#2547. 奤ɷǯΰ ([2016-04-17-1]) ǵ顤īʸűѸˤηϿޡEgbert William I (the Conqueror) ޤǤηޤѤ˷ǤƤ
Egbert (829--39) [King of Wessex (802--39)]
Ethelwulf (839--56)
Ethelbald (856--60) Ethelbert (860--66) Ethelred I (866--71) Alfred the Great (871--99)
Edward the Elder (899--924)
Athelstan (924--40) Edmund I the Elder (945--46) Edred (946--55) ???HOUSE OF DENMARK???
Edwy (955--59) Edgar (959--75) Sweyn Forkbeard (1013--14)
Edward the Martyr (975--79) Ethelred II the Unready (979--1013, 1014--16) Emma (--1052) Canute (1016--35)
Hardicanute (1040--42)
Edmund II Ironside (1016. 4--11) Edward the Confessor (1042--66) Harold I Harefoot (1035--40)
Edward Atheling (--1057) ???HOUSE OF NORMANDY ??? ???HOUSE OF GODWIN ???
Edgar Atheling (1066. 10--12) William the Conqueror (1066--87) Harold II (1066. 1--10)
űѸμѲ2°ưǤϡɽΤĤβս "medial -i-" (#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1]) θűѸ lufian ζɽ) -i- Ѹʹߤ˼ƤüΥߥ䥹ԡɤƥȤʤɤˤäưۤʤäƤʬۤΰȤƤϡݼŪǤ -i- ٤ޤݤ졤ŪǤ˼줿
űѸμѲ2Ǥľˡ3;ñߤζ -i- Ժߤ -aþ Ȥʤ뤬б3;ΡʣǤ -i- -iaþ Ȥʤ롥äơѸʹߤ -i- ξüʤȡˤä3;Τñʣ̤뤳ȤǤʤʤä
üʹԤƤѸβϴˤϡκ⤢äΤǤϤʤȵ롥㤨СThe Owl and the Nightingale ll. 229--32 Ƥߤ褦Cartlidge Ǥˡ
Vor eurich þing þat schuniet riȝt,
Hit luueþ þuster & hatiet liȝt;
& eurich þing þat is lof misdede,
Hit luueþ þuster to his dede.
֤ǵưϤűѸμѲ2ͳ褷3;ñμäƤ롥äơ -i- ʤϤschuniet hatiet Ǥ -i- Ƥ롥ʤ嵭 C ܤǤη֤ȿǤƤ뤬J ܤǤб֤Ϥ줾 schonyeþ, luuyeþ, hateþ, luueþ ȤʤäƤꡤ-i- ʬۤǤޤޤǤ롥
schuniet ˤĤƤϡԻ eurich þing ̣ʣȤƲᤵ줿뤤 alle þing ʤɤοʣäΤǤϤʤȤǽŦƤCartlidge (Owl 113) Ǥϡ"it seems more sensible to regard these lines as an example of the Middle English breakdown of distinctions made between different forms of Old English Class 2 weak verbs" ȤθƤ롥
Cartlidge ̤ʸǡΥƥȤˤ -i- ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤΤǡβսѤƤ
In both C and J, the infinitives of verbs descended from Old English Class 2 weak verbs in -ian always retain an -i- (either -i, -y, -ye, -ie, -ien or -yen). However, for the third person plural of the indicative, J writes -yeþ five times, as against nine cases of -eþ or -þ; while C writes -ieþ or -iet seven times, as against seven cases of -eþ, -ed, or -et. In the present participle, both C and J have medial -i- twice beside eleven non-conservative forms. The retention of -i in some endings also occurs in many later medieval texts, at least in the south, and its significance may be as much regional as diachronic. (Cartlidge, "Date" 238)
ˤϡ-i- ξüηˤäưۤʤäƤФǤʤɽΥåȤˤäƤ⥿ߥ䥹ԡɤۤʤäƤǽƤꡤѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) δ鶽̣
Cartlidge, Neil, ed. The Owl and the Nightingale. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2001.
Cartlidge, Neil. "The Date of The Owl and the Nightingale." Medium Aevum 65 (1996): 230--47.
