ѸΡԵ§ưפβʬˤϡŵŪ -(e)n 롥written, born, eaten, fallen ǡǤ롥ϡűѸǶѲưȸƤФưβʬͳ褹ΤǤꡤűѸǤ⤽줾 writen, boren, eten, feallen Τ褦ˡ§Ū -en 줿ʡ#2217. űѸ춯ѲưΤޤȤ ([2015-05-23-1]) ˼ѥȡˡ
űѸζѲư ablaut 뤤 gradation ȸƤФ첻Ǥϡߡ12ʬ4̤졤碌ưΡ4 (four principal parts) ȸƤФ롥4ܤβʬγʤΤűѸ줫餵̤СϤȤȤư줽ΤΤ°볬ǤϤʤäषư줫Ωƻͳ褹餷ޥĸǤ *ROOT - - n- ƷƤꡤĸǤ * ROOT- o - nó- ƷƤ롥ķ˴ޤޤɡ n ѸˤޤǻĤʬ -(e)n εȹͤƤ롥
θϡ촴β֤ˤ⾯ƶͿƤ롥äդ٤ϡĸķǤ϶ n θ³ȤϡޥǤ Verner's Law ͳƸ촴λҲѲȤͽۤ롥ʤߤˡѲ V, VI, VII ˤĤơʬθ촴첻γˤ긽߷ƱˤʤäƤ뤳Ȥˤդ (ex. tredan (pres.)/treden (pp.), faran (pres.)/faren (pp.), healdan (pres.)/healden (pp.))
ʾ塤Lass (161--62) Ȥ-en ˤĤƤϡϢơ#1916. ˡȽˡǰۤʤ֤ķƻ ([2014-07-26-1]) ⻲ȡ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
449ǯHengest Horsa Ȥ塼ȿͤη郎֥ȥͤ뤿˥ɤϤꡤθषɤƤޤȤ郎äΤϡThe Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ˾ܤʲǤϸűѸؼԸ˲Ԥ줿 Smith (158--59) ꡤϢűѸ[2018-05-31-1]ʸսѤ롥ǯ嵭449ǯ455ǯ457ǯεҤȴ褷ΤǤ롥ѸդƤΤǡűѸɲγؽˤɤ̤δϢ뵭Ҥϡ#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽ ([2010-05-21-1]) ӡ#2900. 449ǯͤˤ֥ƥ翯ά ([2017-04-05-1]) ȡ
Anno 449. Hēr Martiānus and Valentīnus onfēngon rice, and rīcsodon seofon winter. And on hiera dagum Hengest and Horsa, fram Wyrtgeorne gelaþode, Bretta cyninge, gesōton Bretene on þǣm stede þe is genemned Ypwinesflēot, ǣrest Brettum tō fultume, ac hīe eft on hīe fuhton. Se cyning hēt hīe feohtan ongēan Peohtas; and hīe swā dydon, and sīge hæfdon swā hwǣr swā hīe cōmon. Hīe þā sendon tō Angle, and hēton him sendan māran fultum. Þā sendon hīe him māran fultum. Þā cōmon þā menn of þrim mǣgþum Germānie: of Ealdseaxum, of Englum, of Iotum.
455. Hēr Hengest and Horsa fuhton wiþ Wyrtgeorne þǣm cyninge in þǣre stōwe þe is genemned Æglesþrep; and his brōþor Horsan man ofslōg. And æfter þǣm Hengest fēng tō rīce, and Æsc his sunu.
457. Hēr Hengest and Æsc fuhton wiþ Brettas in þǣre stōwe þe is genemned Crecganford, and þǣr ofslōgon fēower þūsend wera. Þā forlēton þā Brettas Centland, and mid micle ege flugon tō Lundenbyrig.
Anno 449. In this year [lit. here] Martianus and Valentinus succeeded to [lit. received] kingship, and ruled seven years. And in their days Hengest and Horsa, invited by Vortigern, king of [the] Britons, came to Britain at the place which is called Ebbsfeet, first as a help to [the] Britons, but they afterwards fought against them. The king commanded them to fight against [the] Picts; and they did so, and had victory wherever they came. Then they sent to Angeln, and told them to send more help. They then sent to them more help. Then the men came from three tribes in Germany: from [the] Old Saxons, from [the] Angles, from [the] Jutes.
455. In this year Hengest and Horsa fought against Vortigern the king in the place which is called Aylesford; and his brother Horsa was slain [lit. one slew his brother Horsa]. And after that Hengest and Æsc his son succeeded to kingship [lit. Hengest succeeded to kingship, and Æsc his son].
457. In this year Hengest and Æsc fought against [the] Britons in the place which is called Crayford, and there slew four thousand men [lit. of men]. The Britons then abandoned Kent, and with great fear fled to London.
Hengest Horsa Υ֥ƥ翯ˤĤƤϡanglo-saxon εΤۤȤ櫓ʲȡ
#33. 塼ȿͤ̾Τˡ ([2009-05-31-1])
#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽ ([2010-05-21-1])
#1013. ͤϤɤ֥ƥϤä ([2012-02-04-1])
#2353. ʤͤϥɤΤ ([2015-10-06-1])
#2443. ɤˤ륱ȸ̾ʬۡ ([2016-01-04-1])
#2493. ͤϲäơͤϰ줿 ([2016-02-23-1])
#2900. 449ǯͤˤ֥ƥ翯ά ([2017-04-05-1])
#3094. 449ǯˤ⥲ޥͤϥɤ¸ߤ ([2017-10-16-1])
#3113. ͤ˥ɤΤ ([2017-11-04-1]) ȡ
Smith, Jeremy J. Essentials of Early English. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2005.
