<ou> /ʌ/ ϡƤߤʤʤȸƤʤʤʤΤĴ٤ƤߤɸΤ褦˰ƳŪʸ줬ФƤ롥country, couple, courage, cousin, double, flourish, nourish, touch, trouble ä롥
ζϡեѸǤ뤳Ȥťե줫鸽ե˻ޤǡθǤ <ou> /uː/ ȤбطΩƤѸǤѸʹߤ˥եñ줬̤˼ѤȤȤˡֻȯбط͢뤳ȤˤʤäѸ /uː/ ϡθ塤ȯŸ첻 (gvs) ˤ /aʊ/ ȤʤϤǤꡤºݤ˸ѸǤϤƤ <ou> /aʊ/ ȤʤäƤ (ex. about, house, noun, round, south) Ѹ /uː/ 餫Τäû첻 /u/ ȤʤС첻ܤˤष岽 (centralisation) /ʌ/ Ȥʤ롥κݤֻϢưѲʤäˡȤʤäƤ <ou> /ʌ/ δطޤ뤳Ȥˤʤä첻岽ˤĤƤϡ#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1]) ȡ#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1])#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1]) εȡˡ
<ou> /ʌ/ 嵭ñ췲ϡѸǤ <o> <u> ֤뤳Ȥ¿ <ou> ֻϾ٤ƤƳ줿褦 (Upward and Davidson 146) Υߥطʤ꤫ǤϤʤ⤷ռŪʥեֻؤβȤСθ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ȥʤ롥
ʤǤ <ou> /ʌ/ λȤ southern 롥ͭ̾ Blount դäƤѤȤƤϡꥫѸֻ mustache ФƥꥹѸֻ moustache 㤬⤷Carney (147--48) ⻲ȡ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
hellog 饸3ơѸؤǤ¿伫ΤʤۤɤȻפäȤȤ줿̣ѤʵǤ䤿 <qu> ΥڥˤɤȤˤȤˤˤ˿Ƥ櫓Ǥޤ˴줹Ƥ뤿ˡ<q> θˤϤۤɬ <u> ³Ȥλ¤ˡռŪ˵ŤȤޤʤäΤȻפޤ
6ʬ֤βˤޤȤޤʲɤ
/kw/ ȤҲϢɽ魯ΤˤɤΤ褦ʥڥäƤ뤫ȤǤ/k/ Ȥ1ĤλҲɽ魯ˤ⡤Ѹˤ <q(u)> Ǥʤ <c> ⤢ <k> ⤢ꡤճȤ䤳ȤˤʤäƤޤȯŸŪޤᡤƤʸϤǤäɤߤȤϡ##3649,1599,2249,2367,1824εå
εΤ褦ˡƸᤴƤ¤ϰճ¿ΤǤΤ褦ʵȯΤ⡤ڤŪȤǤ
ѸαѸ춵Ǥ褯Τ줿ڥΥ롼뤬롥"i before e except after c" ȤΤĹ첻 /iː/ б륹ڥˤĤƤϡ#2205. proceed vs recede ([2015-05-11-1]) #2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1]) Ǥߤ褦¿बǧ뤬Τ2Ĥ <ie> <ei> 롥ɸθΤ褦 <ie> ΤΤ¿receive, deceive, perceive Τ褦 <ei> ⤢ꡤؽ庮䤹ǡ嵭Υ롼뤬櫓Ǥ롥Ūʥ롼ǤϤ롥
ϡʤɸΤ褦ʸ췲 <ie> /iː/ бطߤΤѸˤδɤäƤߤޤбط Carney (331) ꤤĤƤꥹȤθȾˤϸͭ̾ޤࡥ
achieve, achievement, belief, believe, besiege, brief, chief, diesel, fief, field, fiend, grief, grieve, hygiene, lief, liege, lien, mien, niece, piece, priest, reprieve, shield, shriek, siege, thief, thieves, wield, yield; Brie,, Fielden, Gielgud, Kiel, Piedmont, Rievaulx, Siegfried, Siemens, Wiesbaden
ꥹȤ츻δįƤߤȡbelieve, field, fiend, shield ʤɤαѸޤޤƤȤϤեƥ줫μѸ줬Ωġºݡλ¤ҥȤˤʤ롥
brief /briːf/ Ȥ˼ϥƥǡûפ̣ brevis, brevem ͳ褹롥ΥƥñϸθťեˤѾ줿ŪѸ˱ƶڤܤ Anglo-French Ǥ bref ȤѤ줿ѸϤΥڥƱñ줿Ѹ <e> ɽ蘆줿Ĺ첻 /eː/ ǤꡤѸˤ첻 (gvs) ФƸѸ /iː/ Ϣʤ롥Ĥޤꡤȯ˴ؤƤϡѸʹߡͽ¬ƻɤäȤˤʤ롥
ڥ˴ؤƤϡä𤬤äťեȤäƤ롥Anglo-French Ǥ bref ȤäƤեǤ brief ȤѸѸˤϤۤ Anglo-French bref ˽äƤ16ˤơեθҤˤư۷ȤѤƤ brief Ȥ˿ȯơڥ˴ؤ bref brief ؤȾ괹ΤǤ롥
̤˽ѸˤϸҤ륹ڥؤƴݤƤꡤƴоݤϼȤƥƥ䥮ꥷäΤˤäƤϤΤ褦˥եˤΥڥؤηФȤ⤢ä (Upward and Davidson (105))
ơѸˤơĹ첻б <e> 16ˤ <ie> ؤ֤ľ뵤εȯüե줫μѸä䤬ƱѸޤ嵭θ췲ˤŪ֤ʤŬѤ졤˻롥
٤ߤСҤηаޤˤ̯Ϥ롥Jespersen (77) ˤСեǤ achieve chief б <ie> ǤϤʤ <e> ֤ƤꡤѸ줬ƴΥǥȿ٤ <ie> ˤϤʤäϤcf. ե achever, chefˡ