ʸˡΡֲˡפˤƤϡ if ΤʤưβѤΤ§Ǥ롥βȤϡŪˤľˡβƱΤΤѤФ褤1Ĥ㳰롥ɸΤ褦˼줬1;ñξ硤뤤3;ñξˤϡľˡ was ѤȤˡˡǤ were ѤʤФʤʤʸѸθˤƤ was Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ʸˡǤ were §ǤˡϤʤ
äȤñΤǤС줬űѸˤ³ˡ13;ñζäǤʸΡֲˡפΤűѸǤϡ³ˡ (subjunctive) ȸƤ֡ˡ
ε#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) ǷǤűѸ bēon ζɽǡSubjunctive Preterite ƤߤȡñǤϿ;Τˤ餺 wǣre ѤƤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸ ġif ic wǣre . . . ʤɤȸäƤ餳ѸǤ if I were . . . ʤΤǤ롥
ѸǤϡۤȤɤξ硤ˡη֤ȤơҤΤ褦ľˡη֤ΤޤѤФ褤ˡä˰ռƲˡζɽľˡȶ̤ƳФɬפʤŪˤľˡʲˤȲˡʲˤϵǽŪˤŪˤΤ˶̤٤ۤʤηϤǤꡤơư˴ؤˡ˱ۤʤȶɽѰդƤȤˤΤʤǶοʿŪ䤬Ѥbe ưʳΤ٤Ƥư˴ؤ³ˡľˡƱȤʤäͣ줫ĤƤηŪʶ̤ݻӤƤΤ be äȤȤǤ롥¸μ礿ͳϡbe ޤ˹٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ
ɸΡ֤ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤפȤ䤤ϡѸζŪʴϼѤʵȤ롥Ѹˤδ䤤ΩľΤǤС֤ʤˤ be ưʳΤ٤Ƥưˤ³ˡľˡƱȤʤäΤפ٤Ǥ롥
ѸǺǤʣʶޤưȤСbe ưǤ롥ޤ˿षƤ븽ѸˤäơޤʣݤäƤͣưޤ٤⤹ơԵ§ʤΥѥबĤäƤޤäΤ
űѸˤƤ⡤ζޤοθȤƤ⡤be ưζޤϤϤʣäʲˡűѸ bēon ȸѸ be ζɽǤ褦 (Hogg and Fulk 309)

餫˰ۤʤ캬ͳ褹η֤ޤäơɽƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥Сbe ưζɽ佼ˡ (suppletion) κǤǤ롥be ϡӸŪˤ "athematic verb" ȸƤФư1ĤǤꡤΤʤǤǤʣˤɤäƤHogg and Fulk (309--10) ˤСűѸ bēon ν֤Ϥ餯4Ĥθ캬̤롥
1ܤϡPIE *Hes- ͳ褹ΤǡűѸ첻뤤 s ǻϤޤ֤ȿǤƤs ǻϤޤΤϡ *Hs- ͳ褹롨 cf. ƥ sumˡ
2ܤϡPIE *bhew(H)- ͳ褷űѸǤ b ǻϤޤ֤ȿǤcf. ƥ fuī 'I have been'ˡűѸǤϡηϽŪ뤤̤δްդȼȤ¿ä
3ܤϡPIE *wes- ̤ꡤűѸʤƸѸ˻ޤǡˤǤϤäѤη֤ȤѤ롥϶Ѳ5ưǤꡤ߷äƤűѸޤǤ˲˸ꤵ줿
4ܤϡűѸľˡ2;ñ eart ٤Ȥ PIE *er- ꤵƤcf. ƥ orior 'I rise' Ʊ캬ˡ
be ưΥѥϡűѸ褢٤ϴάƤΤΡʤĹˤΤʤݤ줿ʣϷߤǤ롥
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
֥ƥ礬43ǯ410ǯޤǤΤޤλ۲֤졤Ǥ٥ƥ줬äƤȤ¤顤λѤƤƥñ줬μ礿ȤʤѸˤ⡤ĤäƤϤǤϤʤ뤫⤷ʤΥƥñ¿ȸüԤȤʤäơ˱Ѹˤ줿ΤǤϤʤȡºݤˤϤΤ褦ʾϵʤäBaugh and Cable (77) ˤȡ
It would be hardly too much to say that not five words outside of a few elements found in place-names can be really proved to owe their presence in English to the Roman occupation of Britain. It is probable that the use of Latin as a spoken language did not long survive the end of Roman rule in the island and that such vestiges as remained for a time were lost in the disorders that accompanied the Germanic invasions. There was thus no opportunity for direct contact between Latin and Old English in England, and such Latin words as could have found their way into English would have had to come in through Celtic transmission. The Celts, indeed, had adopted a considerable number of Latin words---more than 600 have been identified--- but the relations between the Celts and the English were such . . . that these words were not passed on.
Υȸˤ600ƥñ줬äƤȤΤϡΤʤäơűѸäΤϤä5ˤʤȤäƤ뤬Baugh and Cable (77--78) ƤΤϡceaster (< L castra "camp"), port (< L portus, porta "harbor, gate, town"), munt (< L mōns, montem "mountain"), torr (L turris "tower, rock"), wīc (< L vīcus "village") Ǥ롥Ǥ츻˰ΤΤ⤢ꡤȸͳǸűѸäƥѸγμ¤ȤϤʤʤ⤷ʤ¾̾ǤȤƤ street, wall, wine ʤɤäƤ뤬ˤ褽Τ褦ʥ롼ȤǸűѸäƥѸ찮ꤷʤ
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ ([2014-08-24-1]) ʤɤǿ줿褦ˡѸˤˤƥƥñμѤȤȷϩϲ٤ä Baugh and Cable θƤ֤ȤΥƥñѤ1˴ؤƤϡ٤Τä˾ʤȸäƤBaugh and Cable (78) η
At best . . . the Latin influence of the First Period remains much the slightest of all the influences that Old English owed to contact with Roman civilization.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
űѸηƻζѲѲζ̤ˤĤƤϡޥɤθħȤơ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#785. ޥ٤¬뤿10ܡ ([2011-06-21-1])#687. ޥɤηƻζѲȼѲ ([2011-03-15-1]) Ǽ夲ѸˤޤοˤĤƤ ilame γƵˤ
ѲȼѲζ̤ϸűѸǤ̾ˤߤ줿Ѳƻζޤ̾ΤȷŪˤ褽ʿԤƤȤäƤ褤㴳κۤ롥Ȥ˷ƻζѲޤǤϡб̾ζѲޤȰۤʤ꤫˸롥Ūˤϡΰ㤤Τսˤ̾ǤϤʤ;̾ (personal_pronoun) ζǤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸηƻ춯Ѳޤϡ̾ޤ̾ޤ礷褦ʤΤȤʤäƤ롥ηаޤˤĤơHogg and Fulk (146) ˼褦
As in other Gmc languages, adjectives in OE have a double declension which is syntactically determined. When an adjective occurs attributively within a noun phrase which is made definite by the presence of a demonstrative, possessive pronoun or possessive noun, then it follows one set of declensional patterns, but when an adjective is in any other noun phrase or occurs predicatively, it follows a different set of patterns . . . . The set of patterns assumed by an adjective in a definite context broadly follows the set of inflexions for the n-stem nouns, whilst the set of patterns taken in other indefinite contexts broadly follows the set of inflexions for a- and ō-stem nouns. For this reason, when adjectives take the first set of inflexions they are traditionally called weak adjectives, and when they take the second set of inflexions they are traditionally called strong adjectives. Such practice, although practically universal, has less to recommend it than may seem to be the case, both historically and synchronically. Historically, . . . some adjectival inflexions derive from pronominal rather than nominal forms; synchronically, the adjectives underwent restructuring at an even swifter pace than the nouns, so that the terminology 'strong' or 'vocalic' versus 'weak' or 'consonantal' becomes misleading. For this reason the two declensions of the adjective are here called 'indefinite' and 'definite' . . . .