ε ([2018-05-08-1]) ǡwolf (sg.) Ф wolves (pl.) ȤʤͳűѸβ§˾Ȥ餷ˤꡤϢ¾ -f (sg.)/ -ves (pl.) 㡤ʤ calf/calves, elf/elves, half/halves, leaf/leaves, life/lives, loaf/loaves, knife/knives, self/selves, sheaf/sheaves, shelf/shelves, thief/thieves, wife/wives ʤɤ⤭줤ǤȻפ⤷ʤѸˤϤۤɥȥ졼ȤΤǤϤʤȤʣʥƥबɤˤϡʤʤ⤢ΤǤ롥
㤨Сwife (sg.)/wives (pl.) λ夲褦̾ϡűѸǤ wīf ȤñʡʸФ˷äƤθϡֺʡפȤֽפäˡf ϡ¦ͭ첻챦¦ˤϲʤΤǡͭ˶ޤƤפ櫓ǤϤʤǥեȤ /f/ ȯ롥ơȤͽۤΤϡ֤Ȥʣʡʡгʡ˷Ǥ wīf -as ζդϤǤꡤf ͭ˶ޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫顤/v/ ͭΤפȤȤ
ϴñˤʤȤΤϡwulf ξϤޤѲȤ롼פ°ƤꡤεǷǤɽ˽ȤˤʤäƤΤwīf ѲȤ롼פ°̾ǤꡤűѸǤϰۤʤޥѥƤʲˡζɽǤ褦
| Ѳ̾ | ñ | ʣ |
|---|---|---|
| wīf | wīf | |
| г | wīf | wīf |
| ° | wīfes | wīfa |
| Ϳ | wīfe | wīfum |
ɸϡ#1365. űѸˤ뼫IJˤϤޤ줿̵ͭ ([2013-01-21-1]) Ǽ夲#1080. ʤ five ν fifth ʤΤ ([2012-04-11-1]) #2948. Ϣ5alive ˸ءס ([2017-05-23-1]) ǤŪΡ⤦1ĤαǤ롥wolf ʣ wolves Ȥʤʤɡñ /-f/ ʣ /-vz/ ؤȰ츫Ե§Ѳ㤬Ĥ̾˸롥㤨Сcalf/calves, elf/elves, half/halves, leaf/leaves, life/lives, loaf/loaves, knife/knives, self/selves, sheaf/sheaves, shelf/shelves, thief/thieves, wife/wives ʤɤǤ롥Ϥɤäͳ
űѸǤϡ̵ /f, θ, s/ ϡξ¦ͭ˶ޤȼͭ [v, ð, z] Ȥʤ벻§ΩƤε§ϡŬѤ벻Ķξ郎Ѳ뤳Ȥ⤢СˤäƤޤޤѸʹߤǤ⤷ФФܤˤ롼Ǥ롥ɬݤäŬѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ̣DZѸˤ̤Ƹư³Ƥ§Ȥ롥ͭ (fricative_voicing) ʤɤȤ̾ͿƤ롥
ɸ˾Ȥ餷ʲǤ /f/ ξʤwolf ϵˤϸűѸǤ wulf Ȥ֤ä̾ѲȤ롼פ°̾ǡʤȿ˱ưʲΤ褦˶ޤ
| Ѳ̾ | ñ | ʣ |
|---|---|---|
| wulf | wulfas | |
| г | wulf | wulfas |
| ° | wulfes | wulfa |
| Ϳ | wulfe | wulfum |
ѸˤμȤʤɤǡűѸˤʸˡ (grammatical gender) äΤȶä¿Ѹϰ²νΤʤǤʸˡ礤Ƥꡤष㳰ŪʸʤΤդѸΤߤˤƤȡλ¤˵Ťʤ²¿θ줬ʸˡäƤ뤳Ȥϡ#487. ʰʸˡ ([2010-08-27-1]) 餫Ǥ롥ơűѸ⤽Τ褦ʡ̤Ρװ1Ĥä
űѸ̾ˤϡ (masculine) (feminine) (neuter) 3ĤäˤȽǤդΤˤ뤬§ȤƶŪˤͽ¬ǽϹ⤯ʤ̣δ¿Ωľ礬ꡤ㳰wīf "woman" ̾ǡwīfmann "woman" ̾ʤɡˤϤΤΡ̾ɽ魯̾̾ɽ魯̾Ͻ̾Ǥ롥ɤ١űѸ̾ͽ¬ǤΤǤʤΤϡ˷ǤʲȤ줿
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
|---|---|---|
| ǣsc "ash tree" | bōc "book" | ǣġ "egg" |
| brōðor "brother" | beadu "battle" | ċild "child" |
| cyning "king" | benċ "bench" | corn "grain" |
| dōm "doom" | clǣnness "cleanness" | ēage "eye" |
| enġel "angel" | cwēn "queen" | ġeat "gate" |
| feoh "money" | dǣd "deed" | hēafod "head" |
| hæle(þ) "warrior" | dohtor "daughter" | hūs "house" |
| here "army" | ġiefu "gift" | lamb "lamb" |
| hrōf "roof" | hand "hand" | land "land" |
| mann "man" | hnutu "nut" | mæġþ "maiden" |
| nama "name" | lenġu "length" | scēap "sheep" |
| stān "stone" | sāwol "soul" | scip "ship" |
| sunu "sun" | sorg "sorrow" | searu "skill" |
| wealh "foreigner" | strengþ "strength" | þing "thing" |
| wīfmann "woman" | tunge "tongue" | wīf "woman" |
4ϿεȤȤǡꡥwassail /ˈwɒseɪl, ˈwɑːsl/ Ȥϡ̾Ȥơ֡ʼ˥ꥹޥΡ˽ˤμפưȤơּ롨ǽˤפ̣롥ˤϡϤʤ be ư̿ŪޤƤCrystal 21 ȡˡ
űѸǤδդΰϡ꤬ñξˤ wes hal "(you (sg.)) be in good health"꤬ʣξˤ wesað hale "(you (pl.)) be in good health" ȸäwes wesað ϡߤǤϻȤƤʤ be ưΰ wesan 2;̿ʤ줾ñʣˤǤcf. #2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])ˡhal(e) ϡѸǡַʡʡפɽ魯 whole hale θűѸǤꡤСפȤƤӤб hail ȤƱǤcf. #1783. whole <w> ([2014-03-15-1])ˡűѸΥȥʡǤϡLuke 1.28 ŷȤޥꥢФ Hal wes ðu Ȱս꤬롥