Ǥ⡤¿ñ줬褽Ʊߥ <e> <ie> ؾ괹Ȥ¤ϽפǤ롥Τˤи츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ȤϸƤӤˤޤबѼȤȤ館뤳ȤϤǤ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
ּڤ˱ѸˤפȤץȤǡ饤ȴʪĤġ˻ϤƤ hellog 饸2ƤǤ
ϡϡ5W1H٤Ȥޤʤ how h ǻϤޤΤǤ礦פȤޤû褦ȻפĤäϤߤޤʤʤä7ʬ17äˡڴƤޤäΤǡդ
ʸϤǤäӿꤷȤϡ Ϣ##51,3945,184εå
βϪ褦ʡQפʻĤޤ긽ŪʴϾɤ 1H ѤʤΤǤϤʤष 5H ѤʤΤȤžȯۤѸˤΤγؤӤ̣ǤξQϺQQϺξQѸˤؤǤȡܤڤƤޤ
Ϫ hellog 饸1Ƥϡ#4075. ʤʸȾʸΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-06-23-1]) ǤҤ⤪İ
2ε#4063. ʤ are ϤΥڥǡ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΤǤ ([2020-06-11-1])#4064. ʤ were ϤΥڥǡ֥פ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΤǤ ([2020-06-12-1]) ˰³ơɸѤʵǤ2ĤεȤޤäƱǤΤǡɤɼԤǤ뤫Ȼפޤ
have Ķ٤εǽǤΤǡˤäˤ̤Ʋμ岽ȶ֤ƤޤűѸʸˤ habban Ȥ֤ǡ촴첻û첻Ǥcf. #74. /b/ /v/ ְ㤨!? ([2009-07-11-1])#2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ ([2015-05-06-1]) <bb> ɽƤ2ŻҲѸˤæŻҲ (degemination) Ϣưûä촴첻Ĺơ[haːvə] Τ褦ʲˤʤޤĹ첻ѤƤС첻 (gvs) ФơǤ [heɪv] ȤʤäƤǤ礦ºݡƬ be- դ behave ϡͽۤȯޤ
have ΤΤĶ٤εǽǤʤˤˤƤӼ岽첻û뤳ȤޤǤѸʹߤ [hav] [hæv] Фơߤ˻ޤ (cf. #3998. ʤ apple a ̤Ρ֥פǤϤʤ֥פ˶ᤤȯʤΤǤ ([2020-04-07-1]))
are, were, have ΤˤƤ⡤ȯˤĤƤϼ岽鶯ѲФƤޤڥѸդ꤫̯˰ꤷƤȤΤߥǤĶٸħʤΤ⤷ޤϢơ#1024. ѸֻԵ§줳 ([2012-02-15-1]) ɤ
ޤ3֤εϡJespersen (1299--30; 4.432) ˰͵Ƽɮޤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
ε#4063. ʤ are ϤΥڥǡ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΤǤ ([2020-06-11-1]) ˰³Ǥwere ϡѸˡ§§äȯ here, mere, sphere ʤɤȵӱƧ [wɪə] Ȥʤ뤫뤤 ere, there, where ʤɤȵӱƧ [wɛə] դˤʤꤽǤºݤˤ [wəː] ʤɤȯޤϤʤǤ礦
ϡ are Ʊͤ were ޤĶ٤εǽȤƼ岽ȶ֤Ƥ̤ȤޤбűѸη֤ϡɸŪȤ West-Saxon wǣre wǣron Ǥcf. #2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])ˡ줬Ѹˤ [wæːrə] [wɛːrə] [wɛːr] ȵ§ŪȯãޤޤǤ there where ʤɤƱϩɤäƤޤ
θ were ֤ʬޤĶ٤εǽȤƤʤˤǡ岽첻û [wɛr] Ȥʤޤ -er ¿θ¤ߤ·첻§Ūȯã[wə] Ȥʤޤߡ夯ȯȤȯ [wə] ǤȤ˿˶Ĺˤȯޤ졤ߤ̾ȯ [wəː] 夷Ȥ櫓Ǥ (Jespersen (130; 4.432))
ˤΤʳ were there where ֤ʬäȽҤ٤ޤ¤ɬ⤽ä櫓ǤϤޤ֤ʬȯãȤܤthere where ȵӱƧ [wɛə] ȯ⡤ޥʡȤϤߤǤԤʤƤ뤫ǤLPD Preference poll ˤȡȯϡꥹѸǶȤƻѤ6%ȤǤϤޤΤ˹ԤʤƤ뤳Ȥ狼ޤʢ⥤ꥹںˤȯ褯İޤˡ

εΥʬ were ˴ؤƷ֤Ȼפޤwere ϡĶ٤εǽǤ뤬椨ˡˤ̤Ƽ岽ȶβˤ餵Ƥޤ͡ʷ֤ƤϾäȤץ֤̤ȤơΤʤΤ줫η֤ɸѸˤޤӤƤȤȤˤʤޤˤäƤϡ¤ˡ֥פä⤷ʤΤǤʡ֥פϼºݤ6%θȯˡߤǤɸȯõƤߤС͡ʷ֤ĤäƤϤǤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
be ư are ϡѸˡ§§äȯ [ɛə] ȤʤϤǤƬ̤λҲʻˤäƤߤФ狼Ȥꡤbare, care, dare, fare, hare, mare, rare, ware ʤɤǤϤ [ɛə] ǵӱƧߤޤare Ķ٤ñǤꡤƤɤߴƤ⤤뤿ˡʤΥڥȯԵ§ˤϵŤޤ¤ϤбطˤʤäƤΤǤϤäƤߤޤ礦
are θ츻ϡűѸ Anglia ʣб be ưη aron (Old Northumbrian) earun (Old Mercian) ˤޤϸűѸɸŪȤ줿 West Saxon ʤɤǤѤʤäΤǡ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) ζɽˤϸƤޤűѸ aron earun ϡѸ˸岽are Τ褦ʷ֤ؤȿʿƤޤ