Ū˶ѲޤΤɤŪ̾ŪǤϤʤ̾ŪȤȡacc.sg.masc (-ne), dat.sg.masc.neut. (-um), gen.dat.sg.fem (-re), nom.acc.pl.masc. (-e), gen.pl. for all genders (-ra) Ǥ (Hogg and Fulk 150)
ѲѲȤ֤˴ŤޥӸؤŪʶʬѸϡűѸηƻˤĤƤϲȤͭѸʹߤˤϤۤȤ̵̣ȤʤäƤΤǤꡤ̻ŪˤϤӤ졦̣Ūʵǽܤ (definiteness) (definiteness) Ȥ̤Τۤ⤷ʤ
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ɤΤ餤γθűѸäˤޤǻ¸Ƥ뤫ȤˤĤơ#450. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿űѸθäϤɤΤ餤뤫 ([2010-07-21-1])#384. ÿȥޥΨǸűѸȸѸθäӤ ([2010-05-16-1])#45. ѸäˤޤĤ͡ ([2009-06-12-1]) ǤĤοͤߤƤǸ˵ɵ褦ˡGelderen (73) ˤСűѸˤä8䤬줿ǽȤ
ƱˤĤơBaugh and Cable (52) 85%ȤƤ롥طսѤ褦
The vocabulary of Old English is almost purely Germanic. A large part of this vocabulary, moreover, has disappeared from the language. When the Norman Conquest brought French into England as the language of the higher classes, much of the Old English vocabulary appropriate to literature and learning died out and was replaced later by words borrowed from French and Latin. An examination of the words in an Old English dictionary shows that about 85 percent of them are no longer in use. Those that survive, to be sure, are basic elements of our vocabulary and by the frequency with which they recur make up a large part of any English sentence.
#450. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿űѸθäϤɤΤ餤뤫 ([2010-07-21-1]) Dz⤷褦ˡΤ褦פظˤ͡롥ǧ뤫θФ˺Ѥ뤫ȤŪ⤢СޤǤβŪϢ³ܤΤỌ̇̄ŪϢ³ܤΤȤǤϴۤʤäƤ롥űѸɤǤ´ȤƤϡѸθäμǤǤǤʤ٤ȤơΤ餤⤤ͤФƤ⤪ϤʤȤϻפ롥ǯ٤λϤǸűѸϤƤ⤤Ȼפ뤬οͤϤäȤäǤϤʤ
Gelderen, Elly van. A History of the English Language. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2006.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ʸؤμʤǯɽˤĤơ#1433. 10θűѸƥȤʬۡ ([2013-03-30-1])#1044. ѸʡChaucerShakespeareά ([2012-03-06-1])#2323 ѸȤμʡ ([2015-09-06-1])#2503. Ѹʸء ([2016-03-04-1]) ǸƤ⤦ι⤤ΤߤȻפTreharne ʸغʽ pp. xvi--xvii ˷ǤƤǯɽƸ뤳ȤˤˤϢưʸػˤǯɽȤʤäƤ롥
| Historical events | Literary landmarks |
|---|---|
| From c. 449: Anglo-Saxon settlements | |
| 597: St Augustine arrives to convert Anglo-Saxons | |
| 664: Synod of Whitby | |
| c. 670? Cædmon's Hymn | |
| 731: Bede finishes Ecclesiastical History | |
| 735: Death of Bede | |
| 793: Vikings raid Lindisfarne | |
| 869: Vikings kill King Edmund of East Anglia | |
| 879--99: Alfred reigns as king of Wessex | from c. 890: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |
| Alfredian translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History; Gregory's Pastoral Care; Orosius; Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy; Augustine's Soliloquies | |
| 937: Battle of Brunanburh | |
| from c. 950: Benedictine reform | |
| c. 970: Exeter Book copied | |
| 959--75: King Edgar reigns | c. 975: Vercelli Book copied |
| 978--1016: Æthelred 'the Unready' reigns | 990s: Ælfric's Catholic Homilies and Lives of Saints |
| c. 1010: death of Ælfric | c. 1010?: Junius manuscript copied |
| c. 1014: Wulfstan's sermo Lupi ad Anglos | |
| 1016--35: Cnut, king of England | |
| 1023: death of Wulfstan | |
| 1042--66: Edward the confessor reigns | Apollonius of Tyre |
| 1066: Battle of Hastings | |
| 1066--87: William the Conqueror reigns | |
| 1135: Stephen becomes king | Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae |
| 1135--54: civil war between King Stephen and Empress Matilda | Peterborough Chronicle continuations |
| 1154--89: Henry II reigns | 1155: Wace's Roman de Brut |
| 1170--90: Chrétien de Troyes's Romances | |
| c. 1170s: The Orrmulum | |
| Poema Morale | |
| 1180s: Marie de France's Lais | |
| 1189--99: Richard I reigns | c. 1190--1200? Trinity Homilies |
| 1199--1216: John reigns | c. 1200? Hali Meiðhad |
| 1204: loss of Normandy | |
| 1215: Magna Carta | |
| 1215: fourth Lateran Council | |
| 1216--72: Henry III reigns | c. 1220 Laȝamon's Brut |
| 1224: Franciscan friars arrive in England | c. 1225: Ancrene Wisse |
| c. 1225: King Horn | |
| 1272--1307: Edward I reigns | Manuscript Digby 86 copied |
| Manuscript Jesus 29 copied | |
| Manuscript Cotton Caligula A. ix copied | |
| Manuscript Arundel 292 copied | |
| Manuscript Trinity 323 copied | |
| South English Legendary composed | |
| c. 1300: Cursor Mundi | |
| 1303: Robert Mannyng of Brunne begins Handlyng Synne | |
| 1307--27: Edward II reigns | |