ѸǤ wesan be ư̿ϾüƤäδդɽ wassail ȤƸ경֤Ĥäʤwassail Ф֤ΰϡdrinkhail Ǥ롥
ťΥɸˤƱɽ ves heill ꡤѸɽθ츻ȤƤϤषθťΥɸαƶ礭Ȥ뤬ߤ wassail ϤˤŪʥꥹδդλȤΤƤ롥
Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.
#2654. a six-foot man a ten-mile drive ˻ĤʻĤäƤʤ˸űѸʣ°ʷ ([2016-08-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸǤ̵ˤߤΤΡϤĤƤζμ岽üФ̤η֤ǤȤ褦㤬Ȥ˳ǧ롥a six-foot man foot whilom, seldom Lady Chapel, ladybird ʤɤˤ1 lady츫ȶޤʤɤƤʤη֤Ȥߤ뤬줾줫ĤƤʣ°ʷʣͿʷñ°ʷͳ褹롥˸ޤä꼺줿ꤷơŪ̵Ǥ뤫Τ褦ˤȤ館褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥
Ƕᡤmother tongue ˤ⤽Τ褦1Ĥ餷ΤäѸǤʣȤǧ츻Ūˤ1 mother ϤΤޤޤñ°ʷȤĤޤꡤѸȯ֤ۤСޤ "mother's tongue" ȸäƤ褦ʤΤäΤ#703. űѸο²̾ζɽ ([2011-03-31-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡmother üʶޤ̾1Ĥǡñʷ mōdor Ʊñ°ʷȤʤꤦ롥mother tongue ȤɽνϡѸ Wyclif moder tonge ȤƽиۤƱ modir langage ⸽Ƥ롥η֤űѸ̵ȿǡƧƤȤ櫓ޤḽŪΤ°ʸȼä modiris langage ƱʸڤƤ뤳ȤդäƤ
ȤϤΤΡˤʤ롥 "mother" űѸ̵Ѳ°ʷ̤ȸѶŪʺϲѸǽФ餫顤ѸƱФǡʣȤƤȤ館줿ȤǽϤʤΤ嵭Τ褦 modiris langage ʻ¸ƤȤȤϡ1ĤΥݥȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤθǤۤɶϤʤ褦ˤפ롥OED Ǥ⡤°ʷͳ褹Ȥˤ "Probably" źƤ롥դϡѸʣΥѥˤĤƤ褯ؤФʤȡȽǤǤʤ
#2869. ťΥɸ줫μѤϸűѸǤäƤ⡤ʸڤѸ ([2017-03-05-1]) Ǥ夲ƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ѸθäˤϸťΥɸ줫μѸ줬¿ޤޤƤ롥ŪطʤȤƤϡ9Ⱦʹߤ˸ťΥɸȤ꽻DZѸüԤȺäȤаޤ롥ǼѤ줿Ϥ¿θťΥɸ줫ñ줬ʸ˽ƸΤϡ꽻ʤűѸˤƤǤϤʤʤ̻֤ѸʹߡȤ櫓13ʹߤΤȤʤΤǤ롥ŪͽۤǯȼºݤʸڤǯȤδ֤˥åפȤϡѸˤǤ⤷Фм夲뤬ͳϰŪ˼Τ褦˹ͤƤBlake, p. 92 ˡ
It is a feature of the history of the English language that there are a considerable number of Old Norse loans in the language, but the appearance of these loans in writing occurs mainly from the thirteenth century onwards and not from the pre-Conquest period which is when the Viking invasions and settlements occurred. The usual explanation for this is as follows. Most Old English literature which has survived is written in the West Saxon dialect, and the dialect represents those areas of England which were least affected by the Scandinavian invasions and settlements. Hence Scandinavian influence in these areas cannot have been very significant. Even in those areas where the Danes had settled, they continued to live in their own communities and would only gradually have become absorbed among the Anglo-Saxon population. This implies that the new settlers were for a long time regarded as foreigners and no attempt was made to assimilate them. Consequently the introduction of Old Norse words into English was delayed in the Anglian dialects, and their southward drift would be even later than that. It is hardly surprising in this view that words of Scandinavian origin are not found in English in any numbers until the thirteenth century.