ѸǤΤθȯϡĹ촴첻첻ۣ첻ȤƤĤäƤȻפޤĤޤꡤ/aːrə/ ۤɤȯǤθ塤⤷̾βȯã뤲ƤʤСcare [kaːrə] [kaːr] [kɛːr] [kɛər] [kɛə] ѲƤΤʿŪˡ[aːrə] [aːr] [ɛːr] [ɛər] [ɛə] ȤʤäƤϤǤ (cf. Minkova 279) are ˴ؤƤϤϤʤޤǤʤǤ礦
ˤ줿褦 are ĶٸǤꡤⵡǽǤ뤿Ǥbe ưޤư졤̾졤ֻʤɤεǽϡѤ뤿ᡤȯ긺äƼ岽Ǥޤ˼岽ƤѤޤΤǡռŪʶܤơȯäꤷΤ˺ޤθϡ˾ˤ˼岽ȶ֤Ƥޤcf. #3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])#781. How d'ye do? ([2011-06-17-1])#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1])#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1])ˡ
δ are ȯȯãߤƤߤޤ礦ѸǤ [aːrə] [aːr] ޤǿʤߤޤθ塤촴첻μ岽äȶŪˤû[ar] Ȥʤޤû첻Ȥʤäʾ塤Ĺ첻Τߤ˺ѤѸˤƤ첻 (gvs) 뤳Ȥʤcare ʤɤȤ֤ʬʤ顤ѸǤ⤳ [ar] ݤ³ޤʤĹ첻ͳ褹֤ɸŪˤϻ¸ain't ߽ФȤƶ⤢ޤ (Jespersen (130; 4.432))ˡ
Ѹ [ar] Ϥ˼ޤäơ[a] [ə] Ȥʤꡤ줬 we're, they're Τ褦˥ݥȥեȼäάȤ֤ȯޤռŪʶФ֤Ȥơñ첻Ĺ [aːr] ȯãޤ줬ߤ̾ȯǤ [ɑə] [ɑː] ˽夷ޤ
are ϡĶ٤εǽǤ뤬椨ˡˤ̤Ƽ岽ȶβˤ餵Ƥޤ͡ʷ֤ƤϾäȤץ֤̤ȤơΤʤΤ줫η֤ɸѸˤޤӤƤȤȤˤʤޤˤäƤϡ¤ˡ֥פä⤷ʤΤǤߤǤɸȯõƤߤС͡ʷ֤ĤäƤϤǤ
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
ε#4060. ʤפ̣ spirit ־αפ̣Τ ([2020-06-08-1]) Ǿ줿褦ˡѸǡפ̣ sprite/spright spirit ΰ۷ˤ츻ˤ롥
sprite Ф spright ֻŪǤꡤ <-ite> /-aɪt/ <-ight> Ȥط "reverse spelling" Ǥ"reverse spelling" ˤĤƤϡ#34. thumb ֤ȯ ([2009-06-01-1])#724. thumb ֤ȯ (2) ([2011-04-21-1])#283. delectable delight ([2010-02-04-1]) ȡˡ
spright ֻǤ16˽ФShakespeare Folio Quarto νǡޤ Spenser ǤϡषŪ˻ȤƤ⤷Ȥ Johnson μˤξθФΩƤƤꡤ"spright" θФΤȤǡsprite ֤٤ (custom) ȤƤ spright Ƿ夬ĤƤȤθڤ롥Johnson 餷нλǤ롥ʤǤ sprite Τ̤ۤ

ƻդ spritely/sprightly, spriteful/sprightful ϡָʡȯʡפ̣Ƥ spright 켫ȤƱηƻȤѤ뤳Ȥ롥ηƻˤϡפθʥŤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤ餯캬θ˴ޤޤ "animating or vital" εǿ줿褦ˡΥ륳֥ץ饤ȡ (Sprite) ϡˤϤú̥ϤǤ롥
ܥ֥ǤϡѸΥե٥å (alphabet) ˴ؤ뵭¿Ƥޤǯ٤Ϥ褦䤯ǯ٤ϤޤäƤȤع¿ϤǤΤǡƸ̤˱ѸΥե٥åȤϤƤ뺢ȻפޤΤƱǡե٥åȤγؽäδäȤƥɥΤ褦Τ̤ȻפޤˤϡҤȤѸ쥢ե٥åȤΩȯŸˤĤطμäƤƤ館ФȻפޤμľܻҶ˶ϤȤ⡤1ʸ1ʸŪʿߤ뤳ȤΤäƤǡäƵ;͵ΤǤϤʤǤ礦ʲˡΤεåȤޤȤޤ
ֱѸΤäƤȰ¿Ȥե٥åȴϢäפεå
εåȤϡºݤˤϲǯѸؤ³ƤԤФƤ⽽ʬ˳ڤɤʪȤʤäƤȻפޤե٥åȤ˴ؤͥȤƤɤ
ε#4033. 3Ż <tch> ʬۤˡ ([2020-05-12-1]) ˰³̵˻ [ʧ] б <tch> Ȥ3Ż (trigraph) ˤĤơҤ٤褦ˡѸǤϤλҲɽ魯ֻˤ͡ʤΤꡤ<cc>, <cch>, <hch>, <tch> Τۤ <chch> ʤĤȤ߹碌⤢äΤ褦˻ҲĤŤ碌Τϡľ첻ûȤѸֻħŪʽʣ (doubling) δˤΤǤ롥 <chch> Τ褦ֻǤ¤ʽʣηäΤȻפ뤬緶˲ȤռƯΤ䤬¾ֻʤϤƤȤˤʤäκݤ˱ƶϤԻȤǽΤѸΰ William Caxton (1422?--91) Ǥ롥Carney (121) ϡ<tch> ֻ Caxton ˵ɾƤ롥
We owe the <tch> spelling to Caxton. The literally 'doubled' spelling <chch> was in use in Middle English, though it was often simplified to <cch> . . . . The <t> of Caxton's spelling has some phonetic appropriateness and the longer *<chch> would exceed the general limits on the size of consonant spellings. There is a clear graphotactic constraint on doubling a digraph: *<thth>, *<shsh>, *<ngng>.
