ε#2261. ꥹ饢ꥫؤΰ̱νп (1) ([2015-07-06-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ#1301. Gramley αѸ˳Υѥ˥ȡ ([2012-11-18-1]) ȡ#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Gramley αѸ˽ϡϿޤɽ¿ؽ仲ȤǤ롥ꥹ饢ꥫؤνΰ̱ΥѥˤĤƤ⡤"Major sources and goals of immigration" (248) ꤹͭѤʥꥫ쳤ߤϿޤǺܤƤ롥Gramley ϿޤǤϡ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱Υ롼ȤΤۤɥġֽ硤ɥĤΰ̱ήηϩʤɤ⼨Ƥ롥

ΰ̱⥢ꥫѸ˲餫ιƤȹͤ뤬ε ([2015-07-06-1]) ӡ#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ȤƤ狼Ȥꡤ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱Ȥ櫓פ̤ȤϤޤǤʤ֥ƥ礫ΰ̱ˤĤơפޤŪʸϤ Gramley (246) ˤΤǡѤ褦
The English language which the settlers carried along with them was, of course, that of England. The colonists surely brought various regional forms, but it is generally accepted that the largest number of those who arrived came from southern England. Baugh (1957) concludes --- on the limited evidence of 1281 settlers in New England and 637 in Virginia for whom records exist for the time before 1700 --- that New England was predominantly settled from the southeastern and southern counties of England (about 60%) as was Virginia (over 50%). Fisher's figures indicate that 20,000 Puritans came between 1629 and 1641, the largest part from Essex, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, and East Anglia with fewer than 10% from London, and that 40,000 "Cavaliers" fled especially from London and Bristol during the Civil War and went to the Chesapeake area and Virginia (Fisher 2001: 60). The Middle Colonies of Pennsylvania, new Jersey, and Delaware probably had a much larger proportion from northern England, including 23,000 Quakers and Evangelicals from England, Wales, Germany, Holland, and France. Over 250,000 from northern England, the Scottish Lowlands, and especially Ulster settled in the back country . . . . In each of the areas settled the nature of the language was set by speech patterns established by the first several generations.
ꥫ New England ؤΰ̱ˤϡνпȼԤ¿ͿꥫƤ˱Ϥؤϡ륺åȥɡɤΰ̱¿äȤƳǧǤ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Baugh, A. C. A History of the English Language. 2nd ed. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.
Fisher, J. H. "British and American, Continuity and Divergence." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. English in North America. Ed. J. Algeo. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 59--85.
ɸϡ#1701. ꥫؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-23-1]) Ǽ夲ϿޤĤIJ⤹롥
ꥫѸˤϡ17˻Ϥޤ륤ꥹ礫νΰ̱ȡθΥꥫǤΰܽˤ礭ؤäƤ롥ꥹͤˤ륢ꥫؤο̱ϡ1607ǯ Jamestown ηߤ˻Ϥޤ뤬ο̱˷ȤäΤϼȤƥпȼԤäǽԤȤθŪ礭 Jamestown ˤ⤿餵졤˥ꥫ˳Ȥ줿
1620ǯ Plymouth ˤɤ夤 "Pilgrim fathers" ˤ⡤ʤ˽пȼԤ¿äϡԤƱͤˡ褽ħȤƿΦϤäΤǤꡤNew England 濴Ȥϰˤħ夵
1680ǯ夫ϥ䥦륺Υ (Quakers) Pennsylvania Pennsylvania ʤɤؤϡ18ȾФ˥åȥɷϥɿ (Scots-Irish) ¿ήθưϤȤʤäޤ19ȾФˤ¿ΥɿͤꡤؤŸ饤ʳϰ褫äƤ̱ϡɸŪȤ륤ꥹȤƿΦˤäƤΤνΥꥫˤ礿Ȥʤ (Midland dialect) μäΤǤ롥
ꥹ礫ΰ̱νпϤǰƬˡ嵭ޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥ɸŪʥȤпȼԤϡɸѼꥫ New England ؤɸŪʥ륺åȥɡɤνȤпȼԤϡɸѼꥫ Pennsylvania ؤȹ绨Ĥ˿ȡʲϿޤ̤Ǥ롥

Τ褦ʥꥫѸ (1607--1790) ˤ̱θ̤ϡ奢ꥫѸ non-prevocalic /r/ ʬۤˤ褯ȿǤƤȸ롥#453. ꥫѸνˤ r ([2010-07-24-1]) Ͽޤ˼̤ꡤ绨ĤˤäƥꥫιϰǤ car, four ʤɤθ /r/ ȯ롤ʤ rhotic Ǥ롥ϡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) Ǹ褦ˡΥɼϰ non-rhotic Ǥ뤳Ȥб롥ꥫ New England Ǥϡ褽 non-rhotic Ǥ롥ϡɤ濴褽 rhotic Ǥ뤳Ȥ礹롥[2010-07-24-1]ǿ줿Ȥꡤʬۤ϶ȤȤǤϤʤŪϢ³٤
̱ηʬۤˤäƤϡ̱νпϤȷȤƤܤ뤳ȤפǤ롥Ϣơʲε⻲ȡ
#1698. ꥫαѸγȻȤΰŪʥѥ ([2013-12-20-1])
#1699. ꥫȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-21-1])
#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1])
#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1])
#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1])
ε#2241. Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles ([2015-06-16-1]) ˰³UBC Ǥ SHEL-9/DSNA-20 Conference ä;äơʥѸꡥ
ʥѸϡ#313. Canadian English ([2010-03-06-1]) ǤŦ褦ˡŪ American English British English ˵ϤĤǤǯ AmE ؤλָ褦μФ˰ĥ뤫ϡȯʸˡáˡʤɤˤäƤۤʤ뤬ȯˤĤƤϡʥѸϥꥫѸȶ̤ΤۤɤƤȸ롥ΤʤǡBrinton and Fee (426--30) ɸ५ʥѸ (Standard Canadian English; ʲ SCE ɽ) βŪħȤưʲ8˸ڤƤ롥
(1) Canadian Raising: ̵Ҳ [aʊ] -> [ʌu], [aɪ] -> [ʌɪ] Ȥʤ롥äơout and about ϡoat and a boat ˶ʤ롥ͭҲǤϾ夲ʤᡤγƥڥǤϰۤʤ2첻ʹ롥lout/loud, bout/bowed, house/houses, mouth (n.)/mouth (v.), spouse/espouse; bite/bide, fife/five, site/side, tripe/tribe, knife/knives. åȥѼѼMartha's Vineyard Ѽ (cf. [2015-02-22-1]) ʤɤˤƤ⡤褦ʾ夲ϴѻ뤬Canadian Raising ϤȤϴطʤΩѲȹͤƤ롥