| 1327--77: Edward III reigns | Auchinleck Manuscript copied |
| Manuscript Harley 2253 copied | |
| 1337(--1454): Hundred Years' War with France | |
| 1338: Robert Mannyng of Brunne's Chronicle | |
| 1340: Ayenbite of Inwit | |
| c. 1343: Geoffrey Chaucer born | |
| Ywain and Gawain translated | |
| 1349: Black Death comes to England | |
| 1349: Richard Rolle dies | |
| 1355--80: Athelston | |
| Wynnere and Wastoure written | |
| 1360s--1390s: Piers Plowman | |
| 1362: English displaces French as language of lawcourts and Parliament | |
| 1370s--1400: Canterbury Tales | |
| 1377: Richard II accedes to throne | 1370s: Julian of Norwich's Vision |
| 1381: Peasants' Revolt breaks out | |
| 1399: Richard II deposed | |
| 1399: Henry IV accedes to the throne | |
| c. 1400: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight | |
| c. 1400: Chaucer dies | |
| c. 1410--30: Book of Margery Kempe |
ҲؤȤƼ夲 diglossia ϡФбѸˤˤŬѤƤˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1203. ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ ([2012-08-12-1])
#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#2148. Ѹ diglossia ̤ bilingualism ʸ ([2015-03-15-1])
#2328. Ѹ¿ѡ ([2015-09-11-1])
ñ㲽ƽҤ٤СűѸ diglossia λ塤Ѹ triglossia λǤ롥νˤϡƥϤޤ礭ʤäꥹȶդƤ椯ˤĤ졤μҲŪʽҲ diglossia ȤʤäNevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272) ˤС
. . . Anglo-Saxon England became a diglossic society, in that one language came to be used in one set of circumstances, i.e. Latin as the language of religion, scholarship and education, while another language, English, was used in an entirely different set of circumstances, namely in all those contexts in which Latin was not used. In other words, Latin became the High language and English, in its many different dialects, the Low language.
פʤΤϡѸΥ衼åѤǤ㳰ŪˡˡΧʸؤȤŵŪ High variety λѤդ路ȤʬˤƤѤ줿ȤǤ롥űѸ diglossia ϡǤ§ŪǤ롥
ѸȡɼҲˤѤʣ롥Ƥ Nevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272--73) Ѥ롥
This diglossic situation was complicated by the coming of the Normans in 1066, when the High functions of the English language which had evolved were suddenly taken over by French. Because the situation as regards Latin did not change --- Latin continued to be primarily the language of religion, scholarship and education --- we now have what might be referred to as a triglossic situation, with English once more reduced to a Low language, and the High functions of the language shared by Latin and French. At the same time, a social distinction was introduced within the spoken medium, in that the Low language was used by the common people while one of the High languages, French, became the language of the aristocracy. The use of the other High language, Latin, at first remained strictly defined as the medium of the church, though eventually it would be adopted for administrative purposes as well. . . . [T]he functional division of the three languages in use in England after the Norman Conquest neatly corresponds to the traditional medieval division of society into the three estates: those who normally fought used French, those who worked, English, and those who prayed, Latin.
ΤȸѸˤƥեλѤꡤѸˤϥƥλʬ⤺äȸ¤褦ˤʤꡤ̤Ȥƥɤ monoglossia ҲذܹԤʹߡѸϤषϤ diglossia triglossia ˡ High variety ȤƴͿƤΤǤ롥
Nevalainen, Terttu and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. "Standardisation." Chapter 5 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 271--311.
#2286. űѸ hundseofontig (seventy), hundeahtatig (eighty), etc. ([2015-07-31-1]) ǡ70120ޤǤ10ܿɽˤĤơűѸǤ hund- (hundred) ƬղäȤȤطʤˤϡΥޥŪ12ˡȡꥹȶȤȤˤ⤿餵줿ȹͤ10ˡȤξͤȤ𤬤äΤǤϤʤȤ뤬ʤͤꡤξͤޥοηϤˤɤΤ褦ʷ̤ڤܤΤˤĤơŪʤȤ狼ʤ
⤦ܤĴƤߤ褦Ω夬꤫ȤǡˤĤƤʤԸ桤뤤ϾʤȤⲿ餫θڤ뤳ȤΤä줢뤤ϥޥӸؤΩ줫ͤ¿褦ʲϼȤ Hogg and Fulk (189) ˵Ƥʸ¾ΤΤޤƤ롥
Bosworth, Joseph, T. Northcote Toller and Alistair Campbell, eds. An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Vol. 2: Supplement by T. N. Toller; Vol. 3: Enlarged Addenda and Corrigenda by A. Campbell to the Supplement by T. N. Toller. Oxford: OUP, 1882--98, 1908--21, 1972. (sv hund-)
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Lühr, R. "Die Dekaden '70--120' im Germanischen." Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft 36 (1977). 59--71.
