<ch>/k/ ɽ魯ϡ̤˥ꥷ줫μѸˤߤȤ롥Ѹʤɤ <c> ʤɤǼޤ줿ΤѸˤ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) θˤäơꥷ <ch> ֤ľ줿⾯ʤʤΤȻפ롥Carney (219--20) ˼褦
Distribution of <ch>
The <ch> spelling of /k/ is restricted almost entirely to §Greek words: archaeology, archaism, archangel, architect, archive, bronchial, catechism, chaos, character, charisma, chasm, chemist, chiropody, chlorine, choir, cholesterol, chord, chorus, christian, chromium, chronic, cochlea, echo, epoch, eunuch, hierarchy, lichen, malachite, matriarch, mechanic, monarch, ochre, oligarch, orchestra, orchid, pachyderm, patriarch, psyche, schematic, stochastic, stomach, strychnite, technical, trachea, triptych, etc. This is by no means a compete list, but it serves to show the problems of using subsystems in deterministic procedures. Some words with <ch>/k/ have been in common use in English for centuries (anchor, school) and came by way of Latin rather than directly from Greek. Lachrymose and sepulchre are strictly Latin in origin, but were mistakenly thought in antiquity to have a Greek connection. Many words with <ch>/k/ are highly technical complex words used by scientists for whom the constituent §Greek morphemes, such as {pachy} or {derm}, have a separate semantic identity. In some cases the Greek meanings are irrelevant to the technical use of the words since they involve obscure metaphors. One does not normally need to know that orchids have anything to do with testicles --- it's actually the shape of the roots. There appear to be no explicit phonological markers of §Greek-ness in the words listed above. The morphological criterion of word-formation potential is the best marker, but this works best with the technical end of the range. We can hardly cue the <ch> in school by calling up scholastic.
̣Τ lachrymose sepulchre ʤɤϥƥͳʤΤäƥꥷͳȴ㤤 <ch> ֤Ƥ롤ȤƥˤƤ顤ꥷ˴Ť츻Ūֻä餷ȤȤˤʤ롥ֻˤƤ餤ϰҿˤ䤫ꤿȤפϡ¿θʸˤƶ̤ƤΤ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
323ˤ YouTube ֤Τۤإͥκǿޤ#321. through ֤515̤ȻפäƤǤޤǤɾƤޤܲİ5000ϤǤˡ
through õ˴ؤ뤳ޤǤηаޤϡ#5738. 516ܤ through Ĥޤ ([2025-01-11-1]) εˡδϢƥĤؤΥäƤޤΤǡ餫餴
through ΰֻᤰõ椬ʤ餯515̤ڤƤȤפ֤˿516̤ܤĤäȤȤǡԤδ֡ʡˤį뤫Τ褦ˤ⤷äƤƤΤޤͤϤäƿܤǤؿΤ¿ϤʤȻפޤȯΰյˤĤ heldio ͭۿ֡516̤ throughפζȤϡǸäƤޤΤǡС
ε#5804. ܤɤߴְ㤨䤹ʸ --- ߽ͩФ ([2025-03-18-1]) ǡSkeat ޤȤɤ߰㤤䤹ʸˤΰܤιԤϸ§ȤʸؤΥץǤϤ뤬ΥץǤϤޤäƤޤʸ櫤¿ȤȤSkeat ϡΤ褦櫤ˤϤޤäԤޤ餺߽ФƤޤäͩ (ghost_word) οȤʸκǸƤ (373--74) ̤ΤʤֻSkeat ιͤȤˤͩŪǤʤֻǤ롥
abacot (a bicocket)
abofted (abosted)
allryn (alkyn)
belene (beleue)
beuen (benen)
bewunus (bewunne)
bolueden (bolneden)
bouchen (bonchen)
char (thar)
chek yn a tyde (chek-matyde),
chesse (chese)
chichingis (thithingis, error for tithingis)
clamupe (claurnpe)
cleue (clene)
conise (comse)
conisyng (comspg)
coppin (croppin)
corves (cornes)
couuen (coxmen)
cronde (croude)
culde (tulde)
culpis (cuupis ? for coupis ?),
degontit (degoutit)
desouled (defouled)
dimnede (diuinede)
dolf (douf)
dolp (doup)
drinen (driuen)
dymnede (dyuinede)
eftures (esteres, estres)
enchausyt (enchaufyt)
encortif (encorcif)
flocced (flotted)
folloke (wilfolloker)
forbusur (forbusne)
forgalbed (forgabbed)
fonngit (foriugit)
fouk (fonk)
founed (fonned)
galbert (gabbert)
golk (gouk)
gramity (graunty)
havin (harm)
hetheued (heued)
holk (houk)
howen, howne (howue)
kimes (knives)
lath (lay)
lessyt (leffyt)
lohe (lome)
maused (mansed)
monelich (menelich)
morse (nurse)
moyt (mo þat)
nalle (ualle)
nolt (nout)
onen (ouen)
ouershuppe (ouerhuppe)
owery (dwerþ)
palke (pakke)
palpis (paupis)
panfray (paufray)
pantener (pautener)
pavade (panade)
polien (þolien)
polk (pouk)
porcours (portours)
punniten (permuten)
rendit (vondit)
rentful (reuful)
renthe (reuthe)
reuk (renk)
rolkis (rokkis)
roned (roued)
sangtle (saughtle)
satoure (fatoure)
scharpe (schappe)
sharter (Charter)
skowurand (skownrand)
slalk (slakk)
soket (Coket)
sordid (fordid)
spelk (spekk)
stone (schon)
succh (sutth)
suten (sitten)
Syvewarm (Fysewarin)
talbart (tabbart)
tavart (tabart)
thame (tharne)
treryn (temp)
tyre (cyre)
ulode (correct; u=v)
ullorxa (?)
vyt (rycht)
walk (wakk, later wauk)
walkrif (wakkrif, later waukrif)
walknit (wakknit, later wauknit)
watte (waite)
wayne (wayue)
wok (woux)
ytoped (ycoped)
yvete (ybete)
Skeat ϡԤΥߥˤä뤳Τ褦ͩ줬夷˺ϿޤǤƤޤǽ˶ƤʸؤΥץȤƤʤΤ
Skeat, Walter W. "Report upon 'Ghost-words,' or Words which Have no Real Existence." in the President's Address for 1886. Transactions of the Philological Society for 1885--87. Vol. 2. 350--80.