ĤޤꡤϳΤ˥ˤɬ⤹ˤ轻ΥͤȺä櫓ǤϤʤüѤޤŪͻϰƳ٤äȤ櫓ޤűѸʸȤƻĤäƤΤ¿ϥ West Saxon ǽƤ뤿ᡤθŪƶϸűѸˤʸڤˤΤȤ
Blake (93--94) ϤΰŪʸɤ˲ȤߤƤ롥
The continuity of West Saxon as Standard Old English would have discouraged the adoption of new words from other varieties and even from other languages. The tenth-century reforms were a continuation of the policies introduced by Alfred, and it is not surprising that the attitude towards standardisation and conservatism should have become more rigid as the standard grew in importance.
Blake ιͤϤäդΥ٥ǤϡŪаޤ鼫ͽۤȤꡤťΥɸ줫μѸ¿Ǥ˸űѸäƤɸŪݼŪ West Saxon νդˤƤϡŪάŪʶοȤ⤤٤ťΥɸѸѤ뤳ȤϤդ路ʤȹͤ졤ӽ줿ΤǤϤʤĤޤꡤ͡θȯƤʸϤˤȿǤʤäȤȤǤϤʤ
դݼϤ褯Τ줿¤ɸŪʽդȤʤФޤޤݼŪˤʤȤȤϡΤ˹ͤ롥
Blake, N. F. A History of the English Language. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996.
űѸˤĤɸಽ (standardisation) ݤ˼礿ȤʤΤϡ(1) űѸ "Early West Saxon" 뤤 "Alfredian Old English" ˡ(2) űѸ "Late West Saxon", "Ælfrician Old English" 뤤 "Standard Old English" ˡ(3) "Winchester vocabulary" 3Τۤˤ⡤"Mercian literary language" ʤɤɸಽȤܤΤȤǰ꤫⤷ʤ
θűѸΡɸפϡ#2745. Haugen θɸಽ4ʳ (2) ([2016-11-01-1]) #3209. ɸಽ7Ĥ¦̡ ([2018-02-08-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Haugen Milroy and Milroy ɸಽŪʴ˾Ȥ餷ƤߤСޤǸŪʰ̣ǤΡɸפˤʤȤϤ㤨 Late West Saxon űѸɸʾʤȤˡˤơˤǤȤªŪˤʤäƤ뤬 Haugen Τ Selection ʳФ٤˲Codification, Elaboration, Acceptance Ȥ¦̤ˤĤƤϤۤܲؤäƤʤ̩ˤΤǤСɸפʤɤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥Late West Saxon ˤĤƤϡˡǤϤʤषˤɸʲˤۤŬڤǤϤʤȤո⤢ (Kornexl 231)
ѸΤήΤʤɸಽͤǤϡϤűѸξоݤȤƲƤΤ褤㤨СűѸ Early West Saxon ȸűѸ Late West Saxon ˤĤƤϡ줾ˡθŪɸಽ뤳ȤǤ뤬ξԤδ֤ˤɬ̻ŪϢ³ϤʤȤƤϽפǤ (Kornexl 230) ޤѸȯãɸ⡤θűѸɸΤȤϢ³ʤĤޤꡤѸɸಽϡ˾塤ΩƲ٤Ƥ롥
ä˴ؤűѸɸಽλȤƤϡ"Winchester vocabulary" 롥10--11 "Winchester group/circle" ̾դ줿ɤ Winchester ˽äƽʸϤΤʤˡꤵ줿Ȥܤθäǧ롥γɤΤʤǺǤŵŪԤ Ælfric ǤꡤΥƥȤˤƤ "Winchester vocabulary" κΨ98.3%ˤȤɸŪäεɤˤΤˤĤƤϵ뤬ƥƥȤθűѸκݤȤ夷Τ¿ȤȤƤ롥äợǤϳΰϤˤɸಽλȤȤˤʤ
Kornexl, Lucia. "Standardization." Chapter 12 of The History of English. Vol. 2. Ed. Laurel J. Brinton and Alexander Bergs. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter, 2017. 220--35.
