Ѹˤ be to do ʸȤΤ롥be ưθ to 줬³ʸǡͽꡤ̳̿̿ᡤǽջ֤ʤ͡ʰ̣ѸؽԵ㤫ιܤǤ롥ʸˡˤĤƤϡ#4104. ʤ He is to blame. He is to be blamed. ȤʤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-07-22-1]) Ǿ줿
Ǥϡbe to do ʸˤϤˡ¤˸Ť餢ꡤűѸǤ⤹Ǥ˾ʤȤֹʸμפȤƳǧ롥űѸǤϹ٤櫓ǤϤʤѸʹߤǤ٤Ūʡֹʸפ餷ΤؤĹƤѸˤƤϡ¾ιʸȥȤۤɤ˰褦ˤʤäĹˤ錄ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) 1ȤäƤ褤
ԸϾʤʤǤ Denison (317--18) βĹˤ錄ȯãûˤޤȤƤ롥
11.3.9.3 BE of necessity, obligation, or future
This verb too is a marginal modal, patterning with a to-infinitive to express meanings otherwise often expressed by modals. For Old English see Mitchell (1985: §§934--49), and more generally Visser (1963--73: §§1372--83). One complication is that the syntagm BEON + to-infinitive is used both personally [158] and impersonally [159]:
[158] Mt(WSCp) 11.3
. . . & cwað eart þu þe to cumenne eart . . .
. . . and said are(2 SG) you(2 SG) that (REL) to come are(2 SG)
Lat. . . . ait illi tu es qui uenturus es
'. . . and said: "Are you he that is to come?"'
[159] ÆLS I 10.133
us nys to cweðenne þæt ge unclæne syndon
us(DAT) not-is to say that you unclean are
'It is not for us to say that you are unclean.'
In Middle and Modern English this BE had a full paradigm:
[160] 1660 Pepys, Diary I 193.7 (5 Jul)
. . . the King and Parliament being to be intertained by the City today with great pomp.
[161] 1667 Pepys, Diary VIII 452.6 (27 Sep)
Nay, several grandees, having been to marry a daughter, . . . have wrote letters . . .
[162] 1816 Austen, Mansfield Part I.xiv.135.30
You will be to visit me in prison with a basket of provisions;
Visser states that syntagms with infinitive be are 'still current' (1963--73: §2135), but although there are a few relevant examples later than Jane Austen (1963--73: §§1378, 2135, 2142), most are of the fixed idiom BE to come, as in:
[163] But they may yet be to come.
ޤȤȡbe to do ʸϸűѸ줫餽˨꤬ߤ졤Ѹ줫ѸˤƤȯã¾ιʸȤȤŪˤƤϤषŪˤñΤѤ褦ˤʤꡤ˻롥
Denison, David. English Historical Syntax. Longman: Harlow, 1993.
Ѹηƻ졦ӵ顦ǾˤԵ§ʤΤĤ롥good -- better -- best bad -- worse --worst ʤɤ佼ˡ (suppletion) ΤΤƤ뤬ϸűѸˤ¸ߤषűѸǤϸ¿Ե§ӵ顦Ǿ餬äSweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer (19--20) ꡤդ٤Τ롥
Ρi-mutation ޤƻӵ顦Ǿ顡
| Meaning | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|---|
| "old" | eald | ieldra | ieldest |
| "young" | ġeong | ġingra | ġingest |
| "long" | lang | lengra | lengest |
| "strong" | strang | strengra | strengest |
| "high" | hēah | hīerra | hīehst |
| Meaning | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|---|
| "good" | gōd | betera, betra | betst |
| sēlra | sēlest | ||
| "bad" | yfel | wiersa | wier(re)st |
| "great" | miċel | māra | mǣst |
| "little" | lȳtel | lǣssa | lǣst |
| Meaning | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|---|
| "formerly" | (ǣr) | ǣrra | ǣrest |
| "far" | (feorr) | fierra | fierrest |
| "before" | (fore) | forma, fyrmest, fyr(e)st | |
| "near" | (nēah) | nēarra | nīehst |
| "outside" | (ūte) | ūterra | ūt(e)mest |
| ȳterra | ȳt(e)mest |
| Meaning | Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
|---|---|---|---|
| "well" | wel | bet | bet(e)st |
| sēl | sēlest | ||
| "badly" | yfle | wiers | wier(re)st |
| "much" | micle | mā | mǣst |
| "little" | lȳt | lǣs | lǣst |
Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer (20--21) űѸο (numeral) 롥 (cardinal numbers) Ƚ (ordinal numbers) γơ롥
| Cardinal | Ordinal | |
| 1(st) | ān | forma |
| 2(nd) | twā | ōþer |
| 3(rd) | þrēo | þridda |
| 4(th) | fēower | fēorþa |
| 5(th) | fīf | fīfta |
| 6(th) | siex | siexta |
| 7(th) | seofon | seofoþa |
| 8(th) | eahta | eahtoþa |
| 9(th) | nigon | nigoþa |
| 10(th) | tīen | tēoþa |
| 11(th) | en(d)leofon | en(d)leofta |