ǶᤤĤεǡͩ (ghost_word) 夲ƤѸߤοƤǤ Skeat ϡͩʸΤʤǡͩνиظˤܾʸˤɤ߰㤤ܺ٤Ƥ롥Ȥ櫓ɤߴְ㤨䤹ʸˤΥꥹȤƤΤǡʬѤ褦 (372)
I now proceed to make a list of the symbols which, in the foregoing examples, have been misread and confused. The following groups denote the confused symbols: b, v; c, t; d, o; e, o, s; f, s; k, lr; m, ui, in; n, u; o, d, e; p, þ (th); r, v; s, C, e, f; y, þ (th). Also mi, un; mu, um; ni, in; rp, pp; tt, it; ur, ne; unn, erm; vin, rm. Also lb, bb; lk, kk. Very few of these mistakes result from the misreading of marks of contraction. If I were to add examples of this character, the number of ghost-words would be very largely increased.
ʤ㤬 (minim) ǹʸˤޤǤ롥minim γʡˤ˴ؿäϡ#4134. unmummied --- ֤äƤѤʤȤˤʤäƤñβԡ ([2020-08-21-1]) #5215. ư줫ʻžʤ褦ˤߤ̾졦ƻΰ ([2023-08-07-1]) ʤɤɤ
ޤ<th> űѸ졦Ѹʸ <þ> (thorn) ˤĤƤϡ#1428. ye = the ([2013-03-25-1]) ʤɤȤ
Skeat, Walter W. "Report upon 'Ghost-words,' or Words which Have no Real Existence." in the President's Address for 1886. Transactions of the Philological Society for 1885--87. Vol. 2. 350--80.
ӤӤäˤʤäƤ͵ YouTube ֤ͥإ饸κǶβǡưᡩ ʤŵɤ٤ʤΤڤ#394ۿޤ
İԤμƿٸȡ깭Ǥ14:39դ꤫顤ʤˤˤˤ䤬Ϫޤpronounce pronunciation Υڥǡʤ2ʬֻ <ou> <u> ǰۤʤΤȤѤʵǤ
ϡܥ֥Ρ#2046. <pronunciation> vs <pronounciation> ([2014-12-03-1]) Ĥɤޤ줿褦ʤΤǤʬʤäȤȤǡƤߺդȤȤʤäƤޤ顤βˤĤƤϢޤơ䤬ФäޤʾСˡ
εƤˤĤƤϡä꤫ߺդƤޤϢơ#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ ([2014-11-30-1]) ˤڤƤޤ̤ȤƤ pronounce/pronunciation ֻ㳰ŪʸݤʤΤȤݤβǤ
ޤǤϻåʤİƤ뤳ȤǤޤȤ20:36դ꤫2ͤΤȤʹˤޤ
- ٸʤ㳰ޤ줿Ǥ
- ƤΤβϤˤϽƤʤ
- ٸʤߤʡ
ޤˤʬʤ餳Ǥ̵ä櫓Ǥ֤إ饸פˤȤͤƤޤ
10ǯ֤ˡ˺ƤƬǺޤȤˤʤޤݰȹͤᤰ餻塤ɬ⼫ä櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ1ĤβΩƤƤߤޤ Voicy heldio ۿΤ#1370. ֤إ饸פǼ夲줿 pronounce vs. pronunciation ֻǤ26ʬۤɤۿǤ֤ΤϤҤʹʤȤѲʣʬΤǤϤʤȻפޤ
heldio ۿ塤顤İޤȤΥȤޤɤƤäȤʤäƤޤˤϤʤ⤷ʤΤǤޤˤߺդƲ⤷ƤФȡʾСˡ
5ۤ Voicy heldio ˤơꥹʡ lacolaco ֱѸ츻ŵɥΡȡκǿ˴Ť#1357. Ƭ con- ñϤޤ³ --- lacolaco ΡֱѸ츻ŵɥΡȡǿꤹ벻ۿϤ
1ĤȤơ֥ͥפбñֻ connection connexion δ֤ɤ郎줿ԤֻŪꥹǤϸԤֻ⸫Ȥdeflection, inflection, reflection ˤĤƤƱͤˡ㡼 <-ction> Фƥޥʡ <-xion> ⼭ϿƤ롥complexion ˤĤƤϡषֻΤۤŪ complection ϵǤ롥
嵭 heldio ۿ塤˴ؿ줿ꥹʡ~ߤ-ction v.s. -xionꤷ Google Ngram ǤĴȹ碌ƵƤ롥
⤳꤬ˤʤäơĴ٤ƤߤȤΤ⡤伫ȤθơޤѸζ (inflection) ˤˤꡤԸʸ inflexion ֻ褯ܤˤƤ
Upward and Davidson (167--68) ˤСѸǤŪˤ <-xion> ̤˸줿ꥫμԻȤֻԤ Noah Webster (1758--1843) <-ction> Τۤ侩ΤȤ19鸽ˤƤ <-ction> ΰ̲ˡWebster αƶä餷
-XION and -CTION
Complexion, crucifixion, fluxion are standard ModE forms, and connexion, deflexion, inflexion exist as alternatives to connection, etc.
Complexion derives from the past participle plexum from the Lat verb plectere; although ME and EModE used such alternatives as complection, complection, ModE is firm on the x-spelling.
Crucifixion derives from the participle fixum of figere 'to fix'; the form crucifixion has been consistently used in the Christian tradition, and *crucifiction is not attested.