ǯù¤δطõ븦椬ƤƤ롥ŪˤäơȸΥեܤƤƤ褦ѸˤǤС㤨иűѸ˴ؤơù¤δطõäꡤȾ¤ؤɵ᤹븦椬Ƥ롥
⤦Ū˽Ҥ٤褦űѸǡ (tense) (aspect) ϷŪɸ졤ϤäѤʸˡŪȤưƤƥȤθǤɽѤʬۤĴ٤ƤߤȡλϾʲô̤λϾطʲôȤ餫ˤʤ롥Сñ졤ưŪֻͭĽϴλɽ蘆졤³ȿ̵Ľ̤λɽ蘆ȤʾϡHopper ˤ Anglo-Saxon Chronicle оݤȤʬϷ̤ǤꡤűѸ̤ƤϤޤ뤫ɤŪʷù¤ѤǽΤȤƶ̣
Ʊ褦ˡŪͳȤűѸθ¤˰äƤȤߤʤ㤬ŦƤ롥Ѹ "then" þa, þonne ϡäΤĤʤȤƺѤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥Ʊˡ줬֤뤳Ȥˤꡤ¾ʸǤŪ֤ƶ뤳Ȥ褯ΤƤ롥ɤνиѰۡù¤3Ԥϡʣ̩ܤ˴ϢäƤ褦ʤΤ㤨СʸϤޤꡤľ onginnan (to begin) ư֤ȡäη³ްդ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ줬ǡƤСä³ްդȤ
ޤþa, þonne ϤȤ "focus particles" ȤΤ褦ˡξˤؤäƤȤ롥ʸ˸Ȥʬ (topic) Ȥʤꡤʬ (focus) Ȥʤ롥
̻Ūʻ鶽̣ΤϡűѸ줫ѸˤơŪʥꥨ경ƤˤĤơ餬ôäƤù¤뵡ǽषƤäϤǤȤȤǤϡù¤뵡ǽϡ¾Τʤʤˤä줿Τ뤤ʤäΤȸΥեΤΤˡʥߥåѲǽ롥
Lenker, Ursula. "Old English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 21 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 325--340.
Ѹ˸θԤǡűѸȯù (speech_act) ȤƤ Thomas Kohnen ˤСʸˤƤϸŪʰ̣Ǥ negative politeness ϤۤȤ¸ߤʤäȤä̿ȯù٤ˤơűѸǤϸŪʥݥ饤ȥͥάѤ줺ľŪ Ic bidde eow þæt . . . (I ask you to . . . ) þu scealt . . . (thou shalt . . .) Ѥ줿ȤʸǤϡnegative politeness ϻ¾ǧʤ褦
solidarity ʤ positive politeness άϡuton (let us) ʤɤɽꥹȶŪʸ̮ʤɤǤǧ뤬ȤΩäƻѤ櫓ǤϤʤäɤ饢ʸűѸǤϡͼΥݥ饤ȥͥǤ츽٤ƱƤäȤȤ̸Ūˤ٤ŪꤵƤݥ饤ȥͥѸθŤʳˤƻ¾ԺߤäȤȤϡ̣ǥåȯǤ롥Lenker (328) ˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Politeness as face work may thus not have played a major role in Anglo-Saxon society. This highlights the intrinsically culture-specific nature of phenomena like politeness and suggests in accordance with other cross-cultural studies that the universal validity or significance of politeness theory --- as devised by Brown and Levinson . . . --- is a gross mistake. Negative politeness in particular is fundamentally culture-specific, reflecting the typical patterns of today's Western, or even more particular, Anglo-American, politeness culture . . . . The study of Anglo-Saxon pragmatics thus does not only affect our understanding of the historicity of verbal interaction but also challenges issues of universality.
Lenker, Ursula. "Old English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 21 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 325--340.
Algeo and Pyles (86--87) ꡤűѸμפʽǯɽ
| 449 | Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians began to occupy Great Britain, thus changing its major population to English speakers and separating the early English language from its Continental relatives. |
| 597 | Saint Augustine of Canterbury arrived in England to begin the conversion of the English by baptizing King Ethelbert of Kent, thus introducing the influence of the Latin language. |
| 664 | The Synod of Whitby aligned the English with Roman rather than Celtic Christianity, thus linking English culture with mainstream Europe. |
| 730 | The Venerable Bede produced his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, recording the early history of the English people |
| 787 | The Scandinavian invasion began with raids along the Northeast seacoast. |
| 865 | The Scandinavians occupied northeastern Britain and began a campaign to conquer all of England. |
| 871 | Alfred became king of Wessex and reigned until his death in 899, rallying the English against the Scandinavians, retaking the city of London, establishing the Danelaw, and securing the position of king of all England for himself and his successors. |