| 12(th) | twelf | twelfta |
| 13(th) | þrēo-tīene | þrēo-tēoþa |
| ... | ... | ... |
| 19(th) | nigon-tīene | nigon-tēoþa |
| 20(th) | twen-tiġ | twentigoþa |
| 30(th) | þrī-tiġ | þrītigoþa |
| 40(th) | fēower-tiġ | fēowertigoþa |
| 50(th) | fīf-tiġ | fīftigoþa |
| 60(th) | siex-tiġ | siextigoþa |
| 70 | hund・seofon-tiġ | |
| 80 | hund・eahta-tiġ | |
| 90 | hund・nigon-tiġ | |
| 100 | hund, hundred, hund・tēon-tiġ | |
| 110 | hund・endleofon-tiġ | |
| 120 | hund・twelf-tiġ | |
| 1000 | þūsend |

59ڡˤ롤Voicy heldio ˤ#1078. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ (3)Ϥޤ饤ǤİˤϡꤲߤΥȤޤƤ꤬Ȥޤ
оݥƥȤϡ˰³Bede ˤƥ蘆줿رѹ̱ˡ (Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum [= Ecclesiastical History of the English People]) θűѸ1Ǥʸϡhellog Ρ#5444. űѸθʸɤ --- 597ǯɤǥꥹȶ۶Ϥޤ ([2024-03-23-1]) ˷ǺܤƤޤΤǡˤʤʤ餪İ
Ԥ Bede ˤĤƤϡheldio #1029. ºե١ --- The Venerable BedeˤƲ⤷ƤޤΤǡ⤪İ
ϡűѸưޤꡤȤ櫓䲾ˡ˿뵡¿ޤޤ괧 the ζޤˤĤƤޤ˽бԤ1֤ޤˤפȿĿФ¢رءȤ note Ȥʤ뵭֥ؤ ϤƤθűѸ(#6 3)ƤΤǡ碌ƤȤ
ޤǤΡ֤ϤƤθűѸץƤޤ
(1) #822. ؤ֤ϤƤθűѸ --- Part 1 with Ͻؤ and ޤˤ
(2) #829. ؤ֤ϤƤθűѸ --- Part 2 with Ͻؤ and ޤˤ
(3) #836. ؤ֤ϤƤθűѸ --- Part 3 with Ͻؤ and ޤˤ
(4) #1030. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ
(5) #1057. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ (2)
(6) #1078. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ (3)
ܲ Part 7 ˸3ͤȤսǤ
ε#5488. Ѹο̾ʤɽ魯ˤμ϶äۤɺʬƤ¿ͤä ([2024-05-06-1]) Ƥ顤ʵ䤬⤫Ǥ롥ΩĸűѸˤϡ̾μѸƱ餤ʬƤ¿ͤäΤ뤤ϡäϼäΤϸˤȤɤޤ餺ʸꡤʸΥȥԥåȤʤ롥
⻲Ȥ Fransson (31) ϡ餯űѸˤϿ̾Ϥäϼäȿ¬Ƥ롥äȸС¿οȤȤ̾ϡΥޥ (norman_conquest) αƶΤȤˡɡѸˤ⤿餵줿ΤȹͤƤ롥
Did this specialization exist before the Middle English period? The trade-names that are recorded in the Old English literature have been collected by Klump (Die altengl. Handwerkernamen). It is noteworthy that these are comparatively few in number; they are chiefly general names of trades, usually not specialized. A great number of the names in the present treatise are not represented there. To infer from this that all these did not exist in OE, is of course premature. The case is that we have no documents from that time in which trade-names are common. Much speaks in favour of the opinion, however, that many names of occupation did not come into existence until after the Norman conquest.
űѸ¿ο̾ʸڤʤȤȤϡűѸ¿οȤʤäȤɬ̣櫓ǤϤʤFransson θΩƤǤϡΤ褦˲ᤷƤ褤ΤǤϤʤȤȤ
Ѹοȡ̾ˤȯޤޤ⤷ơޤ˻פƤ
Fransson, G. Middle English Surnames of Occupation 1100--1350, with an Excursus on Toponymical Surnames. Lund Studies in English 3. Lund: Gleerup, 1935.

418ڡˤ롤Voicy heldio ˤ#1057. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ (2)Ϥޤ饤Ǥİꥹʡˤϡ夲Ƥդޤ
˰³оݤȤʤäƥȤϡBede ˤƥ蘆줿رѹ̱ˡ (Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum [= Ecclesiastical History of the English People]) θűѸ1Ǥ3ͤ60ʬۤɤƤ鷺1.5ʸʤߤޤǤĶɡ⤷ȤȤǤФȻפޤƱƥȤ hellog Ρ#5444. űѸθʸɤ --- 597ǯɤǥꥹȶ۶Ϥޤ ([2024-03-23-1]) ˷ǺܤƤޤ
Bede ˤĤƤϡheldio #1029. ºե١ --- The Venerable BedeˤƲ⤷ƤޤΤǡ⤪İ
ΤˡޤǤΡ֤ϤƤθűѸץƤޤ
(1) #822. ؤ֤ϤƤθűѸ --- Part 1 with Ͻؤ and ޤˤ
(2) #829. ؤ֤ϤƤθűѸ --- Part 2 with Ͻؤ and ޤˤ
(3) #836. ؤ֤ϤƤθűѸ --- Part 3 with Ͻؤ and ޤˤ
(4) #1030. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ
(5) #1057. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ (2)
5ƤμϿˤĤƤϡץߥۿֱͥѸˤء (helwa) Τۤ֡ڱѸˤ #111֤ۡϤƤθűѸȿʲեȡȤƤäƤޤΤǡؿΤϤ helwa ؤ꤯
ǸˡܥбԤϽؤʾء֤ޤˤפȿĿФ¢رءˤĤƤϡʲε
#5445. ϽؤȤhelʤޤȤˡ ([2024-03-24-1])
#5446. ޤˤȤhelʤޤȤˡ ([2024-03-25-1])
Τۤɤꤤפޤܥ6Ƥ⤪ڤߤˡ

325ʷˤθ130ʬ Voicy heldio ˤ֤֡ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤۿޤפ֤֤ϤƤθűѸץǤϽʥեꥹرؤۤˤӡ֤ޤˤפĿ¢رءˤȤȤ3ͤǤϤޤɤͽθűѸ츶ʸϡε#5444. űѸθʸɤ --- 597ǯɤǥꥹȶ۶Ϥޤ ([2024-03-23-1])
˽бͽξϽؤˤϡδؤäƤƼhelǥǤäˤʤäƤޤʲˡޤǤȤǤhelǥȤ˻ֽˤޤȤޤ
ڡkhelfʷѸ˥եˡ
رѸ˿ʹ8ʺǿˤ3ֱ̡Ѹ˥饦פˤơϤܤαѸ˸ԤȤƼ夲Ƥޤʺ Part 1 ǡ Part 2 ³ޤ
ڡYouTube ֤Τۤإͥ
#144. ꥹ̾˥סȡϽؤ
#146. ɿⶵWulfstanΥХؤⶵŪ۸ܿ
#148. ŷⶵջʶϻŪ˥ʤ!?
