ǯɸֻŪ˴ؤ
߷˧ͺ ԡرѸ츻ŵʽ̺ǡˡ١ʸҡ1999ǯp.731ˤˤޤȡinterpreterȤˤơ -er Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤ16ȤƤޤ-er ͥˤʤäطʤˤϤɤʻ𤬤äΤǤ礦鹬Ǥ
줫龯Ĵ٤Ƥߤ interpreter Ȥ1ǤϤʤư -er, -or 롤ŪΤ褦ǤꡤŪʣȤߤ롥ܳŪ˲ˤϾĴ٤ʤФʤʤȻפΤǡϼޤΤΤ
-or -er ִ줿ΡޤεִϡѸ˾夷Фи롥ˤĤƤС -er ϱѸΤΡ -or ϥƥͳ褹ΤǤ뤬Ѹ衤ξԤѤ뤤ʻѤ㤬롥Ѹˤƥƥ -or ıñδŪįȡUpward and Davidson (143--44) ˼Τ褦ʵҤ롥
-OR, -OUR: The ending -OR was originally Lat, and many of the words with that ending in ModE are exact Lat forms: actor, doctor, professor, poerator, error, horror, senior, superior, etc.
Many other words with -OR may have it modelled on the Lat ending, but derive more directly from Fr forms with other endings which were often used in ME or EModE:
* Ambassador, author, emperor, governor, tailor were often written with -OUR in EModE.
* Bachelor, chancellor were often written with -ER in ME and EModE.
* Councillor was formerly not distinguished from counsellor. Both derive from Fr counseiller and were often written counseller in ME.
* Warrior (OFr werreor, ModFr guerrier) was in ME generally spelt -IOUR.
* Ancestor, anchor, traitor have ModFr equivalents ending in -RE (ancêtre, etc.) and were often spelt with -RE in ME.
* Mayor was adopted in EModE as a more Latinate form (compare major) in preference to ME mair(e) from Fr maire.
ƥȤ -or ĸ줬ѸäƤȡ-or ݤΤϳΤ¿DZѸեδ˽ä -(i)our -er æƥ⤢äȤ狼롥
Τ褦ʺޤδΤʤ顤٤ηϤ㤬ˤǤäƤ#1349. procrastination ([2013-01-05-1]) #1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]) Ǥˤ褦ˡƥ줫μѤ˴ƤˤäơƥñѸȤƼݤδˤ䤫ʡֱѸ첽§פŬѤ褦ˤʤäƤȤȤο㡦§1Ĥˡƥ -ator ư̾ -er ȤƼʤ뤤ϼʤˤȤΤäΤǤϤʤ㡦§ȤϸäΤΡºݤˤϤٳΩޤǤˤϻ֤⤫ä櫓Ǥꡤδ֡ŪѰ̻ۤŪѲäΤȻפ롥ƥ -ator ϡޤ -eur, -or, -our ʤɤΥեŪʷ֤ФơǽŪˤϱѸ -er ˼äΤǤϤʤ̤ȤƤߤСƥ -ator ȱѸ -er бΩȤˤʤ롥ˤĤơUpward and Davidson (110) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The -ER may have developed from Lat -ATOR through MFr/ME -OUR to ModE -ER: e.g. Lat portator > OFr porteour > ME porteour > ME portour > ModE porter. Similar histories underlie controller, counter, recorder, turner, and partially also waiter (< OFr waitour).