(2) Merger of [ɑ] and [ɔ]: 85%ΥʥѸüԤˤߤ븽ݡ19ȾФѲȤ졤General American ǤƱݤѻ롥βѲˤʲΥڥϤƱȤʤäƤ롥offal/awful, Don/dawn, hock/hawk, cot/caught, lager/logger, Otto/auto, holly/Hawley, tot/taught. GA Ȱۤʤꡤ[ɹ] Ǥ [ɔ] ݤäƤȤħ (ex. sorry, tomorrow, orange, porridge, Dorothy) ͻˤĤƤϡ#484. ǿΥꥫѸ첻ͻȿǤ MWALED ȯɽ ([2010-08-24-1]) ȡ
(3) Voicing of intervocalic [t]: 첻˶ޤ줿 [t] ͭ [d] 뤤 [ɾ] Ȥʤ븽ݡ̤ȤơʲΥڥϤ줾ƱȤʤ롥metal/medal, latter/ladder, hearty/hardy, flutter/flooder, bitter/bidder, litre/leader, atom/Adam, waiting/wading. SCE Ǥϡβ¾δĶؤڤǤꡤfilter, shelter, after, sister, washed out, picture ʤɤǤ뤳Ȥ롥
(4) Yod dropping: SCE ǤϡҲθΤ錄겻 [j] κ (glide deletion) GA Ʊͤ s θǤ뤬GA Ȱۤʤ [t, d, n] θǤݻȤȤŪ˼ĥƤºݤˤϡGA αƶǡԤδĶˤƤ yod-dropping ƤƤȤ (cf. #841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1])#1562. Χߤ yod-dropping ([2013-08-06-1]))
(5) Retention of [r]: SCE ϰŪ rhotic Ǥ롥Ūˤ New England β (Loyalists) ˤäƤ⤿餵줿 non-rhotic ѼαƶäϤrhotic ʥꥹ̱ȤȤľܤ⤿餵줿аޤ⤢ꡤԤͥȤʤäΤ
(6) Marry/merry/Mary: ɸ।ꥹѸǤ3첻̤뤬ʥѸȥꥫѸΤĤѼǤϡMary merry [ɛr] ͻ礷marry [ær] Ȥƶ̤2ʬˡǤ롥ˡʥѸǤϱƽѼȰۤʤꡤBarry, guarantee, caramel ʤɤ [æ] 㤯Ĵ롥
(7) Secondary stress: -ory, -ary, -ery ǽ (ex. laboratory, secretary, monastery ) ǡGA Ʊͤˡ2ݤġ
(8) [hw] versus [w]: GA ηƱͤˡwhich/witch, where/wear, whale/wale, whet/wet θƬҲΩƱȤʤ롥
Τ褦˸ƤȡSCE ͭβŪħȤϡGA ȶ̤Τ¿Ȥ狼롥Ͷ̤ƤȤǡʬŪ˿ޤ㤦夲ơʥѸȼФȤȤBrinton and Fee (526) Bailey (161)) Ƹ褦ˡ"What is distinctly Canadian about Canadian English is not its unique linguistic features (of which there are a handful) but its combination of tendencies that are uniquely distributed" ȤȤ
ꥫѸȥꥹѸκˤĤƤ⡤٤ƱȤȻפäƤ롥#2186. Webޥε֥ѥõѸαƺԡס ([2015-04-22-1]) ǾҲ𤷤WEBޥ Lingua شƤǤҤ٤褦ˡŪˤꡤꥫѸȥꥹѸκۤϡñɽλѡԻѤȤƸΤǤϤʤλ٤ΰ㤤ȤƸۤˤפǤ롥Ѥ̵ͭǤϤʤʬۤΰ㤤Ѽ¾Ѽ狼̤ͭʻɸʤΤȻפҲŪʳǰǤѼפˡŪʴ⤦ȤΤǤСΤ褦̯ʺۤդʧȤɬפ
ʸ嵭2015/06/19(Fri) Bailey (162) ϡ٤ΰ㤤Ȥ˥ʥѸνѼ֤δطˤŬѤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥"The most useful perspective, then, is one in which Canadian English is viewed as a cluster of features that combine in varying proportions in differing communitites within Canada." (Bailey, Richard W. "The English Language in Canada." English as a World Language. Ed. Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1983. 134--76.)
Brinton, Laurel J. and Margery Fee. "Canadian English." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 422--40 .
Bailey, Richard W. "The English Language in Canada." English as a World Language. Ed. Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1982. 134--76.
Mesthrie and Rakesh (12--17) ˡ"INTEGRATING NEW ENGLISHES INTO THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE COMPLEX" ꤹϤꡤWorld Englishes 뤤 New Englishes ȤŪʻαѸˤΤȤ館Ƥꡤ
ѸγȻϡͭ˰鸽ߤޤǡ4Ĥ crossings ˤʹԤƤȤ1 crossing ϡ5ȾФޥ̱²֥ƥϤäƤΰܽάؤʳ顤ݥȥ˥뤢뤤ϥݥȥ۵褦ʣαѸѼ¿֡ܿǤ¸ߤƤʣαѸѼȤƤϡ²²塼²ʤɤδ֤̱²Ѽζ̤ܽ餫餢äܽϰѼҲѼȯãߤ줿¿֤ӸܿȤƤϡظȤƤΥȸαƶظȤƤΥƥȤܿ˵ظȤƤθťΥɸȤκʤɤŦ롥ȥˤäƤϡ1000ǯ˱Ѹ˾ƽդɸबȯŸ³ΥޥˤषοϡѸɸѼ "the first decline" ȸƤ٤ (13)
2 crossing ϡѸ1164ǯ Henry II ɤݤΡѸγȻؤΤȤѸ줬ɤذܿ줫̤ȤƤ夹뤳ȤϤʤäषɤο̱ԤϥɤƱƤ椭Ѹ⼺줿ܤϡ#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) Ȥ줿
Ѹ줫ѸˤơѸ˾2ܤνդɸಽưɤˤȯɸѼϡʹߡߤ˻ޤǡѸˤøŪϰ̤Ƥ20äƤΥꥫѼȯŸˤꡤޤ20Ⱦߤ褦ˤʤäɸѼ狼æ뷹ѼĹˤꡤøŪϰ̤Ū˲äƤƤ롥ϰ̤㲼ϡɤδߤСѸɸѼ "a second decline" (16) ȸƤ٤"a second decline" ˤƤϡ"the first decline" ΤȤΤ褦ɸѼ綠ΤΤ䤨櫓ǤϤʤȤդϤޤ¸ߤ³ƤꡤꥫѼ䤽¾ѼȤδ֤Ūϰ̤㲼ƤȤˤʤ
ǡѸʹߤϡˤϤο̱ϻۤŸƤѸγȻˤĤƤϡ#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1]) ϤȤơܥ֥Ǥ¿夲ƤѸϤΥꥹʤȥꥫˤηǤ뿢̱ϼΤȤǡΥ뤳ȤˤʤäΥˤϡȤƤαѸѼ郎üԤȤȤ˰ܿ줿 ("colonies of settlement") ⤢СкŪŪȤ뿢̱ϻۤˤƱѸ줬2Ȥƽ줿 ("colonies of exploitation") ⤢äԤ the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, St. Helena, the Falklands ʤɤΤ ENL ϰ衤Ԥϥեꥫ䥢Τ ESL ϰбʡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1]) ӡ#409. ̱ϲͼǤߤ World Englishes ʬ ([2010-06-10-1]) ȡˡƤο̱ϻۤäƤʤݸΤȤƤϰ̤и Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iraq ʤɤǤϡESL EFL ŪʱѸѼ郎ߤ롥ޤ20ʹߤϱƤο̱ϻۤˤľŪˤϷиƤʤȤ⡤ܡϤϤǡEFL 뤤 ELF ȤƤαѸѼ郎ؤФƤ롥ǤϡѸüԤοưɬȼʤѸ4 crossing äƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤѸ˾ơѸȤ줬üԤ̤ΰưȼ鷺˳ȻƤΤ
Ѹ˾4Ĥ crossings ˤϤ줾˰㤤ߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ݥȥ4 crossing ռǡ crossings ֤ȡѸ˵ҤΤοƶΤǤϤʤλ¤ϡꥹˤ˴ѤȤ̤Ȥ롥
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.