#150. ܺ긩¼Ѹؼԡphilologistˤǥԥ˥ȾϽؤ裴
ڡVoicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ȥץߥۿֱͥѸˤء (helwa)
#747. Υȥ̡ --- khelf κŵ1ơ
֡ڱѸˤ #5۶Υȥ̡ˤ2
#759. Wulfstan ï --- ϽؤȤ̡1ơۡ
#761. Wulfstan Υ --- ϽؤȤ̡2ơۡ
#763. Wulfstan ⤿餷Ķñ "law" --- ϽؤȤ̡3ơۡ
#765. Wulfstan ΥꥢȥȥåѲ --- ϽؤȤ̡4ơۡ
#767. Wulfstan ȾϤΥꥢҲ --- ϽؤȤ̡5ơۡ
#770. ؤǤαѸ˹ֵ --- ϽؤȤ̡6ơۡ
#773. ϽؤȤοΩ夲ʤ뤫
#783. űѻηإ٥ա (Beowulf) --- ߷ͧǦϽؤȰߤʤ餴Ҳ
#797. ߷ͧ Beowulf ΤȤǤ䤷Ƥߤޤ with Ǧ and Ͻؤ
#799. ̾ץȡΩ夲ǰϿ with Ͻؤڹ¤
#816. ͥåȻθո --- CMC Υˡ
#819. űѸ̾ with Ͻؤ
#822. ؤ֤ϤƤθűѸ --- Part 1 with Ͻؤ and ޤˤ
#825. ˥å͡ǥ֥쥹 --- khelf С4̾Ȥλ̡
#826. ˥å̾͡ץȴ #1ۡˡ
#829. ؤ֤ϤƤθűѸ --- Part 2 with Ͻؤ and ޤˤ
#836. ؤ֤ϤƤθűѸ --- Part 3 with Ͻؤ and ޤˤ
֡ڱѸˤ #45ۥꥺफå --- ϽؤȤ̡
#877. ѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤ (20) Albanian --- ϽؤȤμ¶ѡ
#880. űѸο̾ --- ϽؤȤ̡
#926. ̾դݤϤݥȡ̾ץȴ #2ۡ1211ʷΥˡ
֡ڱѸˤ #90ۤʤθ --- ¤ϽؤȤΰ̡߲
#983. B&C42ʸˡפɼ¶ with ȾϽؤ
#985. ä٤ƿǯ --- ¤ϽؤȤηʵΤ褤̲
#987. ܼ䤹ѸΥܥӥ --- ¤ϽؤȤ̡
#1010. Ѹ˥ in hel եΥˡ
ʰʲ嵭
#1030. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ
֡ڱѸˤ #121֤ۡϤƤθűѸ5ƤΥեȡ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ
#1054. ǯٽΡֱѸ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥå with Ͻؤ
#1055. ܥΥå with ϽؤפΥեȡ
#1057. ֤ϤƤθűѸ with Ͻؤ&ޤˤ --- Bede ɤ (2)
#1060. 5ͤäʸˡ¤߷व˨ҤϽؤδ
֡ڱѸˤ #1245ͤäʸ³ԡ¤߷व˨ҤϽؤδ
#1069. ܥΥå with Ͻؤ --- ΦͿι2
#1070. Ҥ̾ؤؤΰյߤ --- ΦͿι3
֡ڱѸˤ #128ۥѥ凉ݽȤʤޤ --- ΦͿι4
#1071. ̾ȱѸˡץݥཪλ --- ΦͿι5
֡ڱѸˤ #130۾ϽؤξؤǤˤĤơ
#1075. ָűѸˤ̾ --- Ҳ˸Ʊ̾Ȥ --- ϽؤΥȯɽȡ
ʸ嵭ޤǡ
äơ hellog Ǥ ogawashun ΥΤȤǾϤ夲Ƥޤ
ʾ塤ĤġϤƥĤDZѸˤؤǤ
731ǯӡ (뤤ϥ١Bede [673--735]) ˤƥ蘆줿رѹ̱ˡ (Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum [= Ecclesiastical History of the English People]) ϡ奤ɻˤŤʥƥȤǤ롥˥եå粦 (849--99) λؼΤȤǸűѸƤ롥
597ǯޤνƻΤǡ˥٥νʶȤʤ St. Augustine (?--604) ɤ۶ˤäƤɻ˾夭ƽʤǯ˵äˤĤơBede θűѸǤɤǤߤʲѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable (pp. 58--60) ˷ǺܤƤűѸ츶ʸƸ롥
Ða wæs on þā tīd Æþelbeorht cyning hāten on Centrīce, and mihtig: hē hæfde rīce oð gemǣru Humbre strēames, sē tōscādeþ sūðfolc Angelþēode and norðfolc. Þonne is on ēasteweardre Cent micel ēaland, Tenet, þæt is siex hund hīda micel æfter Angelcynnes eahte. . . . On þyssum ēalande cōm ūp sē Godes þēow Augustinus and his gefēran; wæs hē fēowertiga sum. Nāmon hīe ēac swelce him wealhstodas of Franclande mid, swā him Sanctus Gregorius bebēad. And þā sende to Æþelbeorhte ǣrendwrecan and onbēad þæt hē of Rōme cōme and þæt betste ǣrende lǣdde; and sē þe him hīersum bēon wolde, būton twēon he gehēt ēcne gefēan on heofonum and tōweard rīce būton ende mid þone sōþan God and þone lifigendan. Ðā hē þā sē cyning þās word gehīerde, þa hēt hē hīe bīdan on þæm ēalande þe hīe ūp cōmon; and him þider hiera þearfe forgēaf, oð þæt hē gesāwe hwæt hē him dōn wolde. Swelce ēac ǣr þǣm becōm hlīsa tō him þǣre crīstenan ǣfæstnesse, forþon hē crīsten wīf hæfde, him gegiefen of Francena cyningcynne, Beorhte wæs hāten. Þæt wīf hē onfēng fram hiere ieldrum þǣre ārǣdnesse þæt hēo his lēafnesse hæfde þæt hēo þone þēaw þæs crīstenan gelēafan and hiere ǣfæstnesse ungewemmedne healdan mōste mid þȳ biscope, þone þe hīe hiere tō fultume þæs gelēafan sealdon, þæs nama wæs Lēodheard.