ơΰѤκǸˤ⤦1դä٤ȤơˤƤ LL interpretātor (explainer) ΤǤϤʤ顤OF interpreteur AF interpretour ͳơ ME interpretour interpretor Ԥʤ졤ModE interpreter ؤȻäȹͤ롥
ʾСƥ -ator ˵İ췲θ줬Ѹ -or ¾η֤ФΤѸ -er ػ㤬¿äȤȤǤϤʤ16 interpretor > interpreter ϡλ1ĤȤߤʤȤǤǤ롥
ˤĤƤϡ⤤Ĵ٤ƤͽǤ롥
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
820դǡѤʵץʡˤƼΤ褦ʼΤǡͤƤߤ
piano 2013-08-20 09:25:05
Online Etymology DictionarystarĴ٤ޤȡƥ"stella" ȺǸλҲ"l"ˤʤäƤޤ"r""l"ȤҲѲϤФе뤳ȤʤΤǤ礦Ȥ줷Ǥ
[r] [l] ñǤθؤˤĤƤϡ#72. /r/ /l/ ϴְ㤨!? ([2009-07-09-1]) ǸȤꡤĤλ㤬ǧ롥۲ (dissimilation) ȸƤФ벻ŵǤ롥αѸ star ȥƥ stella Ȥбϡ[r] [l] ΰ۲Ȥ̵ط#90. taper paper ([2009-07-26-1]) #259. phonaesthesia ۲ ([2010-01-11-1]) Ǥ줿۲ [r] [l] ñǷ֤˵䤹Ĥޤꡤ۲ϸġñˤñȯΤǤȤϤưǤʤ櫓ǤϤʤstar 䤽ΰƱθߤƤߤȡäήη֤ϳǧʤΤǡޤޤθ˺Ѥ۲ȤߤʤΤˤ̵롥Ǥϡstar stella λҲбϡۤˤɤΤ褦Τ
ޤ츻Ʊη֤äȤߤƤߤ褦ĸǤ *ster- (star) ƷƤ롥Ťʳ *əster- ȯŸȤ졤ˤ Akkadian Ištal Venus ˤμѸȤޥĸȤƤ *sternōn Ʒ졤ޥǤ OE steorra, Du. ster, OHG sterno/sterro, G Stern, ON stjarna, Goth. staírnō ʤɤʸڤ롥λҲ r Ǥ롥ʤn Ĥ֤ϡѸǤ ON stjarna ˱ƶ stern Ȥ֤ȤǤޤʤǧ롥ޥϤǤ⡤Gk astḗr, Welsh seren, Skt stár, Hitt. haster-, Toch. A śreǹ (nom.pl.) ȸ¤ r 롥
ȤޥϤǤ Latin stella ޤᡤλҲ l бƤ뤫뤤æǤ롥Υƥϡ¯ƥ *stēla ͳơF étoile, It. stella, Rum. stea ʤɤؤȯã̯ͣϡr l ξޤ Sp. estrella ǡ Gk āstron Ѥ L astrum ȤκƤ롥
ɤΤȤѸ star 䤽¾ۤȤɤƱˤߤ r ŪʻҲʤΤǤäơƥ stella ˴ޤޤ l 㳰ŪȤȤˤʤ롥Ǥϡƥ㳰ŪʻҲ l ϤˤΤOED star, n.1 θ츻ˤСL stella ʸڤʤ *ster-la ȯŸΤǤϤʤȤβꤵ -la ˤĤ OED ͿƤʤSkeat θ츻ŵŦ̤ꡤؾ (diminutive) ȹͤƤ褤cf. ե soleil ۡˤ캬ܻؾθǤ뤳Ȥӡˡ la ľΰ֤ˤơ캬 r l Ʊʰ۲ǤϤʤˤ졤ll 褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤPartridge θ츻ŵǤϡIE *ster- ΰ۷Ȥ *stel- ƷƤ뤳ȤȤդäƤ
ƥ stella ˴ŤѸؤμѸˤϡͭ̾ Stella Τۤconstellation, stellar, stellate ʤɤ롥ѹαˤäˤʤäӡ Stella Artois ȤƳʤ
Skeat, Walter William, ed. An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 4th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. 1st ed. 1879--82. 2nd ed. 1883.
Skeat, Walter William, ed. A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. New ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910. 1st ed. 1882.
Partridge, Eric Honeywood. Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. 4th ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966. 1st ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; New York: Macmillan, 1958.