Mengden, F. von. "How Myths Persist: Jacob Grimm, the Long Hundred and Duodecimal Counting." Englische Sprachwissenschaft und Mediävistik: Standpunkte, Perspectiven, neue Wege. Ed. G. Knappe. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2005. 201--21.
Mengden, F. von. "The Peculiarities of the Old English Numeral System." Medieval English and Its Heritage: Structure, Meaning and Mechanisms of Change. Ed. N. Ritt, H. Schendl, C. Dalton-Puffer, and D. Kastovsky. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2006. 125--45.
Mengden, F. von. 2010. Cardinal Numbers: Old English from a Cross-Linguistic Perspective. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. (see pp. 87--94.)
Nielsen, H. F. "The Old English and Germanic Decades." Nordic Conference for English Studies 4. Ed. G. Caie. 2 vols. Copenhagen: Department of English, University of Copenhagen, I, 1990. 105--17.
Voyles, Joseph B. Early Germanic Grammar: Pre-, Proto-, and Post-Germanic Languages. Bingley: Emerald, 2008. (see pp. 245--47.)
Nielsen ʸϡˤ褯ޤȤƤ褦ǤꡤӸؤ Szemerényi Studies in the Indo-European Systems of Numerals (1960) Ǿ˲ŪʸƤȤ
ǤʸʤäΤǡϽˤȤɤƤ
ε#2285. hundred "great ten" ([2015-07-30-1]) hundred θ츻ˤűѸ hund ˴ؤƤ⤦1Ķ̣¤롥űѸǤϡ10ܿɽ魯ΤˡѸ9ޤǤο -ty ղäΤƱͤˡ-tiġ ղä (Campbell 284--85) twēntiġ, þrītiġ, fēowertiġ, fīftiġ, siextiġ ǡǤ롥Ȥ70ʾˤʤȡƬ hund ƬΤ褦ղäΤ⡤ˡ100110120ޤ³ΤǤ롧hundseofontiġ, hundeahtatiġ, hundnigontiġ, hundtēontiġ, hundændlæftiġ, hundtwelftiġθƬ hund- ̵ȯ졤ˤäƤ -un ȤʤäꡤüʤɡűѸǤ岽ƤϤ褦
100פˤĤƤϡβ꤯ɤʣ hundtēontiġ Τۤˡʤñ hund(red) ѤƤϡޥ̱²Ǥ12ˡѤƤȤȴط褦ŤޥǤϡ100פ hundtēontiġ Τ褦ʣȤɽΤǤꡤñ hund(red) Ϥष120פɽ路Ƥ (cf. long [great] hundred) ٤ޤǻĤƤΤϸťΥɸǡǤϡ100פ tīu tigir (= *tenty)120פ hundrað1200פ þūsund ɽƤرѸ츻ŵ٤ˤȡޥ̱²ϡˤ餯ꥹȶαƶ10ˡؤžΤȤ롥
ơűѸ hundseofontiġ, hundeahtatiġ ʤɤɽ뤬60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120 ˤ hund- ղäȤȤϡϤꥲޥ̱²θ12ˡȤδϢ虜ʤظˤɤΤ褦äղäƤΤˤĤƤ͡ʵ褦
OED hund, n. (and adj.) 2ƸƤ
2. The element hund- was also prefixed in Old English to the numerals from 70 to 120, in Old English hund-seofontig, hund-eahtatig, hund-nigontig, hund-téontig, hund-endlyftig (-ælleftig), hund-twelftig, some of which are also found in early Middle English.
[No certain explanation can be offered of this hund-, which appears in Old Saxon as ant-, Dutch t- in tachtig, and may be compared with -hund in Gothic sibuntê-hund, etc., and Greek -ʦϦͦӦ.]
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
eye ˤĤơʣŪ¿#219. eyes ɽ172ֻ̤ ([2009-12-02-1]) Ǽθϡȯ˴ؤƤŪʣʲФƤƤ롥ϡeye βѲˤάҤ褦
űѸθȥǤϡθ <eage> ֤줿ȯȤƤϡ[æːɑɣe] Τ褦ˡĹ2첻 [g] ³û첻³äޤűѸ˸Ƭ2첻경 [æːɣe] Ȥʤäˤ첻Ͼ夲βФơѸˤ [eːɣe] Ȥؤȯã
ͭ˴ꡤޤꡤ˸첻ۣ沽 /eːjə/ Ϥ줿λҲȾ첻ǽŪˤϹ첻 [ɪ] ȤʤäǡԤ첻 [e] Ϥ [ɪ] ͻ礷ơʤ夲Фơ[iː] Ȥʤ˻롥ۣ첻ṳ̈ȤƸѸˤϸΤȤ [iː] Ȥȯ褦ˤʤä
ϡѸ I [iː] ʤɤθȤȤ˻Ĥˤࡥ⤤Ĺ첻 [iː] ϡ첻 (gvs) Ф2첻ޤ [əɪ] ء [aɪ] ؤȯãɸѼʳǤϡʳȯãߤޤäꡤۤʤäȯã뤲Τ⤢ɸѼǤϰʾĹФƤʲȯãˤޤȤƼ
| /æːɑɣe/ |
| /æːɣe/ |
| /eːɣe/ |
| /eːjə/ |
| /eɪə/ |
| /iːə/ |
| /iː/ |
| /əɪ/ |
| /aɪ/ |
ȤƤ what ϡ̾̾Ȥ What happened? What do you like? Τ褦Ѥ롥θŪˤϸűѸε̾ hwā ʡгʷ hwæt ̤ꡤгʷˤĤƤŪˡꤨȤ顤ѸǤ⤽ΰ仺ȤŪ what ˡŪ˻¸Ƥ (cf. #51. 5W1Hפʤ̡6Hס ([2009-06-18-1])) ̤ʸˡˤϡ̾綠Τ褦ʴβͿƤʤOED ˤи20˼Τ褦ʵҤ롥
20.
a. In what way? in what respect? how? Obs. or arch.
b. To what extent or degree? how much?