Caxton ˤĤ <tch> ܤĴȤϤʤΤǡCaxton Υƥȴ֤Ǥʬۤ䡤θθؤαƶľŪäΤɤ礭äΤ˴ؤƤǤȽǤǤʤ<tch> ȤѸˡΤʤǤȰüŪ°Ȼפ3ŻڤˡΰȤǤȤʤäǤ롥εǼΩƤ matcha ˤαˡCaxton Ƥ⤷ʤΤ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
1ǯαѸ춵ʽˡѸֻ˽Ͷ˥إܥͳȤߤ褦ǡפ matcha ֤ȤεҤ롥ƤꤽʾξܤϤʤإܥʤƴްդȤƱѸˡΰˤǤϡΤ褦֤ΤȤäƤǤ롥ϡ̵˻ [ʧ] б <tch> Ȥ3Ż (trigraph) ѸˡˤơƤˤˤơɤΤ褦˰֤ŤƤͤƤߤ
ѸˡǤϡ[ʧ] ȯФƤ <ch> Ȥ2Ż (digraph) бǤ̤Ǥ (ex. chance, child, choose, crunchy, duchess, luncheon, bench, such, which) ˸ˤ <tch> ؤб⾯ʤʤ㤨С#49. /k/ θڥ ([2009-06-16-1]) Ǥߤ褦˸űѸθ (palatalisation) ͳ褹 batch, ditch, match , watch, wretch ʤɤ˵뤷#95. ޤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2009-07-31-1]) Ǥߤ褦 catch Ȥä Norman French ͳμѸ䡤¾ե줫μѸȤ crotch, match ʥޥåˡbutcher, hatchet, hutch ʤɤ⤢롥
Upward and Davidson (159) ˤС<tch> λ7ۤɤϡޥϤθθˤƵäƤȤ˸ϡˤĤΤΤۤפʸȤƸűѸ줫ʸڤ kitchen Ƥ
ޤŪΩʤҤ̤եѸΤˤ롥θϡѸμѻˤ boucher, hachet, huche ʤɤ <ch> ֤줿 <tch> ˰Ĥ줿Τbutcher, hatchet, hutch ȤֻذؤؤȤеդΥѥ⤢ꡤѸǤ atchieve, batcheler, dutchess, toutch ʤɤ֤Ƥ줬 <ch> ֤褦ˤʤäƤ (Upward and Davidson 159)
Ǥΰ֤ˤĤƤС#3882. ֻȯΡб§פȤ̤¸ߤˡ§ס ([2019-12-13-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ<tch> ƬΩĤȤϸ§ȤƤʤ
δϡ<tch> Ԥ첻ϸ§Ȥû첻ǤȤħ롥aitch (= H) 㳰2첻ԤƤ롥ϡꥸʥ ache ֻˤߡפ̣Ʊ֤ˤʤäƤޤȤä19κȤ (Upward and Davidson 159)
Ѹˤޤä᤹ȡֻ¿Ϥ褯ΤƤ̵̤˻ˤĤƤ <cc>, <cch>, <chch>, <hch>, <tch> ʤɤΰ֤꤬äѸ <tch> ĸ췲ΰŪֻ褦ˤʤΤ1600ǯȤ (Upward and Davidson 38)
Ǹν줫μѸˤߤ롤¿ʤȤ⥨å <tch> Ƥapparatchik, datcha, etch, ketchup, kvetch, litchi, patchouli, potlatch, sketch. ƶ̣ͭ̾⡥Aitchison, Batchelor, Bletchley, Cesarewitch, Craitchit, Dutch, Hitchin, Hutchinson, Kitchener, Mitchell, Redditch, Ritchie, Saskatchewan, Thatcher.
Τ褦ʣˤФƤɤˤˤ夷Ѹˡ <tch> إܥˤ matcha ˤֻ˰ѤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
2֤ε ([2020-05-07-1], [2020-05-08-1]) ɸˤĤƹͤƤξʬۤ뤳ȤϡŪˤ̻ŪˤⴰˤϤǤʤ褦Upward and Davidson (423) ϡͿ754˴ŤĴ̤ηФɤ뤫ľβǤˤäƤ褽ͽۤǤȤޤdzΨŪʻŦºŪΩ
| Phonemes | /p/ | /b/ | /t/ | /d/ | /k/ | /g/ | /ʧ/ | /ʤ/ | /m/ | /n/ | /l/ | /r/ | /f/ | /v/ | /s/ | /z/ | /ʃ/ | /w/ | /eɪ/ | /aɪ/ | /ɔɪ/ | /aʊ/ | /ɪ/ | /ʊ/ |
| Letters | <p | b | t | d | c | g | ch | g(e) | m | n | l | r | f | v | s/c | s | ti | (q)u | a | i | oy | ow | i | u> |
| <-ant/ce> | 4 | 1 | 62 | 26 | 13 | 9 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 40 | 24 | 62 | 4 | 14 | 10 | 13 | - | - | 2 | 11 | 6 | 1 | 16 | 6 |
| <-ent/ce> | 8 | 5 | 33 | 62 | - | - | - | 42 | 1 | 24 | 48 | 27 | - | 4 | 66 | 4 | 15 | 17 | - | - | - | - | 49 | 13 |
Positive cues for <a> spellings are accordingly a stem-final /k, g, ʧ, f/ or any of the diphthongs /eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, aʊ/. The only positive cue for <e> spellings is a previous /kw/. Stems ending in <-ul-> tend to have <-ent>: corpulent, flatulent, flocculent, fraudulent, opulent, succulent, truculent, turbulent, virulent. Exceptions are: ambulance, petulant, stimulant.