-st θź (paragoge) ˤĤƤϡε#1573. amidst -st ([2013-08-17-1]) ޤᡤ##508,509,510,739,1389,1393,1394,1399,1554,1555,1573 γƵǰäƤήǡ amongst ˤĤơ
OED ˤȡź÷15˵äƤꡤƤȤƤ amongest ֻ16Ƭ "1509 Bp. J. Fisher Wks. (1876) 296 Yf ony faccyons or bendes were made secretely amongest her hede Officers." ǤŤľܤΥǥȤʤäȹͤ amonges Τ褦ʷ֤ϤǤѸǹѤƤMED among(es (prep.) ȡˡapheresis ʸƬüˤФ 'mongst 16ȾФ鸽Ƥ롥
(69) ˤСamong amongst Τ˰̣ΰ㤤Ϥʤ٤101Ǥ롥ꥹѸǤϥꥫѸ amongst λ٤⤤첻ǤϹĴ (euphony) amongst Ѥ뷹ȤŦ⤢뤬BNC ѤĴǤϤΤ褦ʷ̤ϽФʤäȤƤ롥λŦŪʤΤϡ#1554. against -st ([2013-07-29-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ-st źäϸ³괧θƬҲȤη˵ȤȤδϢˤƤǤ롥⤷ amongst + 첻ηȤСǤϤ뤬Ʊ euphony 뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ơܥ֥ǤϤޤ -st θźäˤĤ against, amidst, amongst, betwixt, unbeknownst, whilst 6ˤĤƤߤƤOED 츻ŵлξƤߤ褦
| against | c1300 |
| betwixt | c1300 |
| whilst | a1400 |
| amongst | C15 |
| amidst | C15 |
| unbeknownst | 1854 |

Υޥ (the Norman Conquest) ϡեαʩ̤Υޥǥ (Normandy) ˽夤Υޥ (the Normans) μ William ˤ륤ǤʾϿȡˡ1066ǯ˵äνϱѹ˾λȤäƤ褤衼åѻˤȤƤϡ8³ƤΥ衼åѹӤΰǤ롥Υޥ̲ͤпȤΥΰɤǤ뤳ȤϡNorman θ츻狼롥
Norman Ȥϡ嵭Τ褦˥˽̲ؼ̱²̾ǡ1200ǯκȤ Laȝamon's Brut ˽Ф롥 OF Normant (F NormandˤκǽҲæ֤μѤǤꡤOF Normant Τ ON Norðmaðr (northman) μѤǤ롥ǽҲæϡOF ʣ Normans, Normanz ñ (back-formation) 줿̤Ǥ뤫⤷ʤҲ ð ξüϡDu. Noorman, G Normanne ʤɥޥη֤ˤȿǤƤ롥
Ѹ줫ѸˤƤϡOF AN Normand ˴Ť d ķ֤ѤƤߤޤɸŪѤƤΤ d ʤ Norman Ǥ롥̾Ȥղä Normandy ǤϡOF ǸƤ d ݻƤ롥MED Normandī(e (n. & adj.) ˤ14ФOED Ǥ11 Normandig Ȥ㤬Ȥ̾Τ̱ۤ²̾ʸڤᤫäȤȤˤʤ롥
Ϣơ她ǥʥͤ䤽θɽ魯 Norse Ȥϡ16ФǤ롥ϡDu. noorsch (noord + -sch) μѤǤꡤȤƤ north + -ish Τ褦ʹ¤ȤȤˤʤ롥ͤޤǤˡѸ -ish ȤɤƤʤȤ French, Welsh ʤɤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1157. Welsh ˤߤ벻Ѳ˭٤ ([2012-06-27-1]) #133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩ ([2009-09-07-1]) εȡ
#564. Many a little makes a mickle ([2010-11-12-1]) ȡ#1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1]) εǡߤǤϸȤ¿̡פ̣ mickle ȤˤĤƽҤ٤Ѹ much ϢʤűѸ myċel ƱǤꡤ2Ҳѷ뤤ϸťΥɸ mikill μѤФơѸμȤˤ /k/ Ĥ褦ˤʤä֤Ǥ롥Ѹʹߤϡ̤ä much ͥˤʤꡤmickle ɤФĤɸäʤҤθűѸ myċel ȸťΥɸ mikill ϡդΥޥĸ *mik-ila- ̤롥
ޥĸ⤵˱츻̤ȡΡ礭¿פɽ魯ϡĸ *meg- ˤɤ夯θ캬ϤӤ¿͡ʷϩ̤ƱѸäƤƤ롥
դΰĸ *mag-no ȯŸƥ magnus (great) ˴ŤǡѸäΤȤƤϡmagnate, magnitude, magnum; magnanimous, magnific, magnificent, magnifico, magnify, magniloquent ʤɤ롥
ӵĤĸ *mag-yos- ʥƥ māiorˤϡmajor, major-domo, majority, majuscule, mayor ꡤ̾첽֤Ȥ maestoso, majesty, maestro, magisterial, magistral, magistrate, master, mister, mistral, mistress Ѥ줿ޤǾĤĸ *mag-samo- ʥƥ maximus) ϡmaxim, maximum äƤ롥
Ĥĸ *mag-ya- ϡƥν Maia ޤƤꡤѸȤƤ may ʡԸšվ̼ˤƱǤ롥
̤Ĥĸ *meg-ə-(l-) ϡꥷͳơacromegaly, omega ʤɤΤߤʤ餺mega-, megalo- ƬȤƤ¿θ줬ѸäꥷκǾ megistos ȤˤȤƤϡalmagest, Hermes Trismegistus äƤ롥