ε#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1]) ǡAAVE ħȵ˴ؤͤ⤷Ѽ֤θŪʺۤϤüԽĤμҲŪʺۤбȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤСꥫǼȤƹͤѤ AAVE ȼȤͤѤ Standard English ˤᤤѼȤθŪʺۤϡꥫιͼҲͼҲκۤɽ路ƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ۤȤϸˤäƤЪΥȤȤ館졤羮ϼҲŪŪǥŪͼŪʴްդĤȤˤʤ롥
Creolist Hypothesis ϡɸѼ狼礭ЪΥƤ쥪줬æ쥪벽 (decreolization) β̤ɸѼ˶ŤƤȲꤷƤ롥ĤޤꡤξѼʤƴްդǤξѼüԽġˤˤϹή (convergence) ƤȤˤʤ롥Anglicist Hypothesis ϡꥹꥫˤ⤿餵졤ѼѼȤ礭2Ĥήؤʬߤ˻ޤǤʬ֤ݤƤΤȤ롥ĤޤꡤξѼʤƴްդǤξѼüԽġˤˤʬ (divergence) ƤȤˤʤ롥
ǤϡߤΥꥫҲˤơŪˤϤɤĬήѻΤƤ뤳ȤҴŪȽǤ뤳ȤϾѼѼʬˤȾ "divergence hypothesis" ŪȤʤäƤ롥Trudgill (60) Ѥ롥
Research carried out in the 1990s appears to suggest that, even if AAVE is descended from an English-based Creole which has, over the centuries, come to resemble more and more closely the English spoken by other Americans, this process has now begun to swing into reverse. The suggestion is that AAVE and white dialects of English are currently beginning to grow apart. In other words, changes are taking place in white dialects which are not occurring in AAVE, and vice versa. Quite naturally, this hypothesis has aroused considerable attention in the United States because, if true, it would provide a dramatic reflection of the racially divided nature of American society. The implication is that these linguistic divergences are taking place because of a lack of integration between black and white communities in the USA, particularly in urban areas.
ŪʻСPhiladelphia ʤɤǤѼǤ첻 [aɪ] > [əɪ] ѲʹƱԻԤιѼˤϤ줬ƤʤAAVE Ǥ̤ɽ魯 be done ʸ (ex. I'll be done killed that motherfucker if he tries to lay a hand on my kid again.) ȼȯãƤƤ뤬ѼˤȿǤƤʤ
ԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) äƤޤȼҲδطɤľŪǤ뤫ȽǤ뤳Ȥ䤹ʤȤͤС¨Ҳ경褦Ȥ뷹ˤϿŤǤʤФʤʤä˥ꥫǤϡꡤͼꡤǥؤȲ䤹ҴŪʸؤδ顤2ĤѼθѲĬήˤ٤ɬפǤ롥ϰפǤϤ뤬
̻ؤˤ divergence convergence ˤĤƤϡ#627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ ([2011-01-14-1]) ӡ#628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ (2) ([2011-01-15-1]) ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
#1841. AAVE ε founder principle ([2014-05-12-1]) ȡ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) Ǽ夲AAVE (African American Vernacular English) ȤϥꥫѸ1ѼȤƤΤͱѸ (Black English) ؤ"Black" "African-American" θƾΤդ路ΤȩοŪʵ˾ƤۤŬڤǤ뤫顤"Vernacular English" θƾΤդ路ΤϡɸѸ (Standard English) ФɸѸ (Non-Standard English or Substandard English) ȸƤ֤ΤϤͥްդƤޤǤ롥Ūˤ AAVE Ȥ̾Τ夷Ƥ롥
AAVE ˤϡʸˡܤ˸¤äƤ⡤ɸѸ˸ʤħ¿ǧ롥ΤȤƤϡʼȤͤˤää˥ꥫ䡤ֳߤαѸȤ륯쥪ȶᤤħȤ롥ꥹ˵ĤȹͤΤʸˡܤ⤢롥Ūˤϰʲ˼ͤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤AAVE ʸˡŪħȤεä2Ĥ⤬ΩƤ롥ߡꥫѸѼ˴ؤȤƤϡܤƤ1ĤȤäƤ褤
1ܤβ Creolist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥ѸեꥫνȤ̤Ȥޤ줿쥪졤뤤ϤѸѼ郎AAVE εǤȤ줬ɸѸȤܿݤĤʤǡɸѸؤȶŤƤĤޤæ쥪벽 (decreolization) ƤȹͤƤ롥ˤȡꥫ AAVE ƤΤϡԤԤ˱ƶͿ롥AAVE ħŪʸùܤΤʤˤϡvoodoo ʥ֡ɥ, pinto ʴ, goober ʥԡʥåġˤʤեꥫͳ褹Τ¿βؤɤȤʤäƤ롥
2ܤβ Anglicist Hypothesis ȸƤФ롥AAVE ħεϥꥹ礫⤿餵줿ѸѼˤȤǤ롥ꥫǹѼѼ郎ۤʤΤϡ300ǯˤ錄ˤΤʤǤ줾줬ȼθѲ뤲ǤꡤξѼߤܿŪʤäǤ롥ѻ߸ιͤذ̱ȡԻԤǤϹѼѼȤκۤݤäưռ졤줾̱²ѼȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤä
Τ褦2ĤβϱԤΩƤ뤬ܤӤƤ AAVE μ礿ʸˡŪħ7褦
(1) 3ñ -s ηǡAAVE üԤ¿ϡhe go, it come, she like ʤ -s Τʤ֤Ѥ롥ѸȤԥ䥯쥪ƱݤߤȤǤ Creolist Hypothesis ͭǥɤ East Anglia ǤƱħߤȤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ˤ⸫ߤ롥Ϣơ#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ⻲ȡ
(2) ߷ˤϢ (copula) be ηǡShe real nice. They out there. He not American. If you good, you going to heaven. Τ褦ʹʸϢξάϡ¿θǤߤ뤬Ȥ櫓ֳΥ쥪ŵŪǤȤ Creolist Hypothesis μĥǤ롥ꥹˤϰڤߤʤħǤꡤǤ Anglicist Hypothesis ϻٻʤ
(3) Ѥ beɸѼΤ褦ˡis, am, are ʤɤȿ;Ѳ be Ȥ롥He usually be around. Sometime she be fighting. Sometime when they do it, most of the problems always be wrong. She be nice and happy. They sometimes be incomplete. ʤɡ(2) Ϣ be ηǡ̷⤹褦ˤߤ뤬be ѤΤϽ (habitual aspect) ɽ魯ȤǤꡤbe ǡȤΩ롥Ѥ be Τ¾αѸѼˤߤ뤬줬ôäƤȤΤ AAVE ͭǤ롥He busy right now. Sometime he be busy. ˴ؤʸˡŪΩƤꡤΩɸѸɽʤСHe's busy right now. Sometimes he's busy. Τ褦ʶˤѤʤ쥪Ǥϻ (tense) (aspect) ʸˡƥȤͥ褵뤳Ȥ¿ᡤѤ be Creolist Hypothesis ˤȤäͭʺȤ롥ˤĤƤСAAVE ǤϡۤˤɸѸŪ I have talked. I had talked. Ȥä˲äλ I done talked. I been talked. Τ褦ߤ롥
(4) 2ܤι¤ˤƽưΤߤά뷹ɸѸǤ We were eating --- and drinking too. Τ褦2ܤǤ we are ޤ뤴ȾάΤ̤AAVE Ǥ¿Υ쥪Ʊͤ are άWe was eatin' --- an' we drinkin', too. ȤΤ̤Ǥ롥
(5) ܵʸˤư֡I asked Mary where did she go. I want to know did he come last night. ʤɡ
(6) ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) there ǤϤʤ it Ѥ롥It's a boy in my class name Joey. It ain't no heaven for you to go to. ʤɡ
(7) ư֡ʿʸȤʿʸΥȥ͡ǡDoesn't nobody know that it's a God. Cant't nobody do nothing about it. Wasn't nothing wrong with that. ʤɡ
1980ǯޤǤγسˤƤ Creolist Hypothesis ͥäʻ¤Τ褦ˤʤˤĤ졤٤Ƥ Creolist Hypothesis DzǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ餫ˤʤäƤ㤨С AAVE ȤƥꥫذܽĤ㤬 Nova Scotia (Canada) Samaná (Dominican Republic) ǸߤäƤѼϡν AAVE ħ¿¸Ƥ뤳Ȥͽۤ뤬Ѥ be ʤɤηŪħ礤Ƥ롥ϡ AAVE ŪħAAVE νäƤΤǤϤʤŪ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ߽Ф
ޤdo otherwise ȤѤˡ AAVE ˤ뤬ɤ East Anglia ˤƱˡꡤ줬ǤȹͤʤAAVE Dat's a thing dat's got to be handled just so, do it'll kill you. East Anglia You lot must have moved it, do I wouldn't have fell in. Ӥ줿