| 991 | Olaf Tryggvason invaded England, and the English were defeated at the Battle of Maldon. |
| 1000 | The manuscript of the Old English epic Beowulf was written about this time. |
| 1016 | Canute became king of England, establishing a Danish dynasty in Britain. |
| 1042 | The Danish dynasty ended with the death of King Hardicanute, and Edward the Confessor became king of England. |
| 1066 | Edward the Confessor died and was succeeded by Harold, last of the Anglo-Saxon kings, who died at the Battle of Hastings fighting against the invading army of William, duke of Normandy, who was crowned king of England on December 25. |
ޥĸ줬3̡Υ롼פʬƤݤˡ줾ȼθѲ̤ȤơƱδ֤ˡбط뤳ȤˤʤäAlgeo and Pyles (82--83) ˤäơפѲбط6褦
(1) ޥĸǤϤĤ̾μñ *-az ǽäƤ (ex. *wulfaz ϵ) θޥ췲Ǥϼ (Old English wulf)̥ޥ췲Ǥ -r Ȥʤ (Old Icelandic ulfr)쥲ޥ췲Ǥ -s Ȥʤä (Gothic wolfs)
(2) ޥĸǤư23ñ줾̤Ƥ쥲ޥ췲Ǥ϶̤³OE Ǥ bindest (you bind), bindeþ (he/she/it binds) ȤʤꡤGo Ǥ bindis, bindiþ Τɤḁ̈ޥ췲Ǥ2ñ -r 3ñݤ߹ߡȤ bindr Ȥʤä
(3) ̥ޥ췲Ǥ괧줬̾˸³褦ˤʤä (ex. ulfrinn (the wolf)) 쥲ޥǤϤΤ褦Ѳϵʤä
(4) Verner's Law νϤȤƤ *z ϡ̥ޥ췲Ǥ r Ȥʤä (= rhotacism) 쥲ޥ췲Ǥ s ȤʤäȤơOE ēare (ear), OIc eyra, Go auso
(5) ̥ޥ췲Ǥ i-mutation ơ㤨 OE mann (man) ФƤʣ menn (men) ȤʤäGo Ǥñ mannan Фʣ mannans Ȥʤ첻ѲȿǤƤʤ
(6) ޥ췲Ǥ Verner's Law νϤȤƤ *ð d Ȥʤä̡쥲ޥ췲ǤˤȤɤޤäȤơOE fæder (father) ФơOIc faðir, Go faðar ʤֻ fadarˡ
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
Ѹ첻ˤǤϴȤơűѸ West-Saxon ˤ <æ> ֤Ĺ첻ϡε˱2˶̤롥줾Ū ǣ1 ǣ2 ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤʤȤ˸ԤˤäƤ 1 2 źžڤߤˡ2ϡѸʹߤˤˤƤˤäƤФж̤뤳Ȥ顤ƱѤʤɡѸ˸塤פôäƤ롥
(75--76) ˤСޥӸؾ塤ǣ1 ǣ2 εϰۤʤäƤ롥ǣ1 ޥʳǤ *[aː]- ɡ֤ West-Saxon ˤ岽Τǡnon-West-Saxon ǤϤ˾夲Ф [eː] Ȥʤä (ex. dǣd "deed", lǣtan "let", þǣr "there") ǣ2 ޥ *[aɪ] űѸޤǤ [ɑː] ѲΤ i-mutation ФϤǤ (ex. lǣran "teach", dǣlan "deal") ϡWest-Saxon Τߤʤ餺 Anglian Ǥݤ줿Kentish ǤϾ夲ˤ [eː] Ȥʤääơǣ1 ǣ2 βδطϡWest-Saxon Ǥ [æː] : [æː]Anglian Ǥ [eː] : [æː]Kentish Ǥ [eː] : [eː] Ȥʤ롥ޤȤСʲ̤ꡥ
PGmc aː > OE WS æː NWS æː > eː WGmc aɪ > OE ɑː > (i-mutation) WS, Angl æː K æː > eː
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ѸʬˤĤơʲεˤƤ#1112. ʬ (1) ([2012-05-13-1])#1113. ʬ (2) ([2012-05-14-1])#2695. Ѹˤʬζ̡ ([2016-09-12-1])#2696. ʬɽꥹȶΥƥȲؤΤ ([2016-09-13-1])#2970. ʬȯ³ ([2017-06-14-1])#2971. ʬ϶ˡΤȯ㥠([2017-06-15-1])
ŪʸȸʬϡűѸǤϤޤˤȯãƤʤäʬ䤹ˡϳΤϺƤˡȤˤƤ⡤λȤϤƤӤƤ餺ˤȯŸӾȤʳˤߤΤǤ롥1ȤơȤȤ <> ѤƤ Bede Historia Ecclesiastica, III, Bodleian Library, Tanner MS 10, 54r. Ƭ4ԤƸ褦Crystal 19ˡ

ÞAǷÆSGEWORDENYMB
syx hund ƿyntra7feower7syxtig æft(er) drihtnes
menniscnesseeclipsis solisþæt is sunnanaspru
ngennis
then was happened about
six hundred wintersand sixty-four after the lord's
incarnation(in Latin) eclipse of the sunthat is sun eclipse
ޤ2ʬ츫ȤǽκȤʤʻѤƤȤܤޤδФȤƤϡʬ䤹٤Ȥʬ䤬ʤ7 [= "and"] μաˡդʬ䤹٤ǤʤȤʬ䤬̾ GEWORDENYMB ˤߤƬȸ촴δ֡ˤȤⶽ̣
ʬ硤ξˤϸȸδ֤ˤɤΤ餤ζ뤫Ȥ꤬ꡤʬ䵡ǽǽ뤬ϡʸΥȥͻ礷ʤ¤˶֤ǤǤƤȤǤƤΤǡͭϤ褦˻פ롥
ϡѸ˸¤餺νˤФи줿ʶˡ1ĤȤäƤ褤ܸǤ⡤üˡäƳƤ롥
Crystal, David. Making a Point: The Pernickety Story of English Punctuation. London: Profile Books, 2015.
ѸΥե٥åȤ26ʸȷޤäƤ뤬Ѹˤγʳǥե٥åȤʸμοϡ¿֤Ƥ㤨иűѸǤϡѸˤʸΤ3ĤȤƤ餺դ˸űѸͭʸ4Ĥۤɤä26 - 3 + 4 = 27 ȤȤǡűѸΥե٥åȤˤ27ʸäȤˤʤ롥
| PDE | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | w | x | y | z | ||||
| OE | a | æ | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | (k) | l | m | n | o | p | (q) | r | s | t | þ | ð | u | ƿ | (x) | y | (z) |
űѸؽ椹ͭѤʼĤҲ𤹤롥
(1) Bosworth, Joseph. A Compendious Anglo-Saxon and English Dictionary. London: J. R. Smith, 1848.