åȸƱ mahā-, mahat- ϡMahabharata, maharajah, maharani, maharishi, mahatma, Mahayana, mahout ѸäƤ롥
mickle, much ƱˤĤƤϡڡ륯θ츻ŵ⻲ȡ¾θ캬ΥͥåȥäȤƤϡ#695. 캬 fer ([2011-03-23-1]), #1043. mind θ캬ͥåȥ ([2012-03-05-1]), #1124. Ϥ礦ͤ⸬ʿʹ֡ ([2012-05-25-1]) ȡ
Watkins, Calvert, ed. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. 2nd Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
Ѹǡfinger singer ˤ ng ʬȯϰۤʤ롥Ԥ [fɪŋgə]Ԥ [sɪŋə] Ǥ롥ԤΤ褦ˡ-ing ǽ촴ղäˤ [ŋ] ΤߤȤʤդƻѲ̤ long ӵ longer [lɔŋgə] Ǥ롥äơ֤Ĺפȡ˾͡פȤǤϡƱ longer Ǥ [lɔŋgə] [lɔŋə] ȯۤʤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ťϸ -ng Ͼ [ŋg] ä岻Ǥˤ뤬14Ⱦ顤ǤɸѸ17顤[ŋŋ] ͳ [ŋ] ؤȲѲ뤲West Midlands Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool ʤɤǤϤβѲϵ餺[ŋg] ݤ줿
Τ褦¿Ǹ -ng [ŋg] [ŋ] Ѳ뤳Ȥˤäơsing [sɪŋ] sin [sɪn] ʤɤǾ (minimal pair) 뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ/ŋ/ Dz (phonemicisation)
ʤưȤƤ -ing ϡ [ɪŋg] [ɪŋ] Ѳۤˡ [ɪn] ؤȯŸѰ۷⤢äѸǤϤФ -in' ɽǡɸŪȤƤ[2013-01-26-1]ε#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴפȡˤŪˤϹԤʤƤ19ˤݼŪ RP ǤѤƤꡤषҤȯȤߤʤƤθ塤Ū˰ҿƤäΤϡֻȯ (spelling pronunciation) αƶȹͤ롥
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ϸѸܼź (affixation) ˴ؤŪꡥѸθˤѤ礿Ƭ (prefix) (suffix) Quirk et al. (1539--58) ˤƬν롥ʲΥꥹȤǤϡƱܼΰ۷̡֤˵Ƥ뤬ƬȤˤ褽50Ĥ롥
A-, AN-, ANTI-, ARCH-, AUTO-, BE-, BI-, CO-, CONTRA-, COUNTER-, DE-, DEMI-, DI-, DIS-, EM-, EN-, EX-, EXTRA-, FORE-, HYPER-, IN-, INTER-, MAL-, MINI-, MIS-, MONO-, MULTI-, NEO-, NON-, OUT-, OVER-, PALEO-, PAN-, POLY-, POST-, PRE-, PRO-, PROTO-, PSEUDO-, RE-, SEMI-, SUB-, SUPER-, SUR-, TELE-, TRANS-, TRI-, ULTRA-, UN-, UNDER-, UNI-, VICE-
-(I)AN, -ABLE, -AGE, -AL, -ANT, -ATE, -ATION, -DOM, -ED, -EE, -EER, -EN, -ER, -ERY, -ESE, -ESQUE, -ESS, -ETTE, -FUL, -FY, -HOOD, -IAL, -IC, -ICAL, -IFY, -ING, -IOUS, -ISH, -ISM, -IST, -ITE, -ITY, -IVE, -IZE (-ISE), -LESS, -LET, -LIKE, -LING, -LY, -MENT, -NESS, -OCRACY, -OR, -OUS, -RY, -SHIP, -STER, -WARD(S), -WISE, -Y
Ʊ Quirk et al. ˤ̣䵡ǽˤ뤳ܼ绨Ĥʬ̥ڡ˼Τǡ⻲ȡ
Crystal (150) ˤСOED ˤ븫Ф쥵ץĴη̡100ĶۤɤƬΤ줫ѸΤ40--50%˸ȤܼźäѸομ礿ʤǤ뤳Ȥϡ#873. ѸοˤʣΥХ ([2011-09-17-1])#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1])#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1])#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) ʤɤǺƻƤŪѤƤѸΤߤƤ⡤Ϥܼźä礭ȤȤ狼롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
ǯ⥴ǥäܸȤƤΡ֥ǥפϡ1951ǯϢ٤˾Ǥ줿Dz褬ߤζԤҥåȤȤˤʤDzȳȯѸǤ롥GW Ȥάˡ⤹ä̲롥
ơѸ golden ϡ̾ gold ηƻȤǧΤƤ롥gold ΤƻŪѤ졤 golden Ϥɤ餫ȤŪ뤤ʸŪѤ뤳Ȥ¿a gold coin ʶߡˤФgolden opportunity 乥εˤǡǤ롥ѸǤϤ뤬Ҥ Golden Week Ūˡ