ʳȻפͤϡCreolist Hypothesis Anglicist Hypothesis ŪΩ벾ǤϤʤȤ߹碌ƤȤ館٤ȤȤǤ롥줾βˤäƤŪʤħ⤢СξԤȤȤʤꤦ褦ħ⤢롥ޤºݤˤϴͿƤʤ褦ħ⤢뤫⤷ʤñ˵ƤޤȤϡष
ʾ塤Trudgill (51--60) ȤƼɮ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ε#1698. ꥫαѸγȻȤΰŪʥѥ ([2013-12-20-1]) ǡꥫ濴ϤȤѸγȻˤĤˤ夫鸽ˤƤαѸγȻ濴ϤȤп˥ꥹʤ¸ߤפ⤫֤19ʹߤΥꥫȯγȻ⡤ߤαѸʬۤ礭Ƥ롥
ꥫȯαѸγȻ⡤ڤγͻӤǿʹԤꥹӤΥꥫڳħϡܻؤŪʳǤϤʤƤˤȤɤޤŪʳäǤ롥Τˡ#255. ȱѸˡ ([2010-01-07-1])#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])#1697. Liberia ι ([2013-12-19-1]) εǼ夲 Guam, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Liberia ʤɤΤ褦ˡؤŸ⤢ˤϤΤŪˤŪʳȤߤƤ褤ꥫڳȱѸȻˤˤĤƤϡ#1368. Fennell ǡѸάǯɽ ([2013-01-24-1])#1377. Gelderen ǡѸάǯɽ ([2013-02-02-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ʤɤǿƤ뤬Ȥ櫓ܤǯɽʲ˷ǤGramley αѸˤѥ˥Ρ7Ϥ p. 5 ȴФΤǤ롥
1. The original extent of the US according to the Treaty of Paris at the end of the War of Independence in 1783 extended to the Mississippi River.
2. In 1803 the Louisiana Purchase, the territory ceded to the U.S. by Napoleon for $15 million, doubled the territory of the US, which now reached the Rocky Mountains.
3. First West Florida (1810 and 1813) and then East Florida (1819) were taken from Spain by invasion and the payment of $5 million.
4. Texas, once a Mexican state, then an independent republic run by American settlers since 1836, was annexed by the US in 1845.
5. The Northwest Territory (Oregon, Washington, and British Colombia), claimed by Britain and the U.S. as well as Spain and Russia, was peaceably divided between the former two in 1846.
6. In the Mexican-American War (1846--1848) vast conquered areas in the west (California) and southwest (New Mexico, Arizona) were annexed. The US indemnified Mexico for $10 million. Many speakers of Native American languages and Spanish became US citizens.
7. Further Mexican territory (the Gadsden Purchase, 1853) was acquired for $10 million to ease the building of a rail line to California.
8. The US bought Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million in 1867 (Seward's Folly). The original Inuit peoples are today a distinct minority.
9. The kingdom of Hawaii (formerly known as the Sandwich Islands) became a republic after a coup by Americans living there in 1893. It was annexed in 1898. Today the Hawaiian language is making something of a comeback within a context of a society dominated by StE and Hawaiian Creole English.
10. The Spanish-American War ended with the US taking over numerous territories, some such as Cuba only temporarily, others longer. Today Puerto Rico is a commonwealth, Spanish-language American territory, and Guam in the Pacific, a bilingual territory. The Philippines, for which the U.S. paid Spain $20 million, remained an American colony until 1946. Pilipino is the national language in this very multilingual country, and English is a widely used L2.
19κǽ2/3λΤˡꥫ罰αߤΦء̤ؤڤ礷λˡꥫƤФʴäꤢ19ȾϡHawaii, Guam, other Pacific islands, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, the American Virgin Islands ʤؤʽФκޤǤˤϡˤϿʽФǤפϰ¿ĤƤʤäΤ֤Ǥ롥
嵭 Gramley ˤϡ¾ˤ͡ΰܽȱѸγȻȤδطޤȤɽǡ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
ε#1697. Liberia ι ([2013-12-19-1]) ǡLiberia αѸ줬ꥹѸǤϤʤꥫѸ˴ä֤ƤŪطʤάҤ#376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ ([2010-05-08-1]) ǤŪ˥ꥹѸȥꥫѸαƶˤϰϥꥫѸפȤѸŸ˱ѸŸΰŪʥѥˤĤƹͤƤߤ
̱פʤɤˤ͡ΰưϡ줽ΤΤŪ˹롥ϡgeolinguistics geography of language ȸƤФʬŪ˼갷Ǥ롥19ˤϡѸ濴Ϥϥ֥ƥˤꡤѸ줬̱פˤ̥ꥫֳեꥫȥꥢ˥塼ɡʤɤؤŸƤ19˶ŤȡꥫѸγȻΤ⤦Ĥ濴ϤȤĹƤѸϡ饢ꥫ饹ʥϤᡤֳϥ磻եԥ٥ꥢʤɤؤŸʴϢơ#255. ȱѸˡ ([2010-01-07-1]) ȡˡꥫαѸγȻưǤϡϥꥹξƱͤ˽ž (mercantilism) ڤγ (territorial expansion) ä19ޤǤˤϡ˽ʸȤǤ⥢ꥫȯαѸγ˹
䤬ơNew England ȯƥʥäѸ⡤켫Ȥ⤦Ĥ濴ȤʤȤƤƤγŸ뤳ȤϤʤŪʳȻǤȤɤޤäȻβǿ濴Ϥ߽Ф줿ȤǤϡꥹ䥢ꥫ˼ƤѥѤȤʤѸγȻβޤ줿濴ϤȡΤʤȻGramley (159) οޤͤˡΤ褦ɽ路Ƥߤ

αѸγȻΥѥλǷ֤줿ꥹѸή Jamaica αѸ⡤켫ΤȻ濴ȤʤꡤꥫαرƶڤܤWestern Jamaica 鹭ä Belize, Bay Islands, Corn Islands, Blue Fields, Puerto Limón αѸ줬Ǥ롥ޤAustralia ϡNew Zealand, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Papua New Guinea ؤŸ濴ϤȤʤäSouth Africa Namibia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Malawi ؤŸ濴ϤȤʤäˤѥǤ롥
Ѹϡ¾θȰۤʤꡤΥѥˤΤǤ롥Gramley (159--60) ϡѸγˤĤƼΤ褦ʬϤƤ롥
What we see, then, is economically and demographically motivated expansion and closely related to it, a geographical spread of English to a unique extent. While the other major European colonial powers, Spain, Portugal, France, and The Netherlands, also acquired colonial empires, they differed because they did not establish settler communities which repeated the process of expansion to the degree that Britain did. In the case of Russia there was "merely" what is most frequently seen as "internal" expansion eastward. And the late-comers to the field, Germany, Italy, and Japan, were able to acquire relatively few and less desirable territories and were knocked out of the game at the latest by losing World War I (Germany) or World War II (Japan, Italy).