Ðā wæs æfter manigum dagum þæt sē cyning cōm tō þǣm ēalande, and hēt him ūte setl gewyrcean; and hēt Augustinum mid his gefērum þider tō his sprǣce cuman. Warnode hē him þȳ lǣs hīe on hwelc hūs tō him inēoden; brēac ealdre hēalsunga, gif hīe hwelcne drȳcræft hæfden þæt hīe hine oferswīðan and beswīcan sceolden. . . . Þā hēt sē cyning hīe sittan, and hīe swā dydon; and hīe sōna him līfes word ætgædere mid eallum his gefērum þe þǣr æt wǣron, bodedon and lǣrdon. Þā andswarode sē cyning and þus cwæð: "Fæger word þis sindon and gehāt þe gē brōhton and ūs secgað. Ac forðon hīe nīwe sindon and uncūðe, ne magon wē nū gēn þæt þafian þæt wē forlǣten þā wīsan þe wē langre tīde mid ealle Angelþēode hēoldon. Ac forðon þe gē hider feorran elþēodige cōmon and, þæs þe mē geþūht is and gesewen, þā þing, ðā ðe [gē] sōð and betst gelīefdon, þæt ēac swelce wilnodon ūs þā gemǣnsumian, nellað wē forðon ēow hefige bēon. Ac wē willað ēow ēac fremsumlīce on giestlīðnesse onfōn and ēow andleofne sellan and ēowre þearfe forgiefan. Ne wē ēow beweriað þæt gē ealle, ðā þe gē mægen, þurh ēowre lāre tō ēowres gelēafan ǣfæstnesse geðīeden and gecierren."
ܲBaugh and Cable αѸ˽ A History of the English Language 1᤺ǫɤǤ饤ɽ Voicy heldio ŸǤͭۿǤ1ץϻİġˡ˰ѤűѸ츶ʸޤޤƤΤ47ǡäֱѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤ (47) The Language IllustratedǤǤϾ嵭θűѸ츶ʸϡʤĹ˲⤹Τ䰦Ƥޤ
䤦٤325ʷˤθ130ʬ heldio ˤۿޤϽʥեꥹرؤۤˤӡ֤ޤˤפĿ¢رءˤȤȤˡ֤ϤƤθűѸץΰĤȤƤ̴Ǥ嵭θűѸ츶ʸϡͽѤȤƷǤǤڤߤˡ

Bede θűѸθʸȤƤϡۤˤ#2900. 449ǯͤˤ֥ƥ翯ά ([2017-04-05-1]) ȡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ε#5442. إ饤ȥϥ¼ŵ7ǡ٤Ͽ֤ĤŤȯס ([2024-03-21-1]) ǡֿפ̣ư blow θѸǤγѤȤȯ˿줿Ȥ櫓 blew ֤ä /bluː/ ȯդ¥ᤰäơ֤ Voicy heldio Ǥ夲ƤΤǡİ褷ƤС
#1023. new ϡ֥˥塼פ̡֥פ --- ѲȸóȻ
#1025. blow - blew ֥֥롼 - blown
#1026. ʤ now know ȯ㤦Ρ
blow ϸűѸˤƤ϶Ѳư7°ưäƱ7°Ӥ٤ưȤ know, grow, throw 롥ơѸ know - knew - known; grow - grew - grown; throw - threw - thrown Τ褦 blow Ȥ褯Ѥ4ưˤĤơűѸǤ4ޤȤƤ4ʤɸűѸ춯Ѳưξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ#2217. űѸ춯ѲưΤޤȤ ([2015-05-23-1]) #42. űѸˤϲθ촴ढä ([2009-06-09-1]) ȡˡ
| 1 | 2 | ʬ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| "blow" | blāwan | blēow | blēowon | blāwen |
| "know" | cnā_wan | cnēow | cnēowon | cnāwen |
| "grow" | grōwan | grēow | grēowon | grōwen |
| "throw" | þrāwan | þrēow | þrēowon | þrōwen |
ѸˤǤϡؼ that 괧 the ʬΩǤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥űѸ괧ʵŪˤϻؼǤꡤޤ괧ȤƤˡǤ˳ΩƤϤʤäص夳Τ褦˸ƤǤˤ se ʤ˱ƶޤ͡ʷ֤äΤʤñʡгʤη֤ þæt ä줬Ѹλؼ that η־Ǥ롥θűѸλ˴դߤȡthat the 1֤ˤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
Ǥϡʤθ that the ֥롼פȴФΩؼȤȯãΤűѸ줫Ѹˤơ괧͡ʶ֤ the ȤƱ֤ؤȿʿƤäή줬³Сthe 1ˤʤ that 䤬ƾä椯̿ǤϤäȤthat ϻؼȤ̤εǽä椯̿æ뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥ΤˤСȤ the ȤˤؼεǽϤäȤˡλؼεǽ the å褦ˤ that ΩȤȤĤޤꡤؼ that εǽ the ߤƤȤˤʤ롥θ塤¸ΡֶΡפλؼ this ȤʬĴ˿ʤߡthat ϡֱΡפλؼȤƳΩ˻ä
Fertig (37--38) ϡΰϢθѲŬ (exaptation) λȤƾҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
A simple example can be seen in the modern survival of two singular forms from the Old English demonstrative paradigm: the and that. The contrast between these two forms originally reflected a gender distinction; that (OE þæt) was an exclusively neuter form, while the predecessors of the were non-neuter. One would expect one of these forms to have been lost with the collapse of grammatical gender. They survived by being redeployed for the distinction between definite article (the) and demonstrative (that).