The spelling is therefore predictable in words such as: significance, elegance, trenchant, infant, abeyance, reliance, annoyance, allowance, eloquent, consequent.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ε#4028. -ant -ent ([2020-05-07-1]) ǡ -ant -ent ʬۤ줤Ťʤ˿줿ϡΤޤ -ance -ence 뤤 -ancy -dency ȤˤӲФ롥ߤ˴Ϣƥͳ褹뤫
Web3 Ȥ Upward and Davidson (422) ˤߤƤߤȡ첻ɤ˴ؤƤɤƱ餤褯ȤȤơascendancy/ascendency, dependant/dependent (n.), pendant/pendent (adj.) Ƥ롥Ŀ֤ͤιߤȤȤʤΤ
ޤ̾ϰ첻ǤֻѤ뤬¾ֻʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ⤢롥expellant, propellant ̾ <a> ֤뤬<e> ʤǤϤʤȤimpellent, repellent ̾ <e> ֤뤬<a> ⤢Ȥ
Ⱦϸ§ȤֻȤΤǤ롥ascendant, attendance, descendant, intendant, pendant (n.) <a> ǡdependency, dependent (adj.), tendency, transcendent, superintendent <e> ֤ʤФʤʤ
ȤˤѸä̤ưʤȤΤǺޤdependent dependant ĤƬĤˤ independent ȤΤǤǤʤ
ֻ٤ȤƤѸϤƤˤ衤Ѹդ꤫ɤͻҤñˤĤɤäƤߤȤ⤷⤷ʤʤۤɥǥʬۤ餫ˤʤΤǤϤʤȶơʤʤ꤬Фʤ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Ѹˤϸ -ant, -ent ĸ줬¿¸ߤޤabundant, constant, important, attendant, descendant, servant; apparent, convenient, diligent, correspondent, president, solvent ŵŪˤϹ١֤ʤɤɽ魯ƻȤѤޤơط͡ʪɽ魯̾ȤѤ뤳Ȥ⤷ФФǤƻ̾ȤѤΤϡƥθʬͳ褹뤫Ǥattendant Ȥϡ "(an/the) attending (one)" 櫓Ǥ
-ant -ent ϥƥθʬͳ褹ȽҤ٤ޤΤˤϤ줾 -ans -ens Ȥ֤ǤϥƥǼñζʤΤǤʳζǤϻҲ s t 졤ȤñгˡǤ -antem, -entem Ȥʤޤ t Ѹˤ -ant -ent t ȤȤˤʤޤ
ơ첻Ǥa e ϲ㤦ΤȤȤǤüŪˤСƥưˤϤĤγѥѥꡤΤȤʤäƤưγѥѥ˱Ƹʬ -ans Ȥʤ뤫 -ens Ȥʤ뤫ޤäƤޤŪˤ1ѤȤʬवƤư줬 -ans ǡ234ѤȤʬवƤΤ -ens ǤѸ˼ѤƤǤϡȤΥƥθʬͳ褹첻ѾƤȤ櫓Ǥ
ñäǤ⤢ޤȤΤϡƥǶ̤Ƥ2θʬϡեǤ -ant ؤȽƤޤäƤǤ⤷Υեñ줬ѸؼѤƤȤСˤΥƥθ츻˾Ȥ餻 -ent ȤʤϤΤȤ˥ե첽 -ant ȤƱѸ˼ޤ줿Ȥˤʤ뤫Ǥ㤨Хƥ crescent ϤΤޤޱѸ crescent ȤäƤޤǥե첽 croissant ȤǤäƤƤޤƥȥեκϡpersistent resistantsuperintendent attendant ˤߤޤ¤ˤ䤳ˤʤäƤޤޤ (Upward and Davidson 88--89)
ȤƤϡƥδΤưγѥѥ˱ -ant -ent ޤäƤȤޤºݤΤȤ -ant ؽեδĤˤꡤξδ֤˺ƱȺɬ⤭줤ǤʤʬۤȤʤäƤޤäȤȤǤ
ñȯȤƤϡˤ϶֤뤳ȤϤʤΤǡȯϤȤ /-ənt/ Ȥʤꡤ̤ǤޤʤΤֻ϶̤ʤФʤʤ櫓ǤؽԵ㤫ǤκϡȯѸüԤֻؽԤˤȤäƤषǤ㤨Сͥƥ֤ relevant ˤǤϤʤ relevent ʸˤְ֤㤨뤳ȤʤӤǤcf. #3889. ͥƥ֤褯ְ㤨륹ڥ ([2019-12-20-1])ˡ˸ĤʤɤĹʤäǡ˶֤ˤϡ첻βΤ˸ޤcf. confident /ˈkɑnfɪdənt/ confidential /ˌkɑnfɪˈdɛnʃl/ ȡˡ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ϿϿʤľܤβڵĤäƤʤŤθ첻ˤƿꤹ뤫Ȥ䤤ϡѤʵǤʤ顤˸ؤˤȤäܼŪʲǤ롥Ѹˤˤ뤳βˤĤƤϡޤǤŪʴ#437. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 ([2010-07-08-1])#758. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 (2) ([2011-05-25-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
оݤȤʤˤäƤ⡤ΤѤǤʤˤϰ㤤롥 Smith (40) ȤơȤ櫓ѸȯꤹˡܤƤߤ5ۤɵƤ롥
a) "reconstruction", both comparative (dealing with cognate languages) and internal (dealing with paradigmatic variation);
b) analysis of "residualisms" surviving in modern accents of English;
c) analysis of the writings of spelling-reformers and phoneticians from the Early Modern English period, supplying information about usages closer to the Middle English period than now;
d) analysis of contemporary verse-practices, based on the analysis of rhyme, alliteration and meter; and
e) analysis of spellings.