ѸǺɽ魯ƻ -en ϡƥ -īnusꥷ -inosåȸ -īna ʤɤθŵˤƱߤۤɤθŤ16ʹߡ嵭Τ褦˴Τ̾줬ΤޤƻȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤꡤߤǤΩʤȤʤäƤ롥㤨Сearthen, wheaten, woolen ʤɤϷߤglassen, oaken, silken, silvern, tinnen ʤɤϸŤᤫʸŪǤ롥
űѸ gylden (golden), stǣnen (of stone) Ȥ֤̤ꡤϤΩĻˤϹ첻 i äƤꡤľβ첻 i-mutation Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ줬ѸˤƴΤ gold, stone ȤβŪѤˤ첻ִ golden, stonen ߽ФϡѲˤΤκäΤΡŪѤˤƤӷ֤̤äƤȤѲˤ˴ѻιʤѤФä gilden 16ѸȤʤäȴϢ̤ȯŸˤư gild ʶäˤϡߤޤǻĤäƤ롥
ơűѸ gylden i-mutation κѤջȡΤȤƤ̾ gulden ȤʤϤűѸǤ gold Ǥ롥ϡűѸΥޥˡŪ u o ؤȾ夲βФǤ롥β n 첻³ˤ˻ߤ줿ϡűѸζѲưIIIˤơbunden Ǥ u ݤƤ뤬holpen Ǥ o ؾ夲Ȥʤɤ (Hamer 14--15) ˤűѸ̾ gold Фƻ gylden (< *guldin) 褦
Hamer, R. F. S. Old English Sound Changes for Beginners. Oxford: Blackwell, 1967.
̾ʣ -s ˤϻμפʥơޤ1ĤǤ[2011-11-29-1]ε#946. ̾ʣˤγספȡˡȤ櫓ʤۤʤ -s Ф줿ΤȤˤϤäƤHotta (148--49) ǤϡĤθŪװŦ1ĤȤơ-s ¾ʣɽ٤ƲŪ˶ǤǤꡤˤȤŦ
-s βŪۤȤˤĤơHickey (62) ˴ϢڤĤǤϡ̾ʣ -s Τߤʤ餺ư3ñ -th Ф -s ˤĤƤƤ롥
. . . acoustic prominence can be appealed to in the history of English as well, for instance the substitution of /-θ/ by /-s/ in the third person singular or the progressive productivity of /-s/ plurals from Old English onwards and their encroaching on already established plural types --- cf. ME nasal plurals, such as eyen eyes --- can be accounted for on the grounds of the phonetic salience of /s/ and hence its suitability as a grammatical suffix.
-s βŪۤϡ饤ХФľŪʾȤϡǽŪĤ˹ a conditioning factor 餤ˤȤ館ƤΤ褤ΤǤϤʤȹͤ뤬Ѳ˲ŪħؤäƤȤܤͤ롥ä [s] [θ] ĴŪʺۤˤĤƤϡŪͤùȤϤʤäΤǡHickey (71 [fn. 5]) μϤ꤬ʰλʸϰѼԤŸΡˡ
Ladefoged and Maddieson (pp. 145--72 of Ladefoged, Peter and Ian Maddieson. The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.) suggest a division of fricatives into sibilant and non-sibilant given that with the former (/s, ʃ/ articulations in English for instance) the constriction at the alveolar ridge produces a jet of air that hits the obstacle formed by the teeth. In non-obstacle fricatives, such as /θ, ð/, the turbulence is produced at the constriction itself. Laver (pp. 260--63 of Laver, John. Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.) discusses the auditory characteristics of fricatives as does Fry (p. 122 of Fry, Dennis Butler. The Physics of Speech. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.), who notes that the noise energy for [s] is prominent between 4000 and 8000 Hz. It is similar in frequency distribution to [θ] but has much greater energy which means it is more clearly audible (see diagrams, Fry 1979: 123). *
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Hickey, Raymond. "Salience, Stigma and Standard." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 57--72.