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
ʸˡʤɤɬФ빽ʸɽ˲ˡλιʸ롥ư줬3ĤФƤʤζʸǤ롥
If I had missed the train, I would have had no chance to see the woman of destiny.
Ǥ had + ʬ줬ᤵ졤Ǥ would have + ʬ줬ᤵΤ§Ǥ롥ξǰۤʤưʤȤ߹碌ˤᤵΤdzؽԤˤȤäƺ𤷤䤹
ؽԤʤ餺ȤѸüԤˤȤäƤʹʸ餫Leech et al. (63) ˤȡAmE ǼΤ褦ʹʸʹȸ롥
If I would have missed the train, I would have had no chance to see the woman of destiny.
ιʸǤϼȽ°ξ would have ȤƱưȤ߹碌֤ƤꡤñǤ롥ƱʸϡDenison (300) ˤɸθѸǤѻȤ
Certainly, non-standard examples like the following are not uncommon, especially where there is some trace of a volitional meaning in would, (595a), or a non-English substratum, though Fillmore regards . . . it as common in current American usage:
(595) a. I think if he would have let me just look at things quietly . . . it would have been all right (1877 Sewell, Black Beauty xxxix. 123)
b. If I would have known that, I would have acted differently.
ޤɸŪʶäΰ۷ʤΤ켫ΤʤȤ100ǯʾˤäʸǤ뤳ȤˤդƤȵ would have done ͭ嵭Τۤhad done ͭѸˤϸ줿parallel structure ؤλָϡ夤ʤ˺ѤƤϤȹͤΤǤϤʤ
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith. Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge: CUP, 2009.
Denison, David. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Ed. Suzanne Romaine. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 92--329.
ꥫѸ "colonial lag" Ϥ뤫ȤˤĤơ[2012-10-14-1], [2012-10-15-1], [2012-10-16-1] 3ˤ錄äơGörlach ʸ˽äƹͻGörlach μĥϡꥫѸɬ褯ۤݼŪǤϤʤȤȤäѸαƺ˴ؤˤƤϡꥫѸݼȤƥ쥪פϳΤ˺դƤ롥ħΤAmerican Speech εǰ٤1ǽʸMcKnight "Conservatism in American Speech" Ǥ롥
McKnight ɤߤʤ顤ݼȤȤ2̤ɬפΤǤϤʤȵդ1ĤϸŤˡĤ䤹뤤ϿˡиˤѤˤȤäṲ̄ˤݼ⤦1ĤϡϽ٤Ȥ̣ǤݼξԤϸߤ˴ط뤳Ȥ⤢뤫⤷ʤܼŪˤ̸ĤΤΤǤϤʤ
Ԥΰ̣ǤϡꥫѸϡGörlach Τ̤ꡤɬݼŪǤϤʤȤǤ롥㤨С#315. ꥹѸϥꥫѸ٤ݼŪ ([2010-03-08-1]) #627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ ([2011-01-14-1]) #628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ (2) ([2011-01-15-1]) εǿ줿̤ǡԤΰ̣ǤϡꥫѸϾʤȤ⥤ꥹѸӤݼŪǤȵǤ뤫⤷ʤ#897. Web3 νǤ50ǯ ([2011-10-11-1]) Ǥ줿̤ꡤꥫѸεϽŻ٤ϤФлŦƤ롥McKnight ä˸Ԥΰ̣ǤݼˤƤ褦
18˵ϼӤ줿ΤϡꥫˤƤǤϤʤꥹˤƤäϥꥫؤ⤹ӲФäơϼĬήȤǤϡƴ֤礭ʺϤʤȹͤ롥ϼĬήΤΤζϤäΩĴסν٤3Ϥ줾̤Ƥɬפ롥ϼĬήϱƤƱ餤⤷ʤϤäΩĴפϡŪˤХꥫꥹϴѤǤꡤ٤ϥꥫΤۤκǸΰ̣ˤơꥫѸϡݼŪפȤ뤫⤷ʤMcKnight (11---16) ȯˡʸˡˤƺꥫѸεϽĥƤ롥
ꥫѸˤȤäƤεϤεˤĤոСƩ§Ȥä (reason) Ǥꡤޤȯ˴ؤƤϽաֻˤǤ롥
The natural order of things was inverted. The living colloquial idiom which should determine the written form was itself governed by the artificial forms of literary use. The writing governed the pronunciation. Sometimes English names such as Warwick, Chatham, Harwich, Lancaster, in American use are pronounced as spelled. At other times, as in Wooster, Warrick, an English pronunciation is provided with a new American spelling. In the same way idiomatic phrasal combinations in which the grammatical relations of the words are not apparent in parsing are replaced by artificial combinations in which the grammatical relations are regular. (McKnight 10)
ۤ˵ϼεȤƤȴѤΩˤĤƤϡ#141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1]) ȡ
Ρݼ (conservatism) ϤФˤʤ뤬ۤʤ٥Ǥݼ̤ƤʤȡΤǤϤʤ
Görlach, Manfred. "Colonial Lag? The Alleged Conservative Character of American English and Other 'Colonial' Varieties." English World-Wide 8 (1987): 41--60.
McKnight, George H. "Conservatism in American Speech." American Speech 1 (1925): 1--17.
Ѹˤ whom οˤĤƤϡ¿θ椬롥ѸǤ褯Τ줿ѲǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ ##622,624,860,301,737 γƵǿƤĤƤ´ˤ⤳äΤ ([2010-12-26-1])
ǶθȤƤϡIyeiri and Yaguchi 롥ϡMichael Barlow ԻAthelstan ͭƤ The Corpus of Spoken Professional American English (CSPAE) ˴ŤǤ롥CSPAE ϡ1990ǯ祢ꥫѸäեѥǡ(1) White House ǤεԲ(2) The University of North Carolina ζ(3) إƥȰѰιȲġ(4) ɲƥȰѰιȲĤΡ4ĤξʬƤꡤΤȤ200줫롥ޤCLAWS7 ǥդƤ롥ϡwhom ϷĥäʸΡä˽դˤƻѤȤ뤬ǤϡĥääդȤĶǤɤٻȤΤȤ䤤뤳ȤǤ롥
Ĵ̤˽Сspoken professional American English ˤƤϡwhom οǤʤΤΡޤ٤٤Ǥϸ롥whom Ķˤ餫ʷꡤֻľˤƤϺǤ褯ݤƤʤδĶǤ who λϳ̵ǤϤʤˡֻ (preposition_stranding) ˤϤƤ who Ǥ롥ޤwho(m) ֻŪǤϤʤưŪȤƵǽƤˤϡ礭ɤ줬롥
ȤƤ whom ȴطȤƤ whom ٤ȡԤΤۤब㤷ΤˡɮԤ Rohdenburg ˤ "Complexity Principle (transparency principle)" ѤƤ롥ϡ"[i]n the case of more or less explicit grammatical options the more explicit one(s) will tend to be favored in cognitively more complex environments" (cited in Iyeiri and Yaguchi, p. 185) Ȥǡwhom εƤϤȡطޤʸǧξʣǤꡤŪʳɸ᤹롤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ҤΤȤꡤwhom οϸѸθѲȤƼ夲뤳Ȥ¿Τ褦ˤĤơreferences ˻ͻޤȤƤΤϤ꤬ޤäեѥλѤˤؿ襤ϢơThe Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English Ȥѥ⻲ȡ
Iyeiri, Yoko and Michiko Yaguchi. "Relative and Interrogative Who/Whom in Contemporary Professional American English." Germanic Languages and Linguistic Universals. Ed. John Ole Askedal, Ian Roberts, Tomonori Matsushita, and Hiroshi Hasegawa. Tokyo: Senshu University, 2009. 177--91.