ս˥ȤäƤe) ΥڥʬϤȤΤȴ뤯餤ΤȤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤѸɽʸɸ֤ޥե٥åȤѤƽƤʾ塤ñΥڥͤˤΤǤ롥ѸȯȥڥδطͤƤߤʬ褦ˡڥľȯɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤäơѸˤƤⴰľȯɽ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤȤŪɤƤɬפȤʤ롥ǤľǤϤʤȤϤʤȤŪʷȯɽ綠ȤƤ뤳ȤǧƤ褵ǤꡤɤΤ褦ľǤʤΤɤΤ餤ŪʤΤˤĤƤϡʸηϤ䥹ڥηϤξܺ٤ʬϤ̤Ƥʤ餫ˤ뤳ȤǤ롥
d) ϱʸѤǤ롥ѸαʸϡȤ櫓ˤΦ鿷⤿餵줿ӱ (rhyme) ɤӱξڵϡȤ櫓첻μ̤䶯֤˴ؤ¿ξͿƤ롥űѸδƬ (alliteration) ѸˤϱߤΤΡ濴˺ĤꡤѸλҲ䶯֤˴ؤҥȤͿ³Ƥ롥ޤʸϡ嵭εӱƬȤ̩ܤ˴ؤ뤫DZΧ (meter) μǤϤȯ˼ͿƤ롥
c) ϡ³Ѹ˻˾ܳŪ˸Ƥ벻ؼԤˤ롤ȯˤĤƤΥȤ˰͵ˡǤ롥ΥȤϤޤǶѸΡʼȤƵŪʡȯˤĤƤ줬Τ˿ǤСȯˤĤƤ礭ʥҥȤȤʤŪʲѲħƤСϡʶѸȯˤջϡѸȯˤǽޤ롥
b) ḽμŪˤϡ˸Ť¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥ּΤܤΤ˶ּäƤ롤ȤˡϢơ#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
Ǹ a) ϡϢȤ (comparative_linguistics) ˴ŤƷ (reconstruction) ŪƷˤŪʿˡǤ롥ƷȤȡʸΤʤθˡȻפ뤫⤷ʤʸǧűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤƤڵηΤ˽ʬѤ롥
Ѹȯθϡ嵭Τ褦ʿμˡǿʤƤƤꡤǤܤȤ餫ˤƤ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. "Periods: Middle English." Chapter 3 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 32--48.
[2020-02-24-1] εǼ夲ˤĤ³ԤϤ롥
űѸ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> ֤32Ż (digraph) ϡ줾ŪˤûǤĹǤΤɽ路ƤȤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸǤƱ2Ż֤Ƥʤ⡤Ūˤϡû2첻פȡĹ2첻סʸʸǤϤФ1첻Ĺ (macron) դɽˤ̤ƤȤȤľ˲᤹С<ea> [ɛɑ], <ēa> [ɛːɑ], <eo> [eo], <ēo> [eːo], <ie> [ie], <īe> [iːe] Τ褦бطȲƤ褵줬ŪˤʤäƤΤ⤿ǤϤʤűѸʸؤˤƺǤʣĿǤ롥
¤ΤȤĹû2첻ΤűѸνˤϳ경2첻ǤϤʤʤäƤޤǤϸαѸ첻ˤˤۤȤɱƶͿƤʤ櫓Ǥꡤ츫Ȥʤۤ礭ˤʤΤʬˤϸűѸβηϤ˴ؤˤȤɤޤ餺ŪʰյǤꡤ餳褬ҡȥåפƤΤʲMinkova (178--79) ˽äơ2첻Ĺûζ̤äȤȿФƤߤ褦
ޤεˤҤ٤褦ˡŪˤä2첻Ĺûζ̤ϤޤǤ롥Τ褦ʤޤ첻ηϤűѸΤ˺ƷƤ褤ΤȤ꤬롥Τ褦첻ηϤʤȤޤǤϤʤΤΡˤޤȤС⤽ⲾŪʺƷθȤƵƤ褤ΤϡʤʤȿˤȿǤ롥
⤦1Ĥεϡ32첻Ȥ̤2첻 [ej] ϡäĹûζ̤ƤʤȤȤ˰͵롥츻ŪˤϤ2첻Ĺûζ̤ƤűѸǤϸ츻ŪˤĹϤ hēȝ (hay) ûϤ weȝ (way) äΩʤƤʤȤС32첻ˤĤƤĹûζ̤ϤʤäȤǽ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
3ĤˡβˤȤƤߤȡû2첻פϤ䤬û첻ͻ礷ƤȤˤʤ롥Ĥޤꡤû2첻פ2Ż֤ƤΤǴ㤤䤹¤ϤȤ1⡼첻äΤǤϤʤŪ˹ͤȡĹ2첻פϼ¤2⡼̤2첻ˤʤΤǤϤʤ
Ǹˡ⤽2첻Ĺûζ̤¾ڤǾ (minimal_pair) ¤Ƥ뤳Ȥ¤ƤѻȡǤȤưۤʤȤˤ餺Ȥ⡤̤βˤ롥
ϰ¦Ҳ𤷤ˤʤξرĤơΩƤƷ㤷깭Ƥ롥2첻2첻٤
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
űѸ츦νפ "digraph controversy" ȤΤ롥2Ĥ첻Ťͤ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> ʤɤ2Ż (digraph) ʤ첻ɽ魯ΤȤǤ롥첻μ̤ä͡ʸФƤ
űѸμܤǤ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> ʤɤ֤ƤΤߤιǤǤϤФ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> Ȥ̤ˡ1첻Ĺ (macron) դ <ēa>, <ēo>, <īe> Ȥɽߤ롥 <ea> ֤벻ˤϡŪˤϡûפΤȡĹפΤäȤΤƤ뤫Ǥ롥ĹΤʤСȤСȤǡºݤ˸űѸˤ첻μ̤ɤΤ褦˰äƤΤͤߤ뤳Ȥ͡ʿ¬ʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ǥ⥹ȥ졼ȤʤΤϡֻΤޤޤˡû2첻פȡĹ2첻פꤹƤǤ롥<ea> [ɛɑ], <ēa> [ɛːɑ], <eo> [eo], <ēo> [eːo], <ie> [ie], <īe> [iːe] ʤɤȺƷʡ#2497. űѸ줫ѸˤƤ첻Ѳ ([2016-02-27-1]) 첻ɽȡˡŪˤߤơʤȤ⥲ޥɤˤ2첻 (diphthong) ûΤĹΤ̤륱ϤʤȤ顤䤬褵Ƥ롥
ФơĹΤʤСñ첻 (monophthong) ǤꡤС2첻 (diphthong) ǤȤ롥ˤĤƤ Minkova (178--79) ĤƤ뤬ǤϾܺ٤ˤƧ߹ޤʤ˽äƺƷ줿ʲ˼ (Minkova 156)
| Value | Example | ||
| Digraph | Early | Late | |
| <ēa> | æʊ | æə | strēam 'stream' |