ؼ that ȯãȴϢơʲ heldio hellog ΥƥĤȡ
heldio #493. ؼ this, that, these, those θ츻
hellog #154. űѸη se ζޡ ([2009-09-28-1])
hellog #156. űѸ se ʻϲ ([2009-09-30-1])
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
Hogg and Fulk (202--203) Ȥơޥĸ (Proto-Germanic) ȸűѸ (Old English) 1;ñ̾γʶޤ¤٤Ƽ
| PGmc | OE | |
|---|---|---|
| Nom. | *ik | iċ |
| Acc. | *mek | mē |
| Gen. | *mīnō | mīn |
| Dat. | *miz | mē |
ɽκ¦ PGmc γƶޤˤƱ¦ OE η֤ѲˤϤʣ (analogy 䲻Ѳ (sound_change) 䤽¾βƯƤȤHogg and Fulk (203) βΤޤްѤ褦
nom.sg.: *ik must have been the unstressed form, with analogical introduction of its vowel into the stressed form, with only ON ek showing retention of the original stressed vowel amongst the Gmc languages (cf. Lat egō/ǒ).
acc.sg.: *mek is the stressed form; all the other Gmc languages show generalization of unstressed *mik. The root is *me-, with the addition of *-k borrowed from the nom. The form mē could be due to loss of *-k when *mek was extended to unstressed positions, with lengthening of the final vowel when it was re-stressed . . . . More likely it represents replacement of the acc. by the dat. . . . as happened widely in Gmc and IE . . . .
gen.sg.: To the root *me- was added the adj. suffix *-īn- (cf. stǣnen 'made of stone' < *stain-īn-a-z . . .), presumably producing *mein- > *mīn- . . . . To this was added an adj. ending, perhaps nom.acc.pl. neut. *-ō, as assumed here.
dat.sg.: Unstressed *miz developed in the same way as *hiz . . . .
ǸΤȤ PGmc *miz ˤ OE mē ˤʤäΤˤĤơHogg and Fulk (198) ȤƤϤ礦3;ñʤ PGmc *hiz OE *hē ȯãΤʿŪȯãȤ*hiz z ˤ벼θ̤ *hez Ȥʤꡤ˸Ҳ rhotacism Ф *her Ȥʤä˾ü *he ȤʤꡤǸ˶ȤĹ첻 hē ˻äȤ롥
;̾Ϲ٤εǽȤƶȼθؤ㤷Ȥ⤤뤷˿ȼޤ³Ȥ⤵롥嵭βѤǤ⡤Ӹؤʬ롥Ϣơʲε⻲ȡ
#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])
#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1])
#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1])
#3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])
#3776. ǽζȼ岻 (2) ([2019-08-29-1])
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
26ʲС˸4Ⱦ Voicy heldio ˤ#983. B&C42ʸˡפɼ¶ with ȾϽؤǤϤޤBaugh and Cable ˤѸˤθŵŪ̾ A History of the English Language 6ǡˤɤ륷ΰĤǤ̥ȤȤʳءˤϽؤʥեꥹرؤۤˤơɼ¶ѤȤƤϤޤ嵭ϡ̾ۿǥȤƸΤǤ60ʬ֤ĹǤҤ֤ΤȤˤİ
25ʷˤˤϡ hellog ǤͽԤȤʤ뵭#5397. ʸˡΡפͤ --- Baugh and Cable αѸˤ ([2024-02-05-1]) ޤεǤϺܤ42 "Grammatical Gender" θʸǺܤƤޤΤǡįʤ餪İФȻפޤϡѸˤˤ (gender) ܤפʵؤΥĥäƤޤ
ۿİƤäꥹʡ umisio ޤȤΡȤäΥڡǸƤޤͽΤȤˤȤ

heldio B&C αѸˤɤ륷ΥХåʥСϡ#5291. heldio ΡֱѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤץĴ˿ʤǤޤ ([2023-10-22-1]) ǤޤȤƤޤ264ᤢܤ42ˤ褦䤯ɤ夤ȤǤΤǡޤޤǤˤϸɤǤޤޤΤǡΥ饤ɥˤäСޤʲΥƥꤷƤ

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ǯ7꽵12Υڡ Baugh and Cable αѸˤθŵŪ̾ A History of the English Language 6ǡˤɤ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ǤΥʤƤޤ1200ߤͭۿȤʤäƤޤ1ץ˴ؤƤϤĤǤİĤǤޤȤɤƥȤʤ̵ΰۿԤʤäƤޤޤǤΥХåʥСϡ#5291. heldio ΡֱѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤץĴ˿ʤǤޤ ([2023-10-22-1]) ˤޤȤƤޤΤǡǧ

ޤǤ41СƤޤܲűѸ3ϤäƤޤ夲42 "Grammatical Gender" ϡűѸ̾˳ǧʸˡΡסʤʸˡ (gender) ܤޤʲƱΥƥȤǺܤƤޤʤǤܽꤷƤΤ٥ȤǤˡ
42. Grammatical Gender. As in Indo-European languages generally, the gender of Old English nouns is not dependent on considerations of sex. Although nouns designating males are often masculine, and those indicating females feminine, those indicating neuter objects are not necessarily neuter. Stān (stone) is masculine, and mōna (moon) is masculine, but sunne (sun) is feminine, as in German. In French, the corresponding words have just the opposite genders: pierre (stone) and lune (moon) are feminine, while soleil (sun) is masculine. Often the gender of Old English nouns is quite illogical. Words like mægden (girl), wīf (wife), bearn (child, son), and cild (child), which we should expect to be feminine or masculine, are in fact neuter, while wīfmann (woman) is masculine because the second element of the compound is masculine. The simplicity of Modern English gender has already been pointed out as one of the chief assets of the language. How so desirable a change was brought about will be shown later.