Chiefly with such verbs as avail, care, matter, signify, or with the and comparative, as the better
ˡ what ϡ֤ʤǡס֤ɤ١פȤŪʰ̣ɽ魯Ȥ狼롥OED Ѹ줫ĤȡΤ褦ʤΤ롥
1816 Scott Antiquary I. xv. 315 It just cam open o' free will in my hand---What could I help it?
1842 Tennyson Morte d'Arthur in Poems (new ed.) II. 15 For what are men better than sheep or goats..If, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayer?
1593 Shakespeare Venus & Adonis sig. C, What were thy lips the worse for one poore kis?
1697 Dryden tr. Virgil Georgics iii, in tr. Virgil Wks. 119 Now what avails his well-deserving Toil.
1865 J. Ruskin Sesame & Lilies i. 74 What do we, as a nation, care about books?
űѸ줫ѸˤƤϡwhy ֤ʤפˡ¸ߤOED θ19ˤϡѤȤʤ "19. For what cause or reason? for what end or purpose? why? Obs." Ȥ롥3ĵƤ
c1385 Chaucer Legend Good Women Ariadne. 2218 What shulde I more telle hire compleynynge?
1667 Milton Paradise Lost ii. 329 What sit we then projecting Peace and Warr?
a1677 I. Barrow Serm. Several Occasions (1678) 20 What should I mention Beauty, that fading toy?
ѸǤ "What does it profit him?", "What does it avail to do so?" ʤɤŪгʤκפĤƤ뤬Ǥ profit avail ϡŪˤ¾ưȺƲᤵ˻äƤ
̾ (53--54) Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡطˤǡҲͭ¾̵ʤСͭưΤۤǤפȤ§롥ʲͿƤꡤۤȤɤư̾ФǤ롥
[f] <f> vs [v] <v>: life--live, proof--prove, safe--save, belief--believe, relief-relieve, thief--thieve, grief--grieve, half--halve, calf--calve, shelf--shelve
[s] <s> vs [z] <s>: close--close, use--use, excuse--excuse, house--house, mouse--mouse, loss--lose
[s] <s> vs [z] <z>: grass--graze, glass--glaze, brass--braze
[c] <s> vs [z] <s>: advice--advise, device--devise, choice--choose
[θ] <th> vs [ð] <th>: bath--bathe, breath--breathe, cloth--clothe, kith--kithe, loath--loathe, mouth--mouth, sheath-sheathe, sooth--soothe, tooth--teethe, wreath--wreathe
close--close Τ褦λҲֻƱΤ⤢Сadvice--advise Τ褦˰ۤʤΤ⤢ (cf. #1153. ̾ adviceư advise ([2012-06-23-1])) ޤưϸ e ĤΤ⾯ʤʤ (cf. #979. Ѹֻ <e> ([2012-01-01-1])) <th> ˴ؤΤˤĤƤϡԤ첻βۤʤΤ¿
ФθҲ (voicing) Ωˤϡ¿ξ硤ŪʲͿƤ롥١̵̾ưͭפΥѥΩȡ줬פȤʤä (analogy) ˤ㤬ȤȤ⤢줾ФΩǯʤɤĴɬפ롥
ߤطˤ̾ưΤβ֤ˤƤˡƱ (homonymic_clash) 뤿ΩѤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ƱưŤϡ֤㤨 récord vs recórd Τ褦ʡ̾ưפΥڥ (diatone) ˤѻ褦˻פ롥
̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
űѸζѲưŪ7˶ʬ롥Mitchell and Robinson (37, 40) ɽ䡤ȤơޤȤɽ2äƤߤޤ绨ĤʶʬɽǡɽŪư夲ƳѼ (principal parts) Ρ
| Class | Inf. | 1st Pret. | 2nd Pret. | Past Ptc. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | scīnan 'shine' | scān | scinon | scinen |
| II | crēopan 'creep' | crēap | crupon | cropen |
| brūcan 'enjoy' | brēac | brucon | brocen | |
| III | breġdan 'pull' | bræġd | brugdon | brogden |
| IV | beran 'bear' | bær | bǣron | boren |
| V | tredan 'tread' | træd | trǣdon | treden |
| VI | faran 'go' | fōr | fōron | faren |
| VII | (a) healdan 'hold' | hēold | hēoldon | healden |
| (b) hātan | hēt | hēton | hāten |
| Class | Example | Consonant Structure | Inf. | 1st Pret. | 2nd Pret. | Past Ptc. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| I | scīnan | ī + one cons. | ī | ā | i | i |
| II | crēopan | ēo + one cons. | ēo | ēa | u | o |
| brūcan | ū + one cons. | ū | ēa | u | o | |
| III | breġdan | e + two cons. | e | æ | u | o |
| weorpan | eo + r + cons. | eo | ea | u | o | |
| feohtan | eo + h + cons. | eo | ea | u | o | |