| <ea> | æə | æ | heall 'hall' |
| <ēo> | eʊ | eə | sēon 'to see' |
| <eo> | ɛə | ɛ | ġeolu 'yellow' |
| <īe> | iʊ | iə, iː | (ġe)līefan 'to believe' |
| <ie> | ɪə | ɪ | ġiefan 'to give' |
ѸŪ첻ĹûɽʬΤǤ롥ȤطʤˤĤƤϡʲεʤɤƤ
#1826. 첻ĹûľܼȤǤʤ ([2014-04-27-1])
#2092. ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯Τ ([2015-01-18-1])
#2887. Ϣ3֤ʤѸ첻ɽΤʤΤס ([2017-03-23-1])
#2092. ե٥åȤ첻ľɽ魯Τ ([2015-01-18-1])
#2075. 첻첻Ĺû ([2015-01-01-1])
첻Ĺûʬ褦Ȥưʤä櫓ǤϤʤޤǽʬäȤǡʬˡϺƤΤ˸űѸǤϤΤ褦ʻߤϤۤܤʤʤäѸˤʤȤĤοƳ졤ʤˤϸޤǼѤ줿Τ⤢롥Minkova (189--90) ꡤΤ褦ʿ5褦
(1) ³λҲŤͤû첻ɽ魯
Ormulum ǺѤ줿ˡfollc (folk), þiss (this), þennkenn (think) ʤɤȤ롥Ĺ첻ˤϡӤƤ櫓ǤϤʤfó (for), tīme (time) Τ褦˥ȵդˡΤ뤳ȤääȤ⡤ο Ormulum ʳǤϤߤ줺ޤǸΩñȯλߤǤcf. #2712. ѸθŪ֤ꤿ ([2016-09-29-1])ˡ
(2) 첻ŤͤĹ첻ɽ魯
aa (aye), see (sea), stoone (stone(s)), ook (oak) ʤɡʬ䤹ˡȤʬŪˤϸޤ³Ƥ롥Ϣơ#3037. <ee>, <oo> ϤΤ <aa>, <ii>, <uu> ϤʤΤϤʤ ([2017-08-20-1]) ȡ
(3) Ҳθ <e> äơ첻ĹȤɽ魯
"magic <e>" ȾΤĹ첻ɽwife, stone, hole ʤɡѸ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl) ̩ܤ˴ϢɽοǤ롥ܳŪ˵§Τ16ΤȤθѸΩƤ뤳Ȥաcf. #2377. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (1) ([2015-10-30-1])#2378. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (2) ([2015-10-31-1])ˡ
(4) ۤʤ첻2Ȥ߹碌2Ż (digraph) Ĺ첻ɽ魯
<ie> [eː], <eo> [eː] ʤɡΤ褦2ŻϸűѸˤ⤢ä첻Ĺûɽ魯˻ȤƤ櫓ǤϤʤäѸǤ2ŻĹ첻ɽ魯ΤѤ줿ǡȤ롥Ѹ beat, boat, bound ʤɤȡ
(5) 첻 <i/y> źĹ첻ɽ魯
䥹åȥʬۤФ뤬baith/bayth (both), laith/layth (poath), stain/stayn (stone), keip (keep), heid (head), weill (well), bluid (blood), buik (book), guid (good), puir (poor) ʤɤȤĹ첻ɽ路
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
Ѹˡˤ <ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> ʤɡ2ʸ1Ĥβɽ魯2Ż (digraph) ʤ餺¸ߤ롥1ʸ1줤бΤե٥åȤۤȤС2ݏߤ뤳Ȥۤΰæˤۤʤʤ¤ˤϸűѸΤ鸽ߤ˻ޤǡ¿2ŻѤƤ켫Τˤαɸˤ餵Ƥ
ϡ˵2ʸܤ <h> 2Ż夲褦"verb second" θʤ "<h> second" 2ŻǤ롥 "<h> second" 2Żϡ§ȤñҲб롥<ch> /ʧ/, <ph> /f/, <sh> /ʃ/, <th> /θ, ð/, <wh> /w, ʍ/ ʤɤǤ롥<gh> ˤĤƤϡȤ /f/ ʤɤб뤬̵б뤳ȤŪ¿ȤդäƤʡ#2590. <gh> ޤñˤĤƤס ([2016-05-30-1])#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1])ˡ
Ѹˤߤ "<h> second" 2ŻѸǻȤϤΤϡ褽ѸѸΤȤǤ롥θűѸѸǤϡ<ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <th> Ҳϳơ <c>, <ȝ>, <f>, <þ, ð> 1ʸ֤Ƥ<sh>, <wh> Ҳϳơ <sc>, <hw> Ȥ̤2Ż֤Τ̤ä
<ch> <th> ˤĤƤϡƥˡǺѤƤȤѸμ̻⸫ƤȤϤ˼ΤǤ롥ޤ<ph> ˤĤƤϥꥷʤ뤤Ϥ˼ѤƤƥˤμѤǤ롥
Ѹϡƥ䥮ꥷ줫Ѥ줿嵭Τ褦2Ż˿ȯǡ˥եǤʿŪ2ŻλѤߤ줿Ȥؤäơ2ʸܤ <h> Ŀ2ŻȯƤ˻ä<gh>, <sh>, <wh> ʤɤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡѸ "<h> second" 2Żϡƥˤä2Żľܡܤ˱ƶΩΤǤ롥ʤ⤽ƥǤ2ʸܤ <h> Ѥ2ŻȯŸΤϡ<h> ʸбꤵ /h/ ȤҲƥޥλ˸ƾüƤȤʬ̤ꡤŪʲǤäϢư <h> ʸ¾ʸ٤¸ߴäΤȻפ롥<h> Ȥʸϡ֤ͷƤȤ館졤ζ̤ƱȤä̤εǽƤ줿ȹͤ롥γŬ (exaptation)
¤ϡѸǤⲻǤȤƤ /h/ ¸ߤɬŪǤϤʤ̣ǤϥƥȻäξäΤ褦˹ͤСѸǤ⡤Ⱦü¸ߤǤ <h> 2ŻιǤȤѤǤĶäƤǤ롥cf. #214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1])#459. ʻҲ /h/ (2) ([2010-07-30-1])#1677. Ƭ <h> ˤˤĤƤν ([2013-11-29-1])#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1])#1899. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (3) ([2014-07-09-1])ˡ