[2012-09-17-1]ε#1239. Frequency Actuation Hypothesisפǡ -ate ưζưƤƤȤѲ˿줿̾ư (diatone Ʊͤ˸ߤʹζܹԤǤꡤóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȤƤܤͤ롥
ΰܹԤˤĤƤ Phillips óȻδ鸦椷Ƥ뤬OED "contemplate, v" ˤޤȤޤä⤬ΤǡҲ𤷤褦Danielsson (271--72) Ǥ⡤OED Τβս꤬Ƥ롥
In a few rare cases (Shakes., Hudibras) stressed 'contemplate in 16--7th c.; also by Kenrick 1773, Webster 1828, among writers on pronunciation. Byron, Shelley, and Tennyson have both modes, but the orthoepists generally have con'template down to third quarter of 19th c.; since that time 'contemplate has more and more prevailed, and con'template begins to have a flavour of age. This is the common tendency with all verbs in -ate. Of these, the antepenult stress is historical in all words in which the penult represents a short Latin syllable, as ac'celerate, 'animate, 'fascinate, 'machinate, 'militate, or one prosodically short or long, as in 'celebrate, 'consecrate, 'emigrate; regularly also when the penult has a vowel long in Latin, as 'alienate, 'aspirate, con'catenate, 'denudate, e'laborate, 'indurate, 'personate, 'ruinate (L. aliēno, aspīro, etc.). But where the penult has two or three consonants giving positional length, the stress has historically been on the penult, and its shift to the antepenult is recent or still in progress, as in acervate, adumbrate, alternate, compensate, concentrate, condensate, confiscate, conquassate, constellate, demonstrate, decussate, desiccate, enervate, exacerbate, exculpate, illustrate, inculcate, objurgate, etc., all familiar with penult stress to middle-aged men. The influence of the noun of action in -ation is a factor in the change; thus the analogy of ,conse'cration, 'consecrate, etc., suggests ,demon'stration, 'demonstrate. But there being no remonstration in use, re'monstrate, supported by re'monstrance, keeps the earlier stress.
Ĥޤꡤ3ʾθˤƤϡŪˤ penult ι˱ƶ penult antepenult Ūˤϡpenult ˻ҲˤϡŪˤϤβ˶ȤḽѸˤơб̾ -ation ζѥˤȤŤ䤬Ưᤫζ˰ĺءantepenult ؤȰܹԤƤƤȤΤǤ롥
Danielsson OED ˤ3ʾθˤĤƤθڤʤPhillips 2ˤĤƤĴ̣Ȥˡ2 -ate ưʤ penult IJΤΡˤǤϡȿФζܹԤäƤȤfrustrate, dictate, prostrate, pulsate, stagnate, truncate ʤɤθǤϡŪˤ penult ˶Ѹˤ ultima ˶۷ƤƤʺǽ3ˤĤƤ夷ˡơζܹԤˤĤƤ⡤Phillips ٤ι⤤ΤѲƤƤȤ¤ͤߤ (226--28)
٤㤤ΤѲƤ Phillips μĥ̾ưȡΩ̤Ǥ롥٤ȸóȻοʹԽȤˡʰФꤸƤ롥
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Danielsson, Bror. Studies on the Accentuation of Polysyllabic Latin, Greek, and Romance Loan-Words in English. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1948.