Fluxion is similarly determined by the Lat participle fluxum; the verb fluere offers no -CT- alternative.
Uncertainty has arisen in the case of connexion, deflexion, inflexion because, despite the Lat participles nexum, flexum with x, the corresponding infinitives, nectere, flectere have given rise to the Eng verbs connect, deflect, inflect.
In his American Dictionary of the English Language (1828), the American lexicographer Noah Webster . . . recommended the -CT- forms, which (despite ModFr connexion, deflexion, inflexion are today found much more frequently.
ñ㲽Ƥ <-xion> ϥƥβʬ˴ŤĤѤեŪֻǤꡤ<-ction> ϥƥ˴Ť侩ꥫѸŪֻȤȤˤʤ롥crucifixion <-xion> Ȥ֤ʤΤϡͤɽݤ <X> ȴطΤǤ롥
ȴϢơ#2280. <x> á ([2015-07-25-1]) ⻲ȡ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ƹǤϥȥ2.0ȯͽ¬ǽΥơäƤƤ롥οǤϡDEI (= diversity, equity, and inclusion) ǰΥæޤƤȤ롥1Ĥ diversity ϡ¿פ̣륭ɤǤꡤѸˤϥƥ줫եФ14ȾФ˼ѤƤ
̾δΤϥƥηƻ dīversum Ǥꡤ켫Τư dīvertere ʤ來ؤ餹žˤ̤롥ž̡̼Ρ¿ͤʡĤΡפŸȤˤʤ롥
ȤǡѸ켭ˤ divers /ˈdaɪvəz/ diverse /daɪˈvəːs/ Ȥ̡ΩवƤ롥ֻϸ <e> 뤫ʤΰ㤤ꡤȯ϶벻ᤪӸҲ̵ͭ㤬롥̣ˡȤƤϡԤϸʸŪʶäơ̼ΡĤΡפѤ졤Ԥϼˡ¿ͤʡפθѤ롥ȤȤξԤϸߤ˰۷ˤѸʹߤθˤѤƤ1700ǯ˸̣ˤʬƤ
divers /ˈdaɪvəz/ ϡֿġ͡פ̣̾졦̾ȤƤѤ褦ˤʤäᤫθҲϡ̾ʣ -s ȿǤ뤫Τ褦 /z/ ؤžޤdiverse /daɪˈvəːs/ ȯֻϡƥͳ adverse, inverse ʤɤȴϢŤ夷ΤȻפ롥
OED Ǥξ̡ΩवƤ뤬Diverse, Adj. & Adv. ιˤξη֤ȯˤܺ٤˲⤵Ƥ롥
Form and pronunciation history
The stress was originally on the second syllable, but was at an early date shifted to the first, although both pronunciations long coexisted, especially in verse. In early modern English divers (with stress on the first syllable) is the dominant form (overwhelmingly so in the 17th cent.), especially in the very common sense 'several, sundry, various' (see divers adj.) in which the word always occurs with a plural noun (the final -s coming to be pronounced /z/ after the plural ending -s, making the word homophonous with the plural of diver n.).
By the 18th cent. the senses of the word had come to be distinguished in form, with divers typically used to express the notions of variety and (especially) indefinite number (see divers adj. & n.) and diverse (probably by more immediate association with Latin diversus) the notion of difference (as in senses A.1 and A.3); thus Johnson (1755), Sheridan (1780), and Walker (1791), all of whom have two parallel entries. Both forms were typically stressed on the first syllable, and differed only in the pronunciation of the final consonant (respectively /z/ and /s/ ). The same formal and semantic distinction is reflected in 19th-cent. dictionaries, including Smart (1836), Worcester (1846), Knowles (1851), Stormonth (1877), Cent. Dict. (1889), and New English Dictionary (OED first edition) (1897). The latter notes at divers adj. (in sense 'various, sundry, several') that it is 'now somewhat archaic, but well known in legal and scriptural phraseology'; in this form the word is now chiefly archaic and used mainly in literary or legal contexts.
In the second half of the 19th cent. (as divers adj. was gradually becoming more restricted in use), the dictionaries begin to note an alternative pronunciation for diverse adj. with stress on the second syllable. This pronunciation probably continues the original one that had never entirely disappeared for this form, as is shown by examples from verse (compare e.g. quots. a1618, 1837 at sense A.1a, 1754 at sense A.3a). Knowles (1851) is one of the first dictionaries to note this pronunciation of diverse adj. (which, interestingly, he gives as the sole pronunciation); more commonly the two alternatives are given, as e.g. Craig (1882), who puts the pronunciation with initial stress first, and Stormonth (1877), Cent. Dict. (1889), New English Dictionary (OED first edition) (1897), who give priority to the pronunciation with stress on the second syllable; this has since become by far the more common pronunciation of the word.