ʾ塤Ȥ Minkova (111) ȤȴϢơʲε⻲ȡ
#2423. digraph (1) ([2015-12-15-1])
#2424. digraph (2) ([2015-12-16-1])
#3251. <chi> ϡ֥פ֥פ֥פ֥ҡפ ([2018-03-22-1])
#3337. Mulcaster θåꥹ "generall table" ˤ츻Ūֻ (2) ([2018-06-16-1])
#2049. <sh> Ȥΰֻˡ ([2014-12-06-1])
#1795. Ĥ wh ȯ ([2014-03-27-1])
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
Cockney ȯȤΤ h-dropping ˤϡŪطʤ롥ѲȯֻδطüѡҲŪɾʤ͡ʴͻɬפꡤѸ˸ˤƺǤä1ĤȤäƤ褤ܥ֥Ǥ h γƵǰäƤȤ櫓#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1])#1899. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (3) ([2014-07-09-1])#1677. Ƭ <h> ˤˤĤƤν ([2013-11-29-1]) Ȥ줿
h-dropping ؤ (stigmatisation) ޤäΤ17ʹߡä˵ϼǤ18ΤȤǤ롥ֻɸಽˤäƸ츻Ū <h> 경ȯˤƤб /h/ ¸٤ǤȤϤ줿h ϡɸŪֻ츻μʡᶵܡˤ̵ͭ¬롤ҲŪʥȥޥȤƤεǽΤǤ롥
Minkova ˤСλΩĥͥˡΤȯ h ޤ८ꥷ줫μѸ줬̤ήƤȤ⡤h-dropping ̵ܤϢ뤳Ȥ˹Ȥ#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])#516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡΤ15--17ˤϥꥷγؽѸ줬¿ѸήθäϹ⤤ܤȶӤĤƤꡤֻȯ h ޤޤƤ뤫ɤΤäƤ뤳ȤϡοͤζܤХȤʤꥷѸ¸ߤϡ17ʹߤ h-dropping ȽΤΩƤȤ櫓ѸŪդ줿ƶ٤ŦȻפMinkova (107) Ѥ롥
Orthographic standardisation, especially through printing after the end of the 1470s, was an important factor shaping the later fate of ME /h-/. Until the beginning of the sixteenth century there was no evidence of association between h-dropping and social and educational status, but the attitudes began to shift in the seventeenth century, and by the eighteenth century [h-]-lessness was stigmatised in both native and borrowed words. . . . In spelling, most of the borrowed words kept initial <h->; the expanding community of literate speakers must have considered spelling authoritative enough for the reinstatement of an initial [h-] in words with an etymological and orthographic <h->. New Greek loanwords in <h->, unassimilated when passing through Renaissance Latin, flooded the language; learned words in hept(a)-, hemato-, hemi-, hex(a)-, hagio-, hypo-, hydro-, hyper-, hetero-, hysto- and words like helix, harmony, halo kept the initial aspirate in pronunciation, increasing the pool of lexical items for which h-dropping would be associated with lack of education. The combined and mutually reinforcing pressure from orthography and negative social attitudes towards h-dropping worked against the codification of h-less forms. By the end of the eighteenth century, only a set of frequently used Romance loans in which the <h-> spelling was preserved were considered legitimate without initial [h-].
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
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