assuredly I did not show him the face which I shewed Folderico.
ѸˤˤƬ <h> ϡ켫ΤˤäƤ롥ѸˤˤƸƬ <h> ϼºݤȯƤΤȤȯƤʤäΤȯʤäȤȡɤλˡɤѼȯʤäΤơĤɤΤ褦ˤɸѼǤ <h> ȯ [h] ȤơפΤβŪ֤ŤϤɤʤäƤΤեѸʤɤˤƶϤäΤʤäΤ褷Ƥʤ꤬ѤߤǤ롥
Ƭ <h> θ˾塤ǤŤϡǤϡ֥Υޥ̻οáפȸƤФƤ벾Ǥʡ#1238. Υޥ̻οá ([2012-09-16-1]) ȡˡˤСƬ <h> Ͼȯ [h] ȤƼ¸ƤŪˤ <h> = [h] δطϡѸޤѸˤˤ錄äưݻƤѸˤ褯 <h> ˴ؤֻθϡѸʤΥޥ̻ˤƳ줿ΤˤѸˤˤ [h] üȤڵȤϤʤꤨʤȤ롥˴ؤơCrisma (Were 51) ƤΤǡѤ롥
[T]he traditional view . . . is that [h]- was preserved before vowels throughout ME, though it could be dropped in words bearing weak stress, such as pronouns and forms of auxiliary have. Spelling errors involving <h>- are noted, but they are not considered sufficient evidence for [h]- loss, being dismissed by attributing them to '(Anglo-)Norman' scribes. The general validity of this treatment of errors, however, has been very convincingly questioned by Clark . . ., who labels it as a 'myth'.
ߤǤϡ֥Υޥ̻οáϼƤʤǡ⤬줿Ѹ˸Ƭ <h> ֻȤƤϵ̤˻ĤäƤȯȤƤϾüȤΤǤ롥Ƭ <h> ֻ꤬ˤǤ뤳ȡPearl-poet ʤɤ <h> ǻϤޤ첻ǻϤޤ줬ƬƧ㤬뤳ȡChaucer ʤɤǸ <e> æ˴ؤơ³Ƭ <h> 첻ƱȤʤɤ顤Ƭ [h] ȯȤƤϼƤȲ᤹٤ȤǤ롥ߤǤϤǤŪȤʤäƤ벾#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1]) ǤȤƼ夲Ȥꡤ⤷ѸǤξüꤹȡѸǤΤܴۤʤפɤΤ褦뤫Ȥ䤬롥Crisma (Were 52) ⤳ŦƤ롥
Assuming an early and widespread loss of word-initial [h]- poses the problem of how to account for its eventual restoration. It seems dubious that this might have happened 'mainly via spelling and the influence of the schools' (Lass, 1992: 62), first because [h], if it was really generally lost at some point, was re-established without errors in all native words, which would be a spectacular success indeed.
Ƭ [h] ϾüΤʤäΤǡäŪʲ⤬줿Milroy, J. ("On the Sociolinguistic History of /h/-Dropping in English." Current Topics in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. M. Devenport, E. Hansen, and H. -F. Nielsen. Odense: Odense UP, 1983. 37--53) ϡƬ [h] üѼȾüʤäѼ郎ꡤξѼ郎ʸŪѰۤȤüԸĿͤΤʤ˶¸ƤȹͤˤСѸθƬ [h] 礭ȤϤʤʤ
ߡϩϡۤʤäǤϤ뤬Paola Crisma Julia Schlüter ʤɤθԤʤƤ롥
Crisma, Paola. "Were They 'Dropping their Aitches'? A Quantitative Study of h-Loss in Middle English." English Language and Linguistics 11 (2007): 51--80.
Crisma, Paola. "Word-Initial h- in Middle and Early Modern English." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 130--67.
Schlüter, Julia. "Consonant or 'Vowel'? A Diachronic Study of Initial <h> from Early Middle English to Nineteenth-Century English." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 168--96.