hellog #5738. 516ܤ through Ĥޤ ([2025-01-11-1]) heldio #1326. through ֻ516̤ܤȯǼ夲̤ꡤܲ through ΰֻȤ516̤꤬ǧƤޤ
ΰľ AI ˥եɤ롼ԥδĤƤޤξǡ줾δ˴Ťƿ夲ɽȥҥȥ HTML ǽϤޤƤˤĤơ䤬ϤäȤ¿ޤʲνϤޤǤˤ10ʬ١ǯǤС٤ƿϤʬϥץȤȤǡɤΤ褤Ϥˤʤ褦˥塼˥ιФɬפꡤ餯1ȾϤäǤ礦Τ褦ȾеŪʺȤǤСۤ1/10λ֤ǺȤѤǤޤˤʤޤAIʬϤ®˶äʬϤΤΤդʤۤɤǤ⤷ⶲʿǤ
| ѥ | ʬ | |
|---|---|---|
| th- | 212 | |
| þ- | 188 | |
| y- | 58 | |
| ¾ | 58 |
| ѥ | ʬ | |
|---|---|---|
| ou/ow ޤ | 192 | |
| u ޤ | 169 | |
| o ޤ | 141 | |
| ¾ | 14 |
| ѥ | ʬ | |
|---|---|---|
| ¾ | 208 | |
| h | 84 | |
| gh | 62 | |
| ȝ | 58 | |
| w | 56 | |
| t/th | 48 |
| ѥ | ʬ | |
|---|---|---|
| 5-6ʸ | 326 | |
| 7ʸʾ | 131 | |
| 4ʸʲ | 59 |
| ѥ | ʬ | |
|---|---|---|
| üʸʤ | 250 | |
| þ (thorn) | 200 | |
| ȝ (yogh) | 133 | |
| ð (eth) | 1 |
| ѥ | ʬ | |
|---|---|---|
| 첻+r | 226 | |
| 첻+r+첻 | 144 | |
| r+첻 | 120 | |
| ʤ | 26 |
| ѥ | ʬ | |
|---|---|---|
| rr ޤ | 7 | |
| ff ޤ | 3 | |
| oo ޤ | 2 | |
| ¾ʽʣʸʤ | 504 |
Ѹˤˤ through ֤515̤ꤢˤĤơޤ͡ʥǥˤˤƤ
hellog #53. Ѹ through ֤515̤ ([2009-06-20-1])
hellog #54. through ֤٥10ʥ10ˡ ([2009-06-21-1])
hellog #193. 15 Chancery Standard through ΰ֤14̤ ([2009-11-06-1])
hellog #3397. Ѹ through Υֻ ([2018-08-15-1])
hellog #5006. YouTube ǡ515̤ through ä ([2023-01-10-1])
hellog #5126. ֤إ饸б2Ȥʤä515̤ through β ([2023-05-10-1])
heldio #599. YouTube515̤ throughײؤ
heldio #709. ʤƱñ¿Υڥ¸ߤΤ --- ֤إ饸б2Ȥʤä515̤ through β
helwa ֡ڱѸˤ #210ۤΤۤ515̤ through פο
YouTube ֤Τۤإͥס#91. 롼αѸǤ֤ϥޥ롼롩through Υڥ515̤ꡪŪ뤵٥10
YouTube ֤Τۤإͥס#283. αѸ through ΤĤŤ꤬515̤ꤢΤϸѲξħ
YouTube ֤إ饸ס#228. ֱѸˤȤ through ֤515̤ꤢäáڴܰñ2ۡ
伫Ȥ͡ʥ齸Ƥڵ˴Ťơ515̤פȤƤ櫓˻֤ϫϤõСۤʤֻ⤦ϸĤȤȤʬäƤƺ516ܤ through Ĥä˰ռõƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡֵդפۤɤɽΤ⤷ʤ
ǯ note ˤ֡2024ǯ1228αѸ˶۵®3;ʣ̾ they ᤰäƤؤʤȤäƤޤOrmulum ȤѸΥƥȤ˸ they νˤĤƲ⤷Ȥơheldio Ǥ#1319. they ν --- ǯ۵ Ormulum Ƥߤ褦ۿ
Ǽ夲ʸƷǤ褦Τʤ through ٽи롥
& swa þeȝȝ leddenn heore lif Till þatt teȝȝ wærenn alde. Þatt naffdenn ðeȝȝ þurrh þeȝȝre streon. Ne sune child. ne dohhterr.
Ĥֻ þurrh Ǥ롥Ormulum κ Orm äֻϱѸ˾ͭ̾ǡˤĤơ#2712. ѸθŪ֤ꤿ ([2016-09-29-1]) #3954. 첻Ĺûʬ褦ȤѸο ([2020-02-23-1]) εǼ夲Ƥ through 516ܤֻϡˤ Orm ŪǤ롥<u> ɽ蘆첻û첻Ǥ뤳ȤΤˡ³ <r> 2ĽŤͤƤ롥
伫ȡޤǤθ Ormulum ˤ뤳ֻˤϲ٤ȤʤƤƤꡤ̣ǤܤǤϤ˷ǤƤ515̤ through ΰˡֻϴޤޤƤʤä516ܤֻΡַŪȯפǤϤʤñˡָȤפֽϳפȤäۤ褤Ǥפ֤˵Ͽƴ

*
1223Ҥηؤդ2025ǯ1Ԥޤǯ١ƱϢֱܵѸˤįեפƤƤޤ10ֱѸֻˤեαƶפǤ
ʤȺϡؤդ٤100ǯȤǰ٤Ǥ"Revue France, 100 ans!" ɽˤꡤý֤դ100ǯפǺܤƤޤΤ褦ʵǰΰˡեˤʤ̱ѸˤϢܵܤƤΤ϶̤Ǥ⤢ꡤӤǤ⤢ޤʽִ֤Ω碌ƤҤˤⴶդޤ
1. Ѹֻϰճȥե
ΥޥαƶǡθαѸֻˤϥեֻ¿ʬȿǤƤޤñֻ¤ϥեŪǤ뤳ȤϤޤΤƤޤ
2. ɹפ īs ice
ѸֻϡեαƶΤѸˤ礭Ƥޤֲ꽤פη̡㤨иѸ ice ˤߤ褦 -ce ֻѤޤ
3. ԻҲֻ c ch
եαƶˤꡤűѸǤ c ɽ줿ԻҲѸ ch ؤִޤˤñ child church ʤɤֻΩޤ
4. äűѸʸ
űѸǾѤ줿ʸ (æ, ƿ, þ, ðˤϡե¸ߤʤäȤ⤢ꡤѸʹߤ˿षƤǽŪˤϾǤޤ
5. ʤѸֻϥե줫֤줷Τ
ѸֻϡDzܻؤΤǤϤʤषҿեֻ뤳Ȥˤꡤ㴳ʣޤեϸϤȶܤθäΤǤ
ѸֻˤեαƶϡѸֻѲűѸʸѤ˸˸ޤˤűѸŪֻϱƤᡤäƸŪʸɤֻȤ뤳Ȥˤʤޤ
˾ܤϡľܡؤդ1˼äƤɤߤС9Ϣܵ hellog furansu_rensai ǾҲ𤷤ƤޤΤǡ⤴Ȥ
ȴϢơheldio Ǥ#1305. Ѹֻˤեαƶ --- ؤդ٤Ϣܵ10ơꤷƤäƤޤΤǡ⤪İ
δ졡ֱѸˤįե졡10Ѹֻˤեαƶסؤդ2025ǯ1桤ҡ2024ǯ122352--53ǡ
ε#5707. 2Ż <gh> ε ([2024-12-11-1]) ³<gh> ˤƽиˤĤơѸֻˤθŵ路 Scragg (46--47) ˡΤ꤬롥
The use of <h> as a diacritic in <ch> and <sh>, indicating that <c> and <s> have a pronunciation different from that normally expected of those consonantsa, was not new to English when <ch> was introduced from French, for <th> had earlier been used alongside <þ> (cf. footnotes to pp. 2b and 17). Both <ch> in French and <th> in English derive from Latin orthography, use of <h> as a diacritic in Latin being made possible by the disappearance of the sounds represented by <h> from the language in the late classical period. As a result of the establishment in English of diacritic <h> in <ch> and <th>, other consonant groups were formed on the same pattern. The grapheme <gh> has already been discussed (p. 23c). <wh> has a rather different history, for it began in Old English as an initial consonantal combination <hw> corresponding to /xw/. Assimilation of the group to a single voiceless consonant /ʍ/ had taken place by the late Old English period, and Middle English scribes, associating the sequence <hw> for the single phoneme with the use of <h> as a fricative marker in other graphemes, reversed the graphs to <wh>.