| helpan | e + l + cons. | e | ea | u | o | |
| ġieldan | palatal + ie + 2 cons. | ie | ea | u | o | |
| drincan | i + nasal + cons. | i | a | u | u | |
| IV | beran | e + one cons. (usu. a liquid) | e | æ | ǣ | o |
| V | tredan | e + one cons. (usu. an obstruent) | e | æ | ǣ | e |
| VI | faran | a + one cons. | a | ō | ō | a |
| VII | healdan | V1 | ēo | ēo | V1 | |
| hātan | V2 | ē | ē | V2 |
Ѹ angel ϡűѸ engel ̤ꡤ켫Τϸƥ angelus μѸǤ롥ˡangelus ϥꥷ ággelos (one that announces) μѤǤ롥ѸǤȯ [eɪnʤəl] Ǥꡤ<g> 2κǽλҲ˻Ȥʤ뤬űѸǤϤɤΤ褦ȯ줿ΤűѸΤΤǤϡ<g> ͿƤꡤ¾ΤΤǤ <ġ> ͿƤ롥ԤǤ [g] ǤꡤԤǤϤ줬餫λҲʤФܶ [j] ˤǤꤵ롥ޤHogg (37) ˤС<n> ˸³ <g> ѸƱ褦˻ [ʤ] ȤƼ¸줿 (ex. OE singe (> PDE singe [sɪnʤ])) ĤƤΤǡȯ˰ [ʤ] Ĵʤ롥˻⡤ʤȤȤΤ1ǤϤ
ŪŵäƤߤ褦رѸ츻ŵ٤ˤСOE /-g-/ 13CޤǻĤ뤬ME OF angele, angel (F ange) (▭ LL) αƶ /ʤ/ ȤʤäפȤ롥ޤűѸ첻 Lass and Anderson (136) ˤСűѸ ġimm (gem; < L. gemma) 椷ƸűѸ engel ͿƤȤ顤[g] ꤷƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
⤦1ĤθűѸ첻 Hogg (223) ϡenġel ɽƤꡤꤷƤ롥μ¸ܶ [j] ʤΤ [ɟ] ʤΤϤޤ˻ [ʤ] ʤΤȽȤʤ
ΡرѸ I (100) ˤСűѸǤ en- yn- θ֤ [ɟ] 줬űѸ˻ [ʤ] ѲȤȤơޤ enġel (angel) lenġr (longer), hynġran (be hungry) ȤȤ˵Ƥ롥
̤˸űѸβŪ¸ˤĤƤ͡ʵꡤ狼ʤȤ¿ΤηˤĤƤϡˤ줿 Lass and Anderson (136) ڤ줬褤ΤǰѤƤűѸ <g> βˤĤƸѸΤȤϢŤʤ⤷ƤսǡűѸ engel λҲ˻ [ʤ] äϤϤʤȤƤֻʬȡˡ
. . . the 'normal' developments:
(a) [j] before original front vowels: ġeolu 'yellow', ġieldan 'yield'.
(b) [g] before original back vowels: gōs 'goose', gāst 'ghost'.
(c) [g] before umlauted back vowels: gēs 'geese', gyrdels 'girdle'.
Some of the major anomalies are these:
(a) [g] before original front vowels: give, get, gate, gallows, OE ġ(i)efan, ġ(i)etan, ġeat, ġealga. The simplest answer here is the traditional one of 'Scandinavian influence'---however that may have operated. The most likely way would seem to be by direct borrowing of forms, i.e. ON gefa, geta, gata, galgi. Since Old Norse did not at that time have a palatal softening rule, these foms, if they were borrowed as is, would be 'synchronically foreign' in OE dialects that had palatal softening: an OE form beginning with the 'impermissible' sequence [ge] would then be the equivalent of a form like Dvořak, or Vladimir in Modern English. That the OE forms did indeed have [j] is borne out by survivals like yett in place names from OE ġeat, and by the Middle English spelling distributions: basically non-northern forms like yeve, yive, as against northern ones like gyve, give, gyff.
(b) [ʤ] before original front vowels: gem, OE ġimm < L. gemma. The answer here, as in angel (OE engel) is undoubtedly reborrowing from French after the Conquest.
(c) [j] before original back vowels. We know of only one clear case of this type, which is yawn. The vowel suggests OE gānian 'gape, yawn', rather than the apparently synonomous (sic) verb ginian (gynian, gionian). The consonantism, however, suggests the latter. The OED (s.v. yawn) proposes, perhaps correctly, a sort of 'conflation': [j]-forms 'influenced by' (whatever that means) the vowel of now obsolete [g]-forms.
Τ褦ˤĤŵäƤϤߤɤΤȤʶȤƤꡤʤҲäꤹ뤳Ȥ
Ϣơ#1651. j g ([2013-11-03-1])#1914. <g> ֤ ([2014-07-24-1])#1828. j ʸȲбˤĤƺˬ ([2014-04-29-1]) ⻲ȡ
Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. 1992. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Lass, Roger and John M. Anderson. Old English Phonology. Cambridge: CUP, 1975.