ֻǤϤʤȯǰŻҡ˼ϤĤ뤬ȯĸˤʤɤŪˤϡҤȤĻȤ꤬äˡܳŪʥꥹȤȤϡڤñʤɤŪŪˤϡäȴؤ˻Ȥ븡ġ뤬ߤǡGrady Ward's Moby ɤǤ Moby Pronunciator ΰ̥ե˴ޤޤƤ롤̵̵¤Ѳǽȯǡ١ The Carnegie Mellon Pronouncing Dictionary ߤˤȯġΥǡ١110935ĤΥȥʤ륢ꥫѸȯǤ3MBʾ夢ǡեˡ
| Phoneme | Example | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| AA | odd | AA D |
| AE | at | AE T |
| AH | hut | HH AH T |
| AO | ought | AO T |
| AW | cow | K AW |
| AY | hide | HH AY D |
| B | be | B IY |
| CH | cheese | CH IY Z |
| D | dee | D IY |
| DH | thee | DH IY |
| EH | Ed | EH D |
| ER | hurt | HH ER T |
| EY | ate | EY T |
| F | fee | F IY |
| G | green | G R IY N |
| HH | he | HH IY |
| IH | it | IH T |
| IY | eat | IY T |
| JH | gee | JH IY |
| K | key | K IY |
| L | lee | L IY |
| M | me | M IY |
| N | knee | N IY |
| NG | ping | P IY NG |
| OW | oat | OW T |
| OY | toy | T OY |
| P | pee | P IY |
| R | read | R IY D |
| S | sea | S IY |
| SH | she | SH IY |
| T | tea | T IY |
| TH | theta | TH EY T AH |
| UH | hood | HH UH D |
| UW | two | T UW |
| V | vee | V IY |
| W | we | W IY |
| Y | yield | Y IY L D |
| Z | zee | Z IY |
| ZH | seizure | S IY ZH ER |
[2010-12-11-1]ε#593. ˤߤäŤ -wiseפ³ԡ
Foster (100) ϡ-wise ϡꥫѸǻϤޤꡤطʤˤ American-German ˡαƶäΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
It cannot be denied that such expressions as 'engineeringwise' are very readily coined in modern English and that this habit comes from America where in turn the astonishingly free use of the ending '-wise' owes something to the equally free application in German of the parallel -weise (as in beispeilsweise 'for example', gastweise 'as a guest', and others). . . . It may well be that the old usage had lingered on in the United States to a greater extent than in the English of Britain, but it can scarcely be doubted that its blossoming forth in the twentieth century was due to a more or less unconscious transference of a German habit, whether on the part of scholars or --- more likely --- of immigrants.
Foster ϡ-wise ˸¤餺ꥫѸˤ¿γŪɽɥĸ줫αƶˤΤǤƤ롥ϡ路 The Changing English Language ΤӤĥȤۤɤǡʸ̤˼ȡꥫѸγʤơΥꥹѸؤšˤϡ硤̣ʸˡ˻ޤǥɥĸˡμ̤ǤϤʤȻפƤۤɤǤ롥
ʸ̤˼뤳ȤϤǤʤѤƶƱɬưפǤʤƱΤˤϡѤƶȤξζŪҤʤƤʤФʤ餺¾˼Ҳ¾ܺ٤ʬäƤʤФʤʤȤ¿Foster ⤹٤ƤˤĤƽʬʾڵͿƵƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡɾˤϿŤˤʤʤФʤʤ
ȤϤ (loan translation) ̣ (semantic loan) ޤ substitution ([2011-10-15-1]) ѶŪɾ褦Ȥ륿פεϡĿŪˤϹǤ롥ҴŪʾڵƤεǤϤʤʾ塤ǰȤäۤ褤Τ⤷ʤ֤αƶˤ importation Τ褦ɽŪ˸ʾθ̤äȤϤȹͤ롥줫αƶˤĤơɾդ٤ᾮɾˤⵤĤʤФʤʤ褦˻פ
ꥫѸˤƳαƶᾮɾƤаޤˤĤƤϡFoster (86--87) Τ褯ޤȤƤ롥顤ȤʤʬȴФ
Writers on the subject of Americanisms have usually made little of the fact that, in the past, millions of Americans have had a foreign language as their mother-tongue, though in fact it is incredible that the language of the country should not have been affected thereby. . . . In other words there has been a natural tendency to see foreign influences as consisting solely in straightforward loan-words from German, Yiddish, Spanish, Italian or whatever the language of the immigrants may have been. / Fortunately there have been some signs in recent years that scholars are becoming rather more aware that foreign borrowing into American speech has been taking place on a larger scale than had been thought.
ѤƱˤϷ夬ĤʤȤ¿ΤŤ˵ȤץФ뤳ȤϽפ
Foster, Brian. The Changing English Language. London: Macmillan, 1968. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970.
ƻ·äƤдñ˼¹ԤǤ̤ȤƤ⤪⤷ѥλȤȤơФ롥θˤĤƤ[2010-03-10-1]ε#317. Ǽʬޥ˥ʥԡˡפdz⤷[2010-09-27-1]ε#518. Singapore English ΥɤСפǤ⥭ФλҲ𤷤
ϤȶʵȤơ(1) ꥫѸФƤˤ⥤ꥹѸŪñϲ(2) ꥹѸФƤˤ⥢ꥫѸŪñϲ FLOB Frown 2ѥѤƼФƤߤξѥˤĤƤ[2010-06-29-1]ε#428. The Brown family of corpora ѾաפȡˡϤΤϡƱ WordSmith KeyWords еǽǤ롥
ξѼθɽߤͤ碌줾쥭 (keyness) ι⤤˾500ФꥹȤΥƥȥեȡˡǤϡ줾줫50ΤߤƷǤ褦٤ƾʸǼ
Q. (1) ꥫѸФƤˤ⥤ꥹѸŪñϲ
A. (1) ʲ̤ꡥ
cent, which, labour, uk, towards, london, per, centre, was, british, programme, behaviour, it, be, colour, britain, defence, favour, royal, there, been, round, bbc, thatcher, sir, mp, charter, nhs, realised, scottish, yesterday, lord, favourite, local, council, recognised, theatre, mr, being, fviii, tory, kinnock, mps, thalidomide, whilst, scotland, churches, should, programmes, parliament
Q. (2) ꥹѸФƤˤ⥢ꥫѸŪñϲ
A. (2) ʲ̤ꡥ
percent, toward, program, programs, clinton, u, bush, labor, s, defense, president, american, states, center, washington, formula, federal, behavior, color, united, black, state, fiber, says, zen, americans, ó, california, congress, zach, san, o, white, presidential, pex, jell, women, treaty, favorite, said, bill, gray, colors, perot, favor, douglass, hershey, quayle, j, n
ˤϡǤϰ̣ΤΤ⤢롥BrE 1 cent ʤɤϲΤȻפ⤷ʤʬ per cent 2ܤȴФ줿̤Ǥ롥AmE Ǥб percent 1̤Ǥ롥¾ˤֻαƺϤ褯ȿǤƤꡤbehaviour, centre, colour, defence, favour, favourite, labour, programme(s) ϸߤΥꥹȤ˸롥
ѹħŤ MP(s), NHS, Parliament, Royal, Scotland, Toryбƹ Congress, Federal, President, State(s), Washington, White (House) ʤɤϡʤۤɤ롥ξѥΥƥǯǤ1990ǯƬʤȾλˤħŤ Thatcher, Bush, Clinton ޤޤƤ롥
ʸˡȤƤϡBrE which whilst ([2010-09-17-1]ε#508. Dracula ˸ whilstפȡˤ̣
ˤƤ⡤줾ɡˤĤۤɤ BrE 뤤 AmE Ǥ롥դˡѼѥѥ餳Τ褦ˤФ줿ɤɤ줯餤ޤޤƤ뤫ˤäơʤ겿ʤΥƥȤ BrE Ū AmE Ū뤤ϤΩ "World Standard English" ˶ᤤȤȤ¬뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
Фˤ֤ˤץϺ³
ε[2011-03-31-1]ǡűѸο²̾ζɽbrethren εˤĤƤڤȴϢƿ²̾줪դ ( analogy ) ⤦ĵ褦brethren Ȥ sister(e)n Ȥʣ롥MED εҤˤ褦ˡѸǤ -(e)n Ϥ̤Ǥꡤ-s ̲Τ brother ξƱʹߤǤ롥դϻΰʤΤǡܺ٤ʥǡäƤ롥ѸǤ⥤ɤǤ -s ͥǤϤλ sister ʣϸ§Ȥ -n 뤤첻θݤƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ ( Hotta, p. 256 )
ơsister(e)n ϸѸĤäƤ뤬brethren Ȱۤʤꡤ̾MˤϵܤƤʤBNC ( The British National Corpus ) ǤҥåȤʤäCOCA ( Corpus of Contemporary American English ), COHA ( Corpus of Historical American English ) ǤϤ줾4㡤1519ȾʹߤˤҥåȤäѤ饢ꥫѸʹ뤳Ȥʬ롥COCA 1ĵ롥Ƥ "CNN Crossfire" ǤֻϰѼԡˡ
Well, you know, I hate to correct you, but you made the same mistake many of your liberal brethren and sisteren, have said in analyzing this dissent by Judge Stevens.