(2) Bosworth, Joseph and Thomas N. Toller. Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Oxford: OUP, 1973. 1898. (Online version available at http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/texts/oe_bosworthtoller_about.html.)
(3) Hall, John R. C. A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Rev. ed. by Herbert T. Merritt. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1996. 1896. (Online version available at http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/texts/oe_clarkhall_about.html.)
(4) Healey, Antonette diPaolo, Ashley C. Amos and Angus Cameron, eds. The Dictionary of Old English in Electronic Form A--G. Toronto: Dictionary of Old English Project, Centre for Medieval Studies, U of Toronto, 2008. (see The Dictionary of Old English (DOE) and Dictionary of Old English Corpus (DOEC).)
(5) Sweet, Henry. The Student's Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon. Cambridge: CUP, 1976. 1896.
ΤΥȥ뤫ȤꡤܤԻˤϤޤޤǤ롥Ѥ Sweet ˻Ϥޤꡤά Hall 顤Ū Bosworth and Toller Фơǿ Healey et al. ˤŻ DOE ˻롥DOE ơűѸ켭֤褽19λʪǤ뤳Ȥܤͤ롥λˡ͡ʥ٥θűѸ켭ȼεϡҰռäԻ졤Ǥ줿ΤǤ롥
νդɸबΤޤäƤʤűѸμԻǤϡФɤΤ褦ֻΩƤ뤫ǺޤȤʤ롥ѼԤϡƤŬڤֻФʤ뤤ϰ֤δ֤餤ˤ뤫Ǥ롥绨ĤˤСŪ Sweet ΩƤ븫Фֻ "critical" ǵϼŪǤꡤǤŪ DOE "diplomatic" ǵҼŪǤ롥δ֤ˡˤ䤫 "critical" Hall ȴˤ䤫 "diplomatic" Bosworth and Toller ֤Ť롥
碌ƸűѸäγؽˤϡʲ2Ƥ
Barney, Stephen A. Word-Hoard: An Introduction to Old English Vocabulary. 2nd ed. New Haven: Yale UP, 1985.
Holthausen, Ferdinand. Altenglisches etymologisches Wōrterbuch. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1963.
Holthausen μϡűѸ츻ȤŪðۤϰ̤Ƥ뤬츻äؤܤȤݤˤΩġBarney ϡƱݤǡɤdzڤűѸñꥹȤǤ롥
#2942. ޥβѲ ([2017-05-17-1]) ˰³Hamer (15) ꡤɸλ˴ط2ĤβѲҲ𤹤롥
| Sound change | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| D | The diphthongs all developed as follows: ai > ā, au > ēa (ēa = ǣa), eu > ēo, iu > īo. (This development of eu and iu was in fact very much later, but it is placed here in the interests of simplification.) | |
| E | a > æ unless it came before a nasal consonant. | dæg, glæd, but land/lond. |
The effects can be seen in comparing say OE dæg, OFr deg with Go dags, OIc dagr, OHG tag. (The original [æ] was later raised in Frisian.)
In outline, AFB turns low back */α/ to [æ], except before nasals (hence OE, OHG mann but dæg vs. tag. It is usually accepted that at some point before AFB (which probably dates from around the early fifth century), */α/ > [α̃] before nasals, and the nasalized vowel blocked AFB.
AFB ϸűѸ̾ޤʤɤˤʰ۷֤벻ѲȤƽפʤΤǡűѸؽԤϵαƤ
Hamer, R. F. S. Old English Sound Changes for Beginners. Oxford: Blackwell, 1967.
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ѸβˤؤܤȤȡűѸ鸽Ѹˤơޤ¿βѲäƤΤܤ饯餹ۤɤܥ֥Ǥ⡤ޤǸġˤ¿βѲäƤηŪ˼פʤΤǤ⾯ƤѤƤФȻפäƤ롥
ϡHamer (14--15) θűѸ첻ѲꡤűѸΩĥޥ3ܤ٤첻ѲҲ𤹤롥
| Sound change | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| A | u > o unless followed by a nasal consonant, or by u or i/j in the following syllable. (By this is meant if the vowel element of the following syllable consisted of any u sound, or of any i sound or of any combination beginning with j.) | bunden, holpen are both OE p.p. of Class III Strong Verbs, the u of bunden having been retained, because of the following n. god, gyden = 'god', goddess. gyden had earlier had i instead of e in its ending, and this i first caused the u to survive, then later caused it to change to y by i-mutation (see I below). Thus both the o and y in these forms derive from Gmc. u. |
| B | e > i if followed by a nasal consonant, or by i/j in the following syllable. | bindan, helpan are both OE infin. of Class III Strong Verbs. helpan has 3 sg. pres indic. hilpþ < Gmc. *hilpiþi. |
| C | eu > iu before i/j in the following syllable. |
#2893. Beowulf Ƭ11ԡ ([2017-03-29-1]) ǵ11ԤǤʪʤפ줿Τǡͭ̾ (ship burial) εҤޤ Beowulf Ƭ52ԤѤȤϡ6--11˥ǥʥȥʸǸ줿̼ԤˡǤ롥
ʸ Jack ǤǡѸ Norton Anthology ˼ϿƤ륢ɤΥΡ٥ʸؾ Seamus Heaney ǤǤϤ롥
| OE | PDE translation | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| a-verse | b-verse | ||
| Hwæt, wē Gār-Dena | in geārdagum, | So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by | |
| þēodcyninga | þrym gefrūnon, | and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness. | |
| hū ðā æþelingas | ellen fremedon. | We have heard of those princes' heroic campaigns. | |
| Oft Scyld Scēfing | sceaþena þrēatum, | There was Shield Sheafson, scourge of many tribes, | |