ʸˡ˴ؤ hellog Ǥ gender Υդ¿εǼ夲ƤޤΤʤä˽פʵؤΥʲĥäƤޤ
#25. űѸ̾(1) ([2009-05-23-1])
#26. űѸ̾(2) ([2009-05-24-1])
#28. űѸ˼Ϥʤä ([2009-05-26-1])
#487. ʰʸˡ ([2010-08-27-1])
#1135. ĸʸˡε ([2012-06-05-1])
#2853. ˤȿʹ֤ʬե ([2017-02-17-1])
#3293. űѸ̾ ([2018-05-03-1])
#4039. ˤȤϥեǤ ([2020-05-18-1])
#4040. ָȿǤƤʹ֤ʬեפεåȡ ([2020-05-19-1])
#4182. ָפΥơޤι ([2020-10-08-1])
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
̾ץȡ (name_project) ȤδϢǡѸο̾ (personal_name)Ȥ櫓 (last name) "by-name" 뤤 "family name" ˴ؿƤ롥űѸѸˤߤ by-name εϡClark (567) ˤ4ढʤѸ˸¤餺褽Ūʬˡ
(a) familial ones, viz. those defining an individual by parentage, marriage or other tie of kinship
(b) honorific and occupational ones (categories that in practice overlap)
(c) locative ones, viz. those referring to present or former domicile
(d) characteristic ones, often called 'nicknames'
Τ (b) ̾̾̾ȤȤ館뤬Ѹˤ뤳̾ȤƤλѡ by-name ȤžѤ줿ܤƤ롥Ѹο̾¿뤬Clark (570--71) ȤĤġ츻ŪŪʬहȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ
1. եʤ뤤ϥƥ졩ˤμѸ (French loanword)
barber, butcher, carpenter, cordwainer/cordiner, draper, farrier, mason, mercer, tailor; fourbisseur, pestour
2. (native word)
A. ñ (simplex)
cok, herde, smith, webbe, wrighte
B. ʣǸ (complex)ʤʣ
a. ư١
bruere/breuster, heuere, hoppere/hoppestre; bokebynder, bowestrengere, cappmaker, lanternemaker, lymbrenner, medmowere, rentgaderer, sylkthrowster, waterladestre
b. ̾١
bureller, glovere, glasier, madrer, nailere, ropere, skinnere; burelman, candelwif, horseknave, maderman, plougrom, sylkewymman; couherde, swynherde, madermongere, stocfisshmongere, ripreve, bulleward, wodeward, wheelewrighte
Ѹο̾ᤰˤĤƤϡʲ hellog Ǥ夲ƤΤȡ
#590. last name ϤĤ̳Ūˤʤä ([2010-12-08-1])
#2365. ΥޥαѸ̾κѡ ([2015-10-18-1])
#5231. űѸο̾ˤϲȷϤɽ魯 (family name) Ϥʤäɡ ([2023-08-23-1])
#5297. űѸ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-28-1])
#5338. Ѹ˿̾ˤ⤿餵줿2ĤοȤλ ([2023-12-08-1])
#5346. Ѹ˱Ѹ̾Ƴ줿طʡ ([2023-12-16-1])
#5299. Ѹ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-30-1])
Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Ed. Olga Fischer. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 542--606.