COCA, COHA ξѥη19Τ16ޤǤ brethren and sister(e)n ȤƸ졤˥եѤ졤dear my ԤƤӤλȤ¿brethren Ʊͤ˽ŪȹŪʸ̮ǸƤ褦ꤵ줿ȤƤΤۤʸŪʸ̤⤢Τ⤷ʤϢơOED sister θ5ѤƤ"In the vocative, as a mode of address, chiefly in transferred senses. Also colloq. as a mode of address to an unrelated woman, esp. one whose name is not known."
äѤ饢ꥫѸѤ뤳ȤˤĤƤϡMencken (502) Ƥ롥
Sisteren or sistern, now confined to the Christians, white and black, of the Get-Right-with-God country, was common in Middle English and is just as respectable, etymologically speaking, as brethren.
sister(e)n Ȥʣ˴ؤŪϡḽ奢ꥫѸǤλѤѸη³ȤƤȤ館٤뤤ϥꥫѸDzƤ⤿餵줿ȤƤȤ館٤Ǥ롥OED ˤȡsister(e)n ϰŪʸϸȤƤ16ȾФѤ줿Ȥ롥Ѹ䥤ꥹѸޤĴʤʬʤ(1) brethren Ȥϻ鷺ꤽǤ뤳ȡ(2) brethren ȵӱƧΤǸƤӤʤɸä˹ޤ줽Ǥ뤳ȡ2饢ꥫѸǤκƷȹͤΤǤϤʤѸ츻Ū sister(e)n Ф줿餤顤ѸDzƺ줿ȤƤԻĤϤʤ
sister(e)n ̾μˤϺܤäƤʤ餤Υ쥢ʣbrethren, children, oxen (but see [2010-08-22-1]) Ʊ˻Ĥ뾯 -en ʣ֤Ƥ롥
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Abridged ed. New York: Knopf, 1963.
ε[2011-01-01-1]DZѸ rabbit hare ΰ㤤˿줿ξԤʬŪˤ Lagomorpha ֥ܡפ Leporidae ֥ʡפΰۤʤ°°ƤꡤΤ˶̤ΤǤ뤬ѾϺƱƤ롥㤨Сʬ jackrabbit ֥åפ hare Ǥꡤrock hare ֥פ rabbit Ǥ롥ưʪ̾˴ؤƤϡʬؾθ̩ʳ̾ ( scientific name ) ȴŪѤƤ¯̾ ( common name ) ȤΤˤϴˤطˤ̿̾ʬŪ̩礤嵭Τ褦ʤ ( see [2010-09-20-1], [2010-09-21-1] )
Ѹ rabbit hare þ϶̤ƤΤΡʬ塦־ζ̤ȤϴѤˤƤʬȤƤΤ褤⤷ʤξԤζ̤ѤˤΤǤ뤳Ȥդ뵭Ҥ Mencken (139) ˤä
Zoologically speaking, there are no native rabbits in the United States; they are all hares. But hare to an American normally means the so-called Belgian hare, which is not a hare at all, but a true rabbit.
ΤˤȡƤ rabbit ΰ cottontail ֥勵פ롥ä Mencken "there are no native rabbits in the United States" ϴְäƤꡤ;פ˺ȤκΤŪʬ¯̾ȤƤʤΤǤ뤳ȤξںʤΤǤϤʤ
Mencken ¾ˤ⥢ꥫԤ¸¯̾ꥫŬѤȤưʲƤ롤bay ֥åʤ˻ڡˡ, beech ֥֥ʡʤ˻ڡˡ, blackbird ֡ơե९ɥɥ, Աѡեɥ, hemlock ֡ơեɥꡤԱѡեɥ˥, lark ֥ҥХʤ˻Ļˡ, laurel ֥åʤ˻ڡˡ, oriole ֡ơե९ɥɥԱѡե饤, partridge ֥ޥʤ˻Ļˡ, robin ֡ơեޥĥߡԱѡեޥɥ, swallow ֥ĥХʤ˻Ļˡ, walnut ֥ߥΥʤ˻ڡˡס
ĶλʪؼƤ줬ĶǤȻƤ뤬̩ˤϰۤʤʪؼ褦ˤʤȤѲϡɤθˤⵯꤦ뤳Ȥ ( sign ) ؼо ( referent ) ѲȤݤϡľŪʰ̣Ѳ ( semantic change ) λȤϸƤ٤ʤ̤ȤƤϰ̣ѲƱȤȤ館Ƥ롥褯ΤƤСcar ϼ֡פּư֡פؤỌ̇̄ѲФΤ⡤ŪˤϡưϤȯˤȤʤäƻؼоݤŪʼ֤Ūʼ֤ؤѲȤ˵롥ʪȤˡ˲餫Ƥ¸λؼоݤбŬѤ߽ФϫʤȤΤϡΤ˸άǤ롥դˤСΡְ°פˡפ椨 rabbit hare Τ褦ʸ̩礯̤⤹Τ
rabbit hare ζ̤ʬؼԤǤʤ¤ۤɤۤɤǤ褵ȤȤǯ狼ä
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Abridged ed. New York: Knopf, 1963.
[2010-07-28-1]εǥꥫѸʬҲ𤷤Ȥ˿줿AmE ˤϤΤ BrE ٤Ʊäȹ⤤ͳ͡ҲŪҲŪװˤ롥ͳˤϰʲΤ褦ʤΤ롥
(1) ͡ιΰưܽˤǤ뤳ȡˤꡤ경ϰѼ郎ˤʤ롥Ҳش֤ mobility Ʊͤ˳餫Ǥꡤ경ҲѼ⸽ˤ
(2) θŪʸŪŪطʤä͡ˤ깽Ǥ뤳ȡ줯餤Ρ֤ĤܡפȤʤȡߥ˥ݤ뤿ΤƱŪˤʤ餶ʤ
(3) ͡δ֤˶̤ιŪƱΰռȡ[2010-01-07-1]εǿ줿褦ˡǤ Hispanic ϤĹʤɤ˴ϢƹθŪ¿夷ƤƤ뤬ŪˤϤ national identity ݤıѸ礭
(4) Ūʸѡ[2009-11-24-1]εϤȤ spelling_pronunciation γƵ spelling pronunciation äϤȤ櫓 AmE ˸Ȥ롥ιϤޤŪǤϤ뤬Ф AmE ħȤΤϻ¤Ǥ롥
4ϸߤ˴ϢƤꡤ¾ˤϢװ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤװ줹ͳФС̱ diverse and mobile Ǥ뤳ȤŪͳʤΤǤϤʤ츫 diversity and mobility linguistic homogeneity ̷⤹뤬줬ߥ˥ƻǤȤ1ˤꡤ̷⤬ä롥षdiverse and mobile 餳ŪݤʤФʤʤȤˤʤ롥
ΤȤϡԥθη֤ǰΤʤȯȤǽͤǤ롥ƿͤθŪطʤ礷ƤСߤߴäʿŪʸФȹפʤ¿ƱȤΤϰ츫̷⤷Ƥ褦ǡ¤̷⤷Ƥʤ
Bryson, Bill. Mother Tongue: The Story of the English Language. London: Penguin, 1990. 162.