С סرѸ I١Ѹ8罤۽Ź1980ǯ
ɸ think γѤΤߤʤ餺bring, buy, seek, teach ʤɤγѤǤϡʬ˷˸Ȥϰۤʤ첻롥ۤʤ첻˲äơֻξ ght ʤҲϢ³졤Ե§פȤΰݤϷŪǤ롥Ūˤϵ§ŪưǤꡤ-ed դƲʬ˷¿ư֤Ǥ롥¿ΤΤ¿βѲŪ˷иƤˡ̤ȤơԵ§ޤʤɤΤѤȤˤʤäƤ롥
Mitchell and Robinson (48--49) ˽äơŪаޤ⤷褦ޤthink ưθűѸǤηɽ˼ߤޤǤѸȤʤäΡʵ§ѲؤȰܹԤΤޤޤƤ롥
| Inf. | Pret. Sg. | Past Ptc. |
|---|---|---|
| brenġan 'bring' | brōhte | brōht |
| bycgan 'buy' | bohte | boht |
| cwellan 'kill' | cwealde | cweald |
| reċċan 'tell' | rōhte | rōht |
| sēċan 'seek' | sōhte | sōht |
| sellan 'give' | sealde | seald |
| streċċan 'stretch' | strōhte | strōht |
| tǣċan 'teach' | tǣhte, tāhte | tǣt, tāht |
| þenċan 'think' | þōhte | þōht |
| þynċan 'seem' | þūhte | þūht |
| wyrċan 'work' | worhte | worht |
ɸΤ褦ˡѸ have Ե§ѲưǤ롥has -s 뤷, had -d ⤢뤫顤Ե§Ȥϼ㴳Ե§Ȥ٤ʤ *haves *haved ǤϤʤΤ
ŪˤߤСߤǤϵƤʤ haves haved ¸ߤűѸ˾Ȥ餷ƤߤȡưϽ˵§ŪʶޤưǤϤʤä٤˵§ŪǤꡤ̤ϻ¾ε§ѲưȹͤƤƺ٤ʤűѸ䡤Ȥ櫓ѸǤϡhaves haved ֵ§Ūפʽ֤Τ˹ԤƤΤǤ롥
űѸ habban (have) ζɽϡ#74. /b/ /v/ ְ㤨!? ([2009-07-11-1]) ǷǤʲ˰۷֤ޤɽƷǤ褦
| habban (have) | Present Indicative | Present Subjunctive | Preterite Indicative | Preterite Subjunctive | Imperative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st sg. | hæbbe | hæbbe | hæfde | hæfde | |
| 2nd sg. | hæfst, hafast | hafa | |||
| 3rd sg. | hæfþ, hafaþ | ||||
| pl. | habbaþ | hæbben | hæfdon | hæfden | habbaþ |
űѸ -estre, -istre (< Gmc *-strjōn) Ͻιټ̾ (agentive suffix) ǡιټ̾ -ere ΩƤޥ췲˻ȯŪ˸ǡMLG -(e)ster, (M)D and ModFrisian -ster ƱHG, OS, OFrisian ˤʸڤʤűѸ줫θȤƤ hlēapestre (female dancer), hoppestre (female dancer), lǣrestre (female teacher), lybbestre (female poisoner, witch), miltestre (harlot), sangestre (songstress), sēamstre (seamstress, sempstress), webbestre (female weaver) ʤɤ롥¤ˡˤΤäȤꡤѸˤ spinnestre (spinster) ʤɤƤ롥Ѹʹߡޤǡ16ޤǤˤǤ⡤˸¤餺Ū˹ټ̾Ȥȯã㤨С1300ǯǽ줿 Cursor Mundi Ǥϡdemere ǤϤʤ demestre ̤˴طʤȽ (judge) ΰ̣Ѥ줿ˤ seamster songster ñȤǤ˽ζ̤Ĥʤʤꡤ̤Ĥ٤ -ess ä seamstress songstress 줿
-ster ϡñʤư̾ -er ФơŪʴްդäƿȤ佬ɽ魯 (ex. fraudster, gamester, gangster, jokester, mobster, punster, rhymester, speedster, slickster, tapster, teamster, tipster, trickster) ηŪʶϡƥͳǤϤ뤬Ūټ̾ -aster Υͥƥʴްդαƶͤ (cf. criticaster, poetaster) -ster ƻղäȤƤϡoldster, youngster 롥̾Ǥ뤫ͭ̾ȤʤäΤ⤢ꡤ嵭 Webster ΤۤBaxter (baker) ʤɤߤ롥
ۤˤ¿ -ster 줬뤬̾ȤűѸΤϡspinster ΤߤȤʤäƤޤäθˤĤƤϡ̤δ#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) ([2014-07-18-1])#1968. ΰ̣ʬʬϡ ([2014-09-16-1]) ǿ줿Τǡ⻲Ȥ줿
űѸ첻ˤϡû첻 (short vowel)Ĺ첻 (long vowel)첻 (diphthong) 3ब̤롥첻ˤûΤĹΤ롥ʲޤûĹ첻ޤûĹ첻ɽ魯

ޤûĹ첻ߤƤȡѸ٤С̤첻ʬμʲǡˤϾʤ (cf. #1601. Ѹܸ첻ΰӡ ([2013-09-14-1])ˡĹ첻бû첻̤Τޤ䤷ΤǤꡤΰ㤤ϤʤΤȹͤƤ롥첻ˤʿ i(ː) ȱ߿ y(ː) ̤뤬߿ y(ː) ϸȥ (Late West-Saxon) Ǥʿ i(ː) Ȥʤä
˱ޤ첻ߤȡ̤̤ˤС3첻뤳Ȥ狼롥i(ː)e, e(ː)o, æ(ː)a ϡ夫鲼뤤ȤäƤꡤ1Ǥ2Ǥ첻 (falling diphthong) ȹͤ롥i(ː)e ˤĤƤϡ첻ǤϤʤ i e Ū첻ɽ路ƤȤ븫⤢롥Mitchell and Robinson (15) ˤȡ
The original pronunciation of ie and īe is not known with any certainty. It is simplest and most convenient for our purposes to assume that they represented diphthongs as explained above. But by King Alfred's time ie was pronounced as a simple vowel (monophthong), probably a vowel somewhere between i and e; ie is often replaced by i or y, and unstressed i is often replaced by ie, as in hiene for hine. Probably īe had a similar sound.
űѸβѲθȤĤâɬפȤʤ뤬οޤ˽С7ñûĹ2ˡܡ3첻ûĹ2ˤȤȤǷ20ۤɤ첻̤ƤȤˤʤ롥#1021. ѸܸβǤμȿ ([2012-02-12-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸɸѼǤ20첻Ǥ̤Ƥ뤫顤餤иűѸ첻ηϤ⤪褽ƱϤäȤˤʤ롥
Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson. A Guide to Old English. 8th ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
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