English scribes' incorporation into their spelling system of the grapheme <ch>, and the 'consequential' changes which resulted in the creation of <sh> and <wh>, were made possible by their knowledge of Anglo-Norman conventions.
ΰʸΤʤƱؤλȤ꤬뤬ȤȽפʵҤߤĤäΤǡѼԤˤб뤫ǰʲ˻βʸǺܤ롥
a I.e. <h> as a fricative marker, allowing for the fact that <sh> is historically a simplification of <sch>. (fn. 2 to p. 46)
b Latin <th> had always been recognised as an alternative to thorn by English writers; even before the Norman Conquest, foreign names were spelt with either: Elizabeth or Elizabeþ, Thomas or þomas. (fn. 2 to p. 2)
c <ȝ> was also used in Middle English for the two allophones of /j/ which occurred after a vowel: [ç] and [x]. These two sounds gave scribes considerable difficulty in Middle English; among the many graphemes representing them are the Anglo-Norman <s>, the Old English <h>, the new grapheme <ȝ>, and the last two combined as <ȝh>. In the fifteenth century, when the distinction between <ȝ> and <g> became blurred, this combination was written <gh>, and this is the sequence which has survived in a great many words in which [ç] and [x] were once heard, or still are in northern dialects, e.g. high, ought, night, bough. (fn. 2 to p. 23)
ʾꡤ˴Ϣפվȡ̤ꡥ
(1) <th> ϸűѸˤѤ뤳Ȥä
(2) 2Ż <ch> <th> ϤȤϥƥˡͳ褹
(3) <h> ȯʹ (diacritical_mark) ȤѤ褦ˤʤäΤϡŵΥƥ h ̵<h> 줿
(4) 2ʸܤ <h> Ĵ¸2ŻΥѥΥޥֻΤäƤѸ̻μˤꡤ¾ؤ礷
(5) 2ʸܤ <h> 2Żϡh ŪʤΤǡ
<gh> ޤ2Żεȯã˸Ƥ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
2Ż (digraph) <gh> ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ gh γƵˤƤ2Ż <gh> ˤĤƤϡ줬ɽ魯ȤȤˡѸ˾Ǥ⤤롥ΤʤǤܤ1Ĥ˵꤬롥űѸǤϡѸʹߤŵŪ <gh> Ѥ¿Υǡ<h> 1ʸȤƤѸˤʤȡδĶˤ <h> λѤϽ˿षƤä <gh> <ȝ> (= yogh) ƬƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥<gh> Ϥäɤ褿Τ
Upward and Davidson (182) ˤȡ2Ÿ <gh> ϥΥޥ̻ˤäƤ⤿餵줿ǤȤ
. . . ANorm scribes frequently replaced the OE H with GH: OE niht, ME night; OE brohte, ME broughte 'brought'. (The letter ȝ was also used: niȝt, brouȝte.) The GH represented /x/, which was pronounced [ç] after a front vowel and [x] after a back vowel, as in ME night and broughte respectively (and as also in Modern German). Although, under the influence of Chancery and the printers, this digraph has continued to be written from the ME period to the present day, the sound it represented/represents has undergone many changes.
Υޥֻˤ <ch>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> ʤ2ʸܤ <h> 2ŻλѤǧ롥餹٤ƤѸǸƤۤ¿ѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ2Ż <gh> ⤳֤ä (cfAnglo-Norman Dictionary) Υޥ줿̻䡤αƶѸμ̻Ѹݤˤ <gh> ȤȤˤʤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ε#5648. <l> ֻŤͤ뤫ݤ ([2024-10-13-1]) ³<ll> ꡥϥꥹѸǤ <ll> ȽŤ͡ꥫѸǤ <l> 1ĤΤߡȤΤη̤ȤơɤΤ褦ñˤ <ll> 뤫ʬۤߤƤߤ
Τ褦˽Ҥ٤
<ll> ϤȤȸŵˤ椫ΤֻäŵǤե줬װȤƻƤեϸŵͳνŤͤ <ll> ΤޤѤ1Ų <l> ǷѾ뤳ȤФФäˡ餬ߤƤѸäˡ <l> Ťͤ뤫ݤˤĤƤळȤˤʤäΤ
<ll> ʬۤˤĤơCarney (250) ñѤ褦
Normally, <l> would double after a short vowel in a monosyllable (bell, cell, doll, mill, etc.), but there are some exceptions. There are all marginal in various ways, usually by abbreviation: technical loan col ('gap between hills' < French); gal (< girl), pal (< Romany); technical abbreviations bet (< the name '(A. G.) Bell', = 'unit of power comparison'), cel (< celluloid . . .), gel (< gelatine), mel ('perpetual unit of pitch'), mil (< millimetre), nil (contraction of Latin nihil); short names Hal (< Henry), Sal (< Sally) . . . .