106ʿˡ7ڡˤʸؤȶ߷ؤǡ̾ Manfred Görlach ιֱ줿߷ؤǤܤ "English in America: the US, Canada and the Caribbean" ǡAmE ˴ؤ diversion conversion 줿
Υ֥Ǥ BrE 椷 AmE ˤĤ͡˽Ƥ褽괬ѸĬή Americanisation ǤȤݤǰոҤ٤Ƥ㤨[2010-04-21-1]εȡˡGörlachˤˤĤƼ䤷Ƥߤ顤衼åѤǤϤޤޤ BrE ήǤȤβäΤˡ衼åѤϤȤƥꥹ̱ϤŪطʤä¿ϰ褬ꥹѸɤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤŪطʤΰۤʤ¾¿ιäܤޤ EFL ȸƤФǤϡѸȤХꥫѸȤȯۤ㤤͡δ֤ˤΤ褦¸ߤ롥Ѹ Americanisation 露ˤߤ錄äƤƤΤϵ褦ʤ
Americanisation ȤɽϡꥫѸȤ1Ĥؤδʼ«̣ΤǤϤʤޤǡȤ AmE αѸѼ˱ƶڤܤƤȤȤǤ롥Ǥ⡤ conversion äƤ褤ǡαѸѼ diversion ⼨Ƥ롥ϰ٥Ǥ ESL Ѽ EFL Ѽ郎ȸƤΤȻפ롥conversion diversion Ʊ˵äƤȤΤϰ츫̷⤷Ƥ褦ɬ⤽ǤϤʤˤϤĤꤦ뤬Görlach ֱǼˤȡäȯȤǤϡָפۤʤȤȤǤ롥¿Ѽ֤ǡäϼ« ( conversion ) ȯȯ ( diversion ) ΤȤΤˡ㤨 BrE Ǹä Americanise ƤƤ뤳Ȥ礤ˤäƤ⡤ȯޤǤ⤬Ʊ٤ AmE ˱ƶ뤳ȤϤʤȤΰ֤ʤɤؤαƶ controversy harass ʤɤ˸Ϥ뤬BrE βηϤŪɤ뤬櫓ǤϤʤȤϸѸǤܸǤ⡤äʸˡϤۤɸѼ˽äƤʤ顤ɤƤ⤪¤꤬ȴʤüԤϤ롥ȯϤФ䤹ȤȤ
ơŪGörlachϡ轵ˤƴ̤ǹֱȥߥʡͽǤʾܺ٤ˡǰʤɤäǤʤΤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤӻȡѤƤäƤʤΤǺܤƤ椭
;̾ηϤˤĤƤϡűѸ ([2009-10-24-1])Ѹ (Chaucer) ([2009-10-25-1])Ѹ ([2009-11-09-1]) ǶɽǤƤ2;̾˾ƤȡűѸǤ þū ֤ʤסñˤ ȝē ֤ʤסʣˤ־塤˶̤ƤѸǤƱͤ thou / ye ñʣζ̤ĤƤξ [2009-10-11-1], [2009-10-29-1]ǿ줿褦 T/V distinction ʿƾΤȷɾΡˤζ̤ʤ֤ꡤŪʣʻȤʬ褷ѸʹߤϿζ̤ζ̤쵤˲ä졤ɸǤ you ͣ2;̾ȤʤäʤΤؤʤΤ褯ʬʤߤǤñʣζ̤ɾΡƾΤζ̤Ĥʤ you ݤǤ롥
ɸѸ˸¤ääǤ롥ɸѼθСѸǤ§Ūñʣζ̤Ĥ褦̾ηϤȯãƤ롥[2010-03-05-1], [2010-03-06-1]Ǹڤ褦ˡñ you Фʣν֤ѤѤѼ郎롥ʲΤ褦ʷ֤ǧƤ롥
yous(e): many parts of North America (esp. New York City and Boston), Ireland, parts of Britain (e.g. Liverpool, Glasgow), Australia, New Zealand
you-uns: upper Southern USA (western Pennsylvania and the Appalachians)
you-all, y'all: Southern US
you guys, youse guys: in a spoken variety (newer innovations than the other dialectal forms)
you folks, you people: in a more formal variety
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Dictionary ΥդλѥȤˤޤȤƤƤ롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 210.
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 168--69.
߷ ⡡رѸˡ١ҡӡ2008ǯ. 125ǡ
Brigham Young University Mark Davies ˤ Corpus of Historical American English (COHA) Ƕᡤ줿1810--2009ǯϰϤʤꥫѸ쥳ѥǡˤ4Ķ緿ѥƤ祳祳äƤ뤬å10ǯڤ٤ФƥդޤǽФƤΤǡ2֤ΥꥫѸ̻ѲĻפΤˤۤʥġϤʤ
äˤ⤷ΤϡߤΥꥹѸȥꥫѸȤǷ֤ˡۤʤäƤ1Фɽ줾줳ΥѥǸƤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĤƤϥꥫѸǤäѤ饤ꥹŪɽȤƤΤ夬ȤȤ˥ꥹȴƤ椯ʤ뤤ϥꥫޤäƤ椯ͻҤ褯ʬ뤳ȤΤȼΤưפͽۤ뤳Ȥ줬ޤ˻Ū˼ΤǶäƤޤΤ㤨СΥ߳´ʸΤ˱ƺĴƤ롥ä BrE in the street AmE on the street ֻκۤܤƤ뤬COHA Ǥ줾ե졼ȸԤȤȤƤƤ뤳ȤȤ
[2010-09-17-1], [2010-09-18-1]Ȥ³ while whilst ˤΤǡ COHA ѤƴϢĴʤäƤߤ奢ꥫѸǤ whilst ϤۤȤɻȤʤꥹѸǤʸȤƸǤ롥ǤϡĤƤΥꥫѸǤϤɤäĤƤϥꥹѸƱͤˤʤ˻ȤƤ夫˻ȤʤʤѸȤʤäȤڽͽۤ롥 COHA dzΤƤߤ "whilst.[cs]" ʽ°³ȤƤ whilst ˤƸȡɤ˰ʲΤ褦ǯٿդȤȤ˽Ϥ롥ʸ̤åʤΤǡĴפȸƤ֤Τ礲̤ȤƤϡwhilst 1810ǯ夫2000ǯޤǤۤ³Ƥ롥ǤŤ1810ǯǤ whilst while ٤ minor variant ˤʤ10081.27Ƥ줬1930ǯˤ5.04ˤޤƤꡤ2000ǯǤϤ鷺1.59Ǥ롥

[2010-09-18-1]ǽи褦 Dracula (1897ǯ) while 14ʤΤФ whilst 95ȤΤϡʸΤˤȤ礭ȤƤ⡤㤷ꥹŪǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ褦
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