ɤγʬǤ褯뤳ȤӸؤˤƤȤˤ̤ʤतνѸ¿ɸ˷ǤѸ줬ŵϢϡ#700. 졤ǡܼ캬촴ʣ졤Ρ ([2011-03-28-1]) Ǽ夲ǵΰʾòؽѸȤ롥
줾 word ָ, root ָ캬, stem ָ촴, theme ָ촴ǡ, ending ָפ뤬Ϳ줿ޤ櫓ǤʤϰĸˤʲηŪʬϤȤʤäƤ롥
ROOT
STEM
THEME
WORD
ENDING
ROOT ϸỤ̄ôʬǤ롥THEME ϤȤϲ餫ʸˡŪǽôäƤǽ뤬Ǥ˰ĸʳˤợôʤʸ촴ǤȤƵǽƤľζ ENDING ؤΡ֤ĤʤפȹͤƤФ褤ROOT + THEME STEM Ȥʤꡤ ENDING ղäơŪ WORD θȤʤ롥
㤨Сϡפ̣ƥñʷ equus equ (ROOT) + u (THEME) + s (ENDING) ʬϤ졤Ʊꥷ hippos hipp (ROOT) + o (THEME) + s (ENDING) ʬϤ롥
űѸʹߤŪʳˤäƤϡĸˤ嵭ηŪʬϤǤƩ礭ROOT, THEME, ENDING ߤͻ礷ƤޤäƤ뤳Ȥ¿äơ嵭ϸ̩ˤжŪʬϤˤԸ̻ŪŪˤ̣ͭǤ뤷Ӹؤʬˤ봷ŪȤʤäƤ뤿ˡűѸʸˡʸ̮ǤʤۤȤʤʤޤޤˡȤƤ뤳Ȥ¿
ʤTHEME ˤ첻ȻҲꡤޥĸűѸ̾ˤơԤϡֶѲ̾סԤϡּѲ̾פ̾Τ롥THEME 礯 "athematic" ʤ¸ߤΤդפ롥
ʾ塤Lass (123--26) ȤƼɮ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
#5356. ܹ NewsPicks ΥȥԥåRPGΤΤˡס ([2023-12-26-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ܹΩ̿ءˤˤRPGΤΤˡǤϡȿƤƤޤո줿ǿRPGϡ֥ޥƥåס---Τ줶ޥˤɳ①Ǥroman, romance, romantic ʤɤθ츻⤵Ƥޤ
1ε֡إեʥ롦ե٤̲---RPG̤ʪ⤪⤷Ǥ

εǤ J. R. R. Tolkien κʤо줹 Middle-earth ĹˤˤĤơϢ֥ߥåɥפȤȤ˸ڤʤƤޤ
֥ߥåɥפϡFFVII٤о줹ʳʸαɤԻԤǡΥͥ륮Ծֿۤ奫ѥˡפȤȤܵϤǤŤͥإӥ롤ϧȸƤФȯŻߤʤɡ̤ʤޤŤοȤΤĤʤ뤳ȤưפǤϤޤ֥ߥåɥפȤ餫˸Ť̲֥ߥ륺ס"Miðgarðr" 줿Τǡ̲äˤʹ֤νޤΰؤޤʵͥߥΤޤӤǺ줿ְϤסˡߥåɥ˱˾άϡֿʹ֡פΰ̤ȴؤޤԻԤιѤ˲ȤäȡŸʤɤäȽŤʤ礤ޤʤJ.R.R.ȡ륭إۥӥåȡ٤ػʪ٤֥ߥɥ롦ס"Middle-earth"Ĺסˤϥߥ륺θѸǤǤ̲ȥɤο̱͡²Ū롼Ĥ϶̤ʥޥ͡ˤؤ̤뤿ᡤ̲äϱѸüԤθζʪǤ⤢ΤǤ
Middle-earth ͳ˾ܤĴ٤ƤߤȡɤťΥɸ miðgarðr Ȥ̯ʤͤδطˤ褦ǤԤϡűѸ2ָ̱ۤ츻 (folk_etymology) ˤѷơηˤɤĤƤΤǤ
űѸˤϡפ̣ middangeard Ȥ줬ޤ˼ "mid(dle)" + "yard" ȤǡϡפۤɤǤϸťΥɸ miðgarðr θȤפޤ
ȤǤ˸űѸ middangeard 2Ǥ geard פǤϤʤλ eard ָζĹפȼ㤨졤־κ𤬵ޤ1ָ̱츻ˡѸˤʤȡ٤Ϥ eard Ϥ褯 erthe (> earth) ϡפȼ㤨ޤ2ָ̱츻ˡʤߤŪ2ǤȤѤƤ嵭3Ĥθϡߤ˸츻Ūˤ̵طǤ
Middle-earth ָ̱츻ˤ2ΤҤͤ˴ؤƤϡFertig (60) Ƥޤ
The compound middle earth (re-popularized but by no means invented by Tolkien) can be traced back to early Middle English middelærde and OE middangeard and midanærd. Comparison with related words in other older Germanic languages, such as Old Saxon middilgard, Old High German mittilagart and Old Norse miðgarðr suggests that the second element originally corresponded to the Modern English word yard. We then see two successive folk-etymological identifications of this element, first with the Old English word eard '(native) land, home', then later with earth.