Examples of <-ll-> with prefixes . . .:
- (reduced vowel): alleviate, alliteration, allude, allusion, ally (v.); collate, collateral, collect (v.), collide, collision.
- (unreduced vowel): Allocate, ally (n.); collect (n.), colleague, college, collimate, colloquy; illegal, illegible, illicit, illimitable, illuminate, illusion, illustrate; pellucid.
There are quite a few words which resemble the above and in which the <-ll-> is not covered by other doubling conventions: allegory, allergy, alligator. There is some etymological uncertainty about allot, allow, and allure. Allay has come to have a §Latinate appearance in spite of its Old English origin (a + lecgan). To the average reader these spellings must seem to belong with the §Latinate prefixes.
A good many words . . . have <-ll-> in the third syllable from the end of a free-form after a stressed short vowel. The ending <-ion> seems to require this spelling, but not in all instances: billion, bullion, galleon, million, mullion, pillion, postillion, stallion, but also battalion, pavilion, verlion. Compare doubled and single <r> in carrion--clarion.
Other examples of <-ll-> unaccounted for are: ballerina, ballistic, balloon, bellicose, brilliant, bulletin, calligraphy, calliopsis, camellia, colliery, ebullient, ellipse, embellish, fallacious, fallacy, fallible, gallery, gallium, halleluja, hallucinate, hellebore, intellect, intelligent, mellifluous, miscellany, palliate, pallium, parallel, pollute, shallot, shillelagh, tellurium.
Pseudo-compounds are: ballyhoo, bulldozer, hullaballoo, lollipop, scallywag.
<ll> ᤰ뾯ηȽκ٤ĤΤǤϤʤѸˡϤʣǤ롥
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ѸˡǤϡ<l> Ťͤ뤫ɤȤʤ륱ʤ餺롥
ޤפ⤫֤Τ traveler traveller ΰ㤤Ǥ롥#240. ֻαƺ礭 ([2009-12-23-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŵŪ˥ꥫֻǤ <l> 1ĤˤȤɤޤ뤬ꥹֻǤ <l> ŤͤΤ§Ǥ롥ȻפСꥫֻ fulfill Ϥष <l> Ť͡ꥹֻ fulfil ϽŤͤʤΤǡˤʤ롥
<l> Ťͤ뤫ݤֻΥꥨϸűѸꤢȤФꡤȤƤˤȤäƤ褤ֻȤ <l> 1ĤǤ2ĤǤ⡤̤ȤƼϤȯˤϱƶͿʤΤǡǤȤˤƤ
伫ȤϡŤͤ <ll> ֻܼϡľ첻Ūˡû첻Ǥ뤳ȤѶŪ˼ȤˤȹͤƤ뤬¤ˤϤۤɤ䤹դǤϤʤѸˡ Carney (250) ϡ"Distribution of <ll>" ꤹ1ˤơƤ롥ƬʬѤ롥
There is more difficulty in accounting for the occurrence of double <-ll-> than for the double spelling of any other consonant. This is partly due to the frequency of <-ll-> in Latin and Greek stems and partly because §Latinate words borrowed by way of French may no longer have recognizable constituents.
<ll> ϤȤȸŵˤ椫ΤֻäŵǤե줬װȤƻƤեϸŵͳνŤͤ <ll> ΤޤѤ1Ų <l> ǷѾ뤳ȤФФäˡ餬ߤƤѸäˡ <l> Ťͤ뤫ݤˤĤƤळȤˤʤäΤʤۤɡѸ餷ȤбѸ餷̤ȤäƤ褤ǰǤ⤢ʤ⤢롥
Ѹˡθ§ȤƤʤС褽ε§ΩΤΤǤ (Carney 251fn)
In the Hanna (1966) spelling rules, <l> is the default spelling and:
1 <ll> word-final accented after /ɔː/ or a short vowel (tall, mill, bell, pull, hull).
<ll> ˤĤƤϡVoicy heldio Ǽ夲Ȥ롥#456. -l ʤΤ -ll ʤΤ till/until, travel(l)er, distil(l)İС
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ˡ#1511. űѸ sc θ ([2013-06-16-1]) Ǽ夲ꡥűѸ2Ż (digraph) Ǥ <sc> ˤĤơ͵ʸ Prins ѤDzҤ٤Ƥ뤫ǧPrins (203--04) Ѥ롥
7.16 PG sk
PG sk was palatalized:
1. In initial position before all vowels and consonants:
OE Du sčēap 'sheep' schaap WS sčield A scčeld 'shield' schild sčēawian 'to show' schouwen G schauen sčendan 'to damage' schenden sčrud 'shroud'
2. Medially between palatal vowels and especially when followed originally by i(:) or j:
þrysče 'thrush'
wysčean 'to wish'
3. Finally after palatal vowels:
æsč 'ash'
disč 'dish'
Englisč 'English'
űѸ츦Ǥ̾ <sc> β [ʃ] ȤƤ뤬Prins (204) ˤȡ [ʃ] äɤϤ狼ʤȤष [sx] äΤǤϤʤȵƤ롥
Note 2. In reading OE we generally read sc(e) as [ʃ], but there is no definite proof that this was the pronunciation before the ME period (when the French spelling s, ss is found, and the spelling sh is introduced).