Ѹˤˤ /h/ ˤĤ h γƵǰäƤϸƬ /h/ ˤˤĤơCrisma ʸɤǤߤ
ˤĤƽ辧Ƥ1Ĥ˼Τ褦ʤΤ롥Ƭ /h/ ϲȤƤѸ˴˾äѸɸѼ̤ȤΤCrisma (136--37) ϰʲ3ŦĤġȽƤ롥
(1) ˤȡ /h/ ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) θˤΤȤȤˤʤ뤬ʤȤ⤹٤Ƥˤ褷¤ͤСδŰ֤ϿۤɤǤʡ#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1]) ȡˡֻ̾ȯϤޤηŪˤϺѤñ줴Ȥñȯ뤳Ȥ¿
(2) ֻȯθκѤꤵƤ븽ݤϡեѸˤƤϡϤ٤äʤˤϸܤ줺˸ɸѼ˻Ĥä heir, honest, honour, hour ʤɤθ롥üȤǤϡեѸοΰ㤤Ǥʤ
(3) Ѹ /h/ δ /h/ ݤäƤαƶǤȹͤ⤢뤬⤽ʤɸѼ˱ƶͿΤʬʤ
ƤȤ Crisma ƤΤϡŪʵϹäƤ뤬ǼΤ褦ˤޤȤѸˤơƬ /h/ Ͼä櫓ǤϤʤ˳ΤΤȤ¸ߤƤ /h/ ʣߤΤȤǡͽ [h] ǤϤʤ [] ȤƼ¸줿ȤȤǤ롥Crisma ϡѸȶѸΥѥȤơh ǻϤޤԤ괧 a vs an ʬۤӽͭƻ my/thy vs myn(e)/thyn(e) ʬۤܺ٤ĴĴ̤Ŭ (Optimality Theory) ʬϤŬϡʥʸˡλۤꡤءϡˤɽءʽϡˤ̤Ǥ롥ñ /h/ üȤߤΤǤϤʤϤˤ /h/ äɤϤȤƤ [] ȤʤΤäȵΤǤ롥Crisma (158) ηѤơȤ褦
To sum up, I propose that the distribution of the different forms of the indefinite article and of the 1st and 2nd person singular possessive pronouns can be captured in its diachronic development in Middle and Early Modern English assuming that the phonetic realization of the phoneme /h/- became at some point `disliked' in the grammar of the language. This dislike results in its inability to surface in a series of contexts, which vary along time because of the slight differences in the interaction with other constraints on the well-formedness of the phonetic output. This proposal is empirically superior to theories failing to distinguish between true /h/-loss and a (sic) the coexistence of a lexical /h/-ful underlying representation with a contextually-bound [h]-less phonetic output, and therefore unable to account for the complex and apparently contradictory evidence.
Crisma, Paola. "Word-Initial h- in Middle and Early Modern English." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 130--67.
ε#1650. ʸǤȤƤ j Ω ([2013-11-02-1]) Τ <j> ˤĴ٤ƤȤˡScragg (66--67fn) ˵Ƥ <j> <g> ŪطˤĤƤƶܤȤޤä
In Old French orthography, the sound /dʒ/ (Mod. Fr. /ʒ/) was represented <i> (<j>) before <a o u> and <g> before <e i>. The convention was carried into Middle English in French loanwords, and survives, for example, in jacket, join, July, germ, giant. The resulting confusion with <g> for /g/ has sometimes been avoided by extending <j> to positions before <e> and <i>, e.g. jet (cf. get), jig (cf. gig), or alternatively the French convention of using <gu> for /g/ was adopted (guess, guide). In the sixteenth century, <gu> for /g/ was more widespread than it is today (e.g. guift, guirl 'gift, girl'), and some printers followed Caxton, whose long association with the Netherlands led him to use <gh> for /g/ very frequently (e.g. gherle, ghoos, ghes, ghoot 'girl, goose, geese, goat'). Sixteenth-century books often have <gh> where modern spelling has <gu> (e.g., ghess, ghest), and the Oxford English Dictionary even records ghuest. Sixteenth-century familiarity with Italian literature may have contributed here, as Italian has <gh> for /g/. In English it survives only in ghost, ghastly and gherkin.
ʤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥եѸ̤줿ѸǤϡեֻޤͤơ/ʤ/ Фֻ³첻ˤä <g> <j> ˳Ƥ<g> Ͻ /g/ ɽ路ƤΤǡ<g> <j> βбϸ§ȤưʲΤ褦ˤʤäƤ
| <i> | <e> | <a> | <o> | <u> | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <g> | /ʤi/, /gi/ | /ʤe/, /ge/ | /ga/ | /go/ | /gu/ |
| <j> | /ʤa/ | /ʤo/ | /ʤu/ |
| <i> | <e> | <a> | <o> | <u> | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <g> | (/ʤi/, /gi/) | (/ʤe/, /ge/) | /ga/ | /go/ | /gu/ |
| <gu> | /gi/ | /ge/ | |||
| <j> | /ʤi/ | /ʤe/ | /ʤa/ | /ʤo/ | /ʤu/ |
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