ʤָ̱츻פȤѸȤθƾΤᤰäƤϡ#5180. ֳؼԸ츻פȡָ̱츻פ餿õ츻פȡֲ츻 --- ץߥꥹʡۿֱͥѸˤء (helwa) κǿ ([2023-07-03-1]) ȤƤС
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
128ʶˤˡʳؤȤȤˡBaugh and Cable αѸ˽Ρɼ¶ѡפ Voicy heldio/helwa ۿޤȾȸȾ碌2ּǻ̩ʤ٤ɽȤʤޤ饤Ǥİ¿Υꥹʡ˴դޤ꤬Ȥޤ
оݤȤʤäΤϤƱ32 The Germanic Conquest ʥޥˤǤŪ˱ѸˤγϤȤ449ǯȤν˥եޤ̳Ƥ Taku ȤȤˡԤαʸӹĤġƤˤĤƤʤ٤겼ƵޤαʸƥȤϡͽ#5335. ֥ޥ --- Baugh and Cable αѸˤס[2023-12-05-1]ˤ˷ǺܤƤޤ
(1) #922. ѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤ (32) The Germanic Conquest --- Taku Ȥμ¶ѡȾˡ
(2) ֡ڱѸˤ #65۱ѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤ (32) The Germanic Conquest --- Taku Ȥμ¶ѡʸȾˡ12ʬΥץߥꥹʡۿֱͥѸˤء (helwa) ˴ޤޤͭۿǤ
ɼ¶ѤİˤʤäơΥ饤ɥ˴ؿäϡܽꤷäɤƤФȻפޤְ㤤ʤɽǤۿΥХåʥСϡ#5291. heldio ΡֱѸˤθŵŪ̾ Baugh and Cable ɤץĴ˿ʤǤޤ ([2023-10-22-1]) ꤴǧ⽵12Υڡǥ³Ƥޤ

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
#5299. Ѹ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-30-1]) ǡClark ˵äơűѸ줫Ѹˤƿ̾Τ礭ѤäȤǧcf. #5297. űѸ̾ؤѸηϡ ([2023-10-28-1])ˡ(1) ĤƤ "idionym" "baptismal name" ؤƤƤäȡ (2) ץä "by-name" ˸Ū "family name" ؤȯŸƤäȤ2פǤ롥
Ѹ̾οȤ⤤뤳2ѸΤɤΤ餤Υߥ塦ΩΤΤ˽Ҥ٤뤳ȤϤǤʤޤǽȯŸħClark (552) ϡ1ܤ1250ǯ2ܤ1450ǯȤߤƤ롥
This twofold shift in English personal naming was a specifically Middle English process. Among the mass of the population, the name system of ca 1100 was still virtually the classic Late Old English one, modified only by somewhat freer use of ad hoc by-names . . .; but ca 1450 a structure prefiguring the present-day one had been established, with hereditary family names in widespread use, though not yet universally adopted. As for the ousting of pre-Conquest baptismal names by what were virtually the present-day ones, that had been accomplished by ca 1250. This series of changes involved several convergent processes.
绨ĤˤС1ܤοϽѸ (1100--1300) δ֤˸ǤޤäƤ2ܤοϼ˸Ѹ (1300--1500) ȯŸƤäȸŪ̾դ鸽Ū̾դؤѲ濴Ȥʤϡۤܤ줤Ѹ (1100--1500) ȤäƤƤ褤Ȥˤʤ롥
Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Ed. Olga Fischer. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 542--606.
ǯβƤΩ夲̾ץȡ (name_project) ΰĤȤơ̾ (onomastic) ʸɤൡ¿ʤäƤ롥 hellog Ǥ⡤Clark ȤƸűѸ̾ؤ˴ؤϤƤ
Clark ʸκǸǤ롥Ѹ̾ؤ椷褦Ȼפä顤μȳи礬롤ȤΤȡʡḷȡˤߤƤΤäޤɤǤƱѸ̾ؤؤδؿʲĤ줿ɼԤκǸΤܤˤơ֤䡼פȤʤʤȡ餬ҥҥ䤹ۤɤǤ롥
Because lack of context makes name-etymology especially speculative, any opinion proffered in a survey or a name-dictionary must be considered critically, as basis for further investigation rather than as definitive statement. Anyone wishing to pursue historical name-studies of either sort seriously must, in addition to becoming conversant with the philology of the relevant medieval languages, be able to read Medieval Latin as well as modern French and German. Assessing and interpreting the administrative records that form the main course-material is the essential first step in any onomastic study, and requires understanding of palaeographical and diplomatic techniques; competence in numismatics may on occasion also be needed. Onomastic analysis itself involves not only political, social and cultural history but also, when place-names are concerned, a grasp of cartography, geology, archaeology and agrarian development. Any student suitably trained and equipped will find great scope for making original contributions to this field of study.
ΥѡޥǤʤȱѸ̾ؤθ̳ޤʤ
Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 452--89.
űѸ̾2Ǥʤ (dithematic) ¿ä2Ǥˤϡ¼סĮפʤɤΰ̾ (generic) 뤳Ȥ¿⤽ͭ̾ϲ䤹Ȥ櫓2ǤϸбΤǼ岽䤹ȡ-ham ¼פʤΤ -hem ֱפʤΤ -holm ֲߡפʤΤŪ˶̤ˤʤäƤ롥-bearu Ωס-beorg ͡ס-burg/-byrig/-borough ֻԡפˤĤƤƱȤʥåǶڤ줿3Ĥΰ۷֤ˤĤƤϡ#5308. ̾ǤֻդͿʷĤ뤳Ȥ ([2023-11-08-1]) ȡˡ
űѸ̾ؤᤰ롤ʲֻΥޡȤϡClark ǤҲ𤵤Ƥ롥嵭2ĤˤĤƤβѤ롥
(2) OE -hām 'village', OE -hamm 'site hemmed in by water or wilderness' and also the latter's Scandinavian synonym -holm all fall together as [m̩]. Not even pre-Conquest spellings always allow of distinguishing -hām from -hamm: if dat. forms in -hamme/-homme survive, they tell in favour of the latter, but often etymology has to depend upon topography . . . . Distinction between -hamm and -holm is complicated by their synonymity, and their likely interchange in the medieval forms of many Danelaw names. . . . PDE spellings are again often unhistorical, as in Kingsholm < OE cyninges hamm 'the king's water-meadow' . . . . Confusion is further confounded by occasional unhistorical spellings of [m̩] < OE or Scand. dat. pl. -um, as in Airyholme and Howsham . . . . (Clark 486--87)
(4) Reflexes of OE -bearu 'grove' and -beorg 'mound' are partly merged not only with each other but also with those of -burg/-byrig, so that PDE forms in -barrow can represent -bearu or -beorg, ones in -bury can represent -bearu or byrig and ones in -borough can represent -beorg or burg . . . . (Clark 487)
Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 452--89.
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