In Ælfric sc alliterates with sp, and st. So s must have been the first element. The second element cannot have been k, since Scandinavian loanwords (which must have been adopted in lOE) still have sk: skin, skill.
The pronunciation in OE was probably [sx]. Cf. Dutch schoon [sxo:n], schip [sxip], which in the transition period to eME or in eME itself, must have become [ʃ].
Prins, A. A. A History of English Phonemes. 2nd ed. Leiden: Leiden UP, 1974.

#5576. ɸͤ --- ܸˤȱѸˤζ ([2024-08-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ˤܸȴ --- ˡʤդˡ١ʴȿˤꡥʲνϤǤƶϡ¤˷İͤ (6)
ܽˤƤϡܸˡפѲƤʤȡӤƤȻפ뤳Ȥ¦ߤʤȤߤܸˡפǰӤƤ뤳ȡϴˤäܸʸȤäƤ뤳Ȥ
äơܽϡִפȤפꤷܸˡפȼͤƤߤȲƤ뤫Ҥ٤뤳ȤŪȤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ֲƤ뤫פȤȡִפܸˡפǤɤȤƤȤȤѻ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤѻϤäꤹɬפ뤬ѻĶơִפɤΤ褦ܸȤ줽ΤΤꡤܸ˱ƶͿƤȤȤޤǽҤ٤
ʸǤܸȤĤθˤʤ˱ƶͿ뤳ȤΤȻפ뤫⤷ʤ줬äȤȤҤ٤ƤȹͤƤ롥
Τ褦˸̸ˤҤݤλ¤Ȥʸܤ˿ȤΤϡꤽǤʤȤǤ롥θؤˤԶѹդʤۤɤ˲Ż뤹뤫
ȸˤ˴ؤ¤ꡤθ֤Τ뤿ΥǥϡۤܤäѤʸäȤդɬפ롥ȤСˤ¬ǵҤäơΡפʸΤϼΤϤѤƤʸ郎ˤ̤ŪꤷƤ褦ʸˤäƤϤȤ櫓ʸ١θˤȤΤϽʬ˹ۤ롥ˤСԤνҤ٤ȤꡤָΤʤʸפȤؤǤϤʤʸߤפȤ⤫鳰ؤƤСƶ˰㤤ʤ
嵭ΰѤΡܸפֱѸפˡִפ֥ڥפɤؤƤ⡤ʤѤΤǤϤʤ
ܸȴ --- ˡʤդˡ١ȽŹҴȿӡ2024ǯ
ε#5555. kh ֻ ([2024-07-12-1]) ˰³2Ż (digraph) <kh> ˤĤơUpward and Davidson (257) ˤޤȤޤäҤΤǰѤ롥
KH
The KH spelling reflects an aspirated consonant (somewhat like [k] + [h]) or a fricative (like [x] as in Scottish loch) in the source or carrier languages, all from the Middle East or Indian subcontinent. In English, there is no difference in pronunciation between KH and K.
In initial position: khaki (< Hindi); khamsin 'hot wind' (< Arabic); khan (spelt caan when first borrowed in the 15th century; < a Turkic language)
- Khazi, a slang word for 'toilet' dating from the 19th century, is not, despite its spelling, of eastern origin, but probably derives from Italian or Spanish casa 'house'. It has various spellings in English (kazi, kharzie, karsey, etc.).
In medial position: astrakhan 'fabric' (< Russian place-name); bakhshish 'tip or bribe' (a spelling baksheesh --- see under 'K'); burkha (a spelling of burka/burqa --- see under 'K'); gymkhana (< Urdu gend-khana, altered by influence of gymnastics); kolkhoz 'collective farm in USSR' (< Russian).
In final position: ankh 'emblem of life' (< Egyptian 'nh); lakh '100,000' (also lac; < Hindi and Hindustani); rukh 'mythical bird' (another spelling of roc, which is the more common spelling in English; < Arabic rokh, rukhkh, Persian rukh); sheikh (< Arabic shaikh).
ۤܤ٤Ƥñ줬졤ɥΦνͳ褷θ̣ݻ뤿ˡŪˤϱѸߤΤʤ <kh> ȤֻѤƤΤդֻˤϡäդȯǤɸʤñͳ뵡ǽʬŪǤäƤȤפǤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

khelfʷѸ˥եˤǤرѸ˿ʹȯԤʤɡѸˤhel (helkatsu) ͡ŸƤޤ
khelf ȤƾΤ "Keio History of the English Language Forum" Ƭ (acronym) ǡ伫Ȥ¤ʤΤǤܸȯǤϡ֥աסѸȯǤ /kɛlf/ ȤʤΤȻפޤkhelf <kh> ֻϢ³ʤȤޤΤǡѸֻˤ 2Ż (digraph) ˤĤܵǼ夲ޤ
<kh> ϡѸˤƤϷ褷٤ι⤤ʸȤ߹碌ǤϤޤkhaki ʥˡkhan ʥϡˡKhmer ʥ͡ˡKhoisan ʥ²ˡSikh ʥ̡ˤʤɤ˸졤ñǤ <kh> /k/ бطޤ٤ƼѸͭ̾ǤꡤѸˡ˴ƱƤ뤫ȤвȤǤCarney (221) Ǥϡ<kh> ˸ڤĤ astrakhan ʥȥ饫, gymkhana , khaki, khan, khedive ʥץˤƤޤ
Carney (328) Ǥϡ<h> 2ʸܤȤƤġҲɽ魯¾2ŻȤȤ <kh> ƤޤϢսѤޤ礦
The clusters <ch>, <ph>, <sh>, <th>, <wh>, are treated as spelling units. So are the clusters <gh>, <kh>, <rh>, but there is a difference. In the first group, the <h> has the natural function of indicating the features 'voiceless and fricative' in representing [ʧ], [f], [ʃ], [ʍ]; <th> represents only 'fricative' for both voiceless [θ] and voiced [ð]. In the group <gh>, <kh>, <rh>, the <h> is empty and arbitrary; there is some marking, however: <rh> is §Greek, <kh> is exotic.