| 5 | monegum mǣgþum | meodosetla oftēah, | a wrecker of mead-benches, rampaging among foes. |
| egsode eorl[as], | syððan ǣrest wearð | This terror of the hall-troops had come far. | |
| fēasceaft funden; | hē þæs frōfre gebād, | A foundling to start with, he would flourish later on | |
| wēox under wolcnum, | weorðmyndum þāh, | as his powers waxed and his worth was proved. | |
| oðþæt him ǣghwylc þ[ǣr] | ymbsittendra | In the end each clan on the outlying coasts | |
| 10 | ofer hronrāde | hȳran scolde, | beyond the whale-road had to yield to him |
| gomban gyldan. | Þæt wæs gōd cyning! | and begin to pay tribute. That was one good king. | |
| Ðǣm eafera wæs | æfter cenned | Afterward a boy-child was born to Shield, | |
| geong in geardum, | þone God sende | a cub in the yard, a comfort sent | |
| folce tō frōfre; | fyrenðearfe ongeat | by God to that nation. Hew knew what they had tholed, | |
| 15 | þ[e] hīe ǣr drugon | aldor[lē]ase | the long times and troubles they'd come through |
| lange hwīle. | Him þæs Līffrēa, | without a leader; so the Lord of Life, | |
| wuldres Wealdend | woroldāre forgeaf; | the glorious Almighty, made this man renowned. | |
| Bēowulf wæs brēme | ---blǣd wīde sprang--- | Shield had fathered a famous son: | |
| Scyldes eafera | Scedelandum in. | Beow's name was known through the north. | |
| 20 | Swā sceal [geong g]uma | gōde gewyrcean, | And a young prince must be prudent like that, |
| fromum feohgiftum | on fæder [bea]rme, | giving freely while his father lives | |
| þæt hine on ylde | eft gewunigen | so that afterward in age when fighting starts | |
| wilgesīþas | þonne wīg cume, | steadfast companions will stand by him | |
| lēode gelǣsten; | lofdǣdum sceal | and hold the line. Behavior that's admired | |
| 25 | in mǣgþa gehwǣre | man geþēon. | is the path to power among people everywhere. |
| Him ðā Scyld gewāt | tō gescæphwīle, | Shield was still thriving when his time came | |
| felahrōr fēran | on Frēan wǣre. | and he crossed over into the Lord's keeping. | |
| Hī hyne þā ætbǣron | tō brimes faroðe, | His warrior band did what he bade them | |
| swǣse gesīþas, | swā hē selfa bæd, | when he laid down the law among the Danes: | |
| 30 | þenden wordum wēold | wine Scyldinga; | they shouldered him out to the sea's flood, |
| lēof landfruma | lange āhte. | the chief they revered who had long ruled them. | |
| Þǣr æt hȳðe stōd | hringedstefna | A ring-whorled prow rode in the harbor, | |
| īsig ond ūtfūs, | æþelinges fær; | ice-clad, outbound, a craft for a prince. | |
| ālēdon þā | lēofne þēoden, | They stretched their beloved lord in his boat, | |
| 35 | bēaga bryttan | on bearm scipes, | laid out by the mast, amidships, |
| mǣrne be mæste. | Þǣr wæs mādma fela | the great ring-giver. Far-fetched treasures | |
| of feorwegum, | frætwa gelǣded; | were piled upon him, and precious gear. | |
| ne hȳrde ic cȳmlīcor | cēol gegyrwan | I never heard before of a ship so well furbished | |
| hildewǣpnum | ond heaðowǣdum, | with battle-tackle, bladed weapons | |
| 40 | billum ond byrnum; | him on bearme læg | and coats of mail. The massed treasure |
| mādma mænigo, | þā him mid scoldon | was loaded on top of him: it would travel far | |
| on flōdes ǣht | feor gewītan. | on out into the ocean's sway. | |
| Nalæs hī hine lǣssan | lācum tēodan, | They decked his body no less bountifully | |
| þēodgestrēonum, | þon þā dydon | with offerings than those first ones did | |
| 45 | þe hine æt frumsceafte | forð onsendon | who cast him away when he was a child |
| ǣnne ofer ȳðe | umborwesende. | and launched him alone out over the waves. | |
| Þā gȳt hie him āsetton | segen g[yl]denne | And they set a gold standard up | |
| hēah ofer hēafod, | lēton holm beran, | high above his head and let him drift | |
| gēafon on gārsecg. | Him wæs geōmor sefa, | to wind and tide, bewailing him | |
| 50 | murnende mōd. | Men ne cunnon | and mourning their loss. No man can tell, |
| secgan tō sōðe, | selerǣden[d]e, | no wise man in hall or weathered veteran | |
| hæleð under heofenum, | hwā þǣm hlæste onfēng. | knows for certain who salvaged that load. | |
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