<kh> <h> ϲŪˤưŤΤʤۻ (silent_letter) ȤäƤ٤Ǹ˿ƤȤꡤñ줬 "exotic" Ǥ뤳Ȥɸ뵡ǽͭƤ褦khelf ˡ̥ŪȤ̣Ǥ "exotic" ʳưܻؤ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ܥ֥ǤϱѸֻȯЪΥ (spelling_pronunciation_gap) ¿夲Ƥΰ1ĤȤȤ⤢뤬Ȥ櫓ܤαѸؽԤؿ䤹ȥԥåȤȤиΤäƤ뤫Ǥ⤢롥
ѸֻȤˤᤰäƤϡޤޤʸ̽ǤƤǶΩäȤǤ Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013. ꡤإڥαѸˡ١˼2017ǯȤƻ伫ȤȤƽǤƤаޤ⤢롥
ϡɤߤ䤹ѽȤܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤ѡȤƤ Vivian Cook ˤ The English Writing System (Hodder Education, 2004) Ҳ𤷤̤꤫⤭Ѹֻˡˡˡֻؽˤ꤬ڤ֡㼨ꡤ§ɽɡʸƤꡤɤͥʲܼ

1 Ways of writing
1.1 Meaning-based and sound-based writing
1.2 Two ways of processing written language
2 The multi-dimensions of spoken and written English
2.1 Differences between the visual and acoustic media
2.2 Special features of written English
3 Approaches to English spelling
3.1 Basic rules for English
3.2 Venezky: correspondence rules and markers
3.3 Albrow: three systems of English spelling
3.4 Noam and Carol Chomsky: lexical representation
4 Punctuation and typography
4.1 Grammatical and correspondence punctuation
4.2 The typography of English
5 Learning the English writing system
5.1 English-speaking children's acquisition of spelling
5.2 Acquisition of English spelling by speakers of other languages
6 Historical changes
6.1 Before English
6.2 Old English
6.3 Middle English
6.4 From Early Modern English to Modern English
7 Variation in the English writing system
7.1 Differences of region: 'British' and 'American' spelling styles
7.2 Novel spellings of pop groups and business names
7.3 Adapting English to modern means of communication
References
IPA transcription of English phonemes
Index
ѸֻθѤܤǤ
Cook, Vivian. The English Writing System. London: Hodder Education, 2004.
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ۥӥˡ δˡإڥαѸˡ١˼2017ǯ
ε#5539. Chancery English ˤߤ츻Ūֻ ([2024-06-26-1]) 䡤Ρ#5535. Ƭ en- in- ɤ Chancery English Ǥߤ ([2024-06-22-1]) ǡChancery English ˤ륹ڥɤѻƤ Fisher et al. ˤ륢 "Glossary of Forms" Ѥơ٤Ͽ (numeral) Ȥ̤θΥڥѰۤ夲ƤߤˤϡפʿΤ٤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡޤ Chancery English ˤΥڥɤʬǧˤȤɤޤ롥ͤޤǡ
- one n. and adj. (17) P3, C3; on (9) P3, C3; oon (4) C8, S1; oone (1) C4; oo (5) P2 (D.122); o (3) C8, S1.
- first adj. (9), adv. (7) S1, P2; firste (1) C5; furst (9) S1, S2; ffirst (2) P2; ferst (2) C3, C5; ferste (2) C1, C3; fyrst (1) N8; furste (1) C3. There are no distinctions between adj. and adv. usage.
- two adj. (24) S1, P1; twoo (3) C5; too (5) P3, C3; twey (2) C1, C5; tweye (1) P5.
- twayn adj. two. (1) C3; tweyn (1) C3.
- twelve n. and adj. (1) C1 (D.163.47); twelf (2) C2, N5.
- twelfemonethe n. (1) C3; tuelfmoneth (1) C3; twolfmonth (1) P2.
- twenty adj. (2) N5 (D.240).
- second adj. (6) S1, C1; seconde (5) P3, C3; secund(e) (2) P3, C3.
- three adj. and n. (1) P2; thre (3) P3, C3; þre (2) P3, C3.
- third adj. (3) C5; thridde (9) C3, P4; thrid (3) P4; þrydde (2) N2; thirde (1) N2; thryd (1) N8, C3; þredde (1) P5 (D.159.33); pl. thriddes (3) P4 (D.156).
- thirdly adv. thirdly. (1) S2 (D.78.7).
- four(e) adj. (3) C1, C2.
- fourthe ordinal adj. (2) P3, N2 (D.144.9, 234.1); four (1) C1 (D.163.4).
- fourtieth adj. (2) N6.
- fifte adj. fith. (2) P3, N5; fyfte (2) C3.
- sixt adj. (1) N5; syxth (3) N5 (D.241); sext (2) N2; sixte (1) C3; sexte (1) N2.
- tenthe n. (1) P5 (D.159,36).
- hundred numeral (2) P3, N5; hundreth (1) P3 (D.143.3); hundred n. subdivision of a county. (1) C3; pl. hundredes (2) P3. C3.
Ȥ櫓 third ˤĤƤϡ#92. third βžϤĵä ([2009-07-28-1]) #93. third βžϤĵä (2) ([2009-07-29-1]) ǤѸ쥹ڥɤ15 Chancery English Ǥ⡤ȤˤɤϤޤʤĤäƤ롥
ʤߤˡ623ˤ˳Ť줿Ѹ춨41ءˤΥݥֽѸˤ륹ڥפˤơ3ȯɽԤȤơֿΥڥɤɸಽ --- Ѹ줫ѸءפäޤȺεϡƤȤȤǤ
Fisher, John H., Malcolm Richardson, and Jane L. Fisher, comps. An Anthology of Chancery English. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1984. 392.
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