[2012-07-29-1]ε³ԡѸǤϡ##1172,992,984 εˤ褦ʶդñ줬³ȸ줿Ūʶ뤳Τ褦ʶդñ줬Ѹɸಽ䵬ϼĬήΤʤ졤äƤäΤ⡤ƱΤȤäˤϡŪ˵ǽη֡ŵŪ -lyˤäƤ٤ǤꡤƻƱΤΤȤƵǽΤʤȤ "correctness" ȯۤǻǤ롥Strang (138--39) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Secondary modifiers or intensifiers differed considerably. The old forms, full, right, were still in general use; newer very was known, but not used by everybody even in the 17c. For a more forceful degree of modification, wonderous and mighty were inherited, but such terms wear out quickly, and changes have been considerable. During II [1770--1570], pretty, extraordinary, pure, terrible, dreadful, cruel, plaguy, devillish, take on this role, and most of them have lost it again since. We must distinguish here the built-in obsolescence affecting such items at any time, from the particular factors operating between II and I [1970--1770]. These arose from a sense of correctness which prescribed that forms with the appearance of adjectives should not be used in secondary modification. Very was all right because it did not have this form; but instead of extraordinary, terrible, dreadful, etc., the corresponding -ly forms came to be required.
Strang ϡȤƤ extraordinary terrible Ѥϡո˺Ѥָ³ˡ§ ([2012-01-14-1]ε#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ספȡˤˤΤȤϡϼŪ "correctness" ˴ŤˤΤȹͤƤ褦2Ĥװ "distinguish" ɬפϤǰȤƶ̤٤ȤȤǤгΤˤ̤¤ˤϡξԤ䴰äƤΤǤϤʤոϤȤ櫓äաˤȯã䤹ǤϡؤΩؤ꿷ո줬ƤϵäƤ椯ǡϼϤäѤաʸ˴ŤѤǤ롥Ǥϡ경褦ȤտޤǻǤ롥ξԤδطϿΤ褦ʴط˸뤬СʵϼˤʸŪʶΰ۾ȯãˤɽΤŬڤȤΤ褦˻פ롥ˤñλѤոȯãˤΩäƤФۤɡϤˤоݤȤʤ뤷֤Ȥơ -ly 줬夵褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤʤȤѲȯǤˤޤ줬Ǥ롤ȤȤ⤷ʤ
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
ѸˡեαƶǡѸŪʸǤ줿ꡤ֤줿ꡤѲ;ʤ줿ˤȤޤʤΥ٥ǤϤäȤ⸲ǤꡤեѸή椨˸űѸä¿Ѥؤɤޤ줿̾ˤĤƤƱȤ뤷ֻ¿ʬˤĤƤꡤΰ̣ˤƤ⤽ ([2009-09-01-1]ε#127. deer, beast, and animalפʤɤȡˡ
ޤΩʤȤǤϡˤĤƤƱȤȤŦ롥ʸ (238) ˤСѸǤϡǤǤ̾ -ness "action of A", "quality of A", "thing that is A", "place of being A" ʤɤι̣äƤꡤбեǤǤ -ity "quality of being A" ΤߤäȤѸˤʤȡ-ness "quality of being A" ΤߤؤỌ̇̄ꤷդ -ity "quality of being A" "aggregate of being A" ΰ̣碌Ĥ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤ̣ιȤ餹ȡ-ness -ity Ω줬žȤˤʤ롥оݸΰ̣ܤƤϡɬ⤳γäƤ餺ѸξȤ¿ǤäΤǤϤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤϤ-ness Ѹʹߤ˰̣ñ㲽ͭΰ̣ʤ顤Ĥˤ̾ȤŪĤΤߤȤʤä¡ʡʸˡ "grammaticalisation"ˤߤСʤȤ̣ϰϤȤǤϡˤ錄äơ˥ե -ity ˶ƤΤ褦
ˤѸȥեз褪ӵžݤȤɤߤʤͤƤΤϡ[2012-05-01-1]ε#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤פǽҤ٤ƻΰ̣ϰϤθˤ뺹ˤĤƤβǤ롥β֤
űѸǤϡƻϤۤΤߤǤꡤ̣ˤä Class A, B, C 3बäѸʹߡեƥ줫̤ηƻ줬Ѥ[2011-02-16-1]ε#660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨסˡ¿ϵŪäƤᡤClass A Class C °ƤϤΰϤ˶б뵭ŪäƤäĤޤꡤϼȤɾŪä Class B Ĥ줿Ѹ⼡ɾŪӤӤ Class B Class C ؿǤη̤ȤƤθߡѸϥ饹ˤ餺ʬۤƤ뤬ϼפʤΤ Class B °ƤФǤ롥
-ness -ity ΰ̣ϰϤΩ deer, beast, animal ΰ̣ξ붥ϡθΰ̣˴ؤñȯŪ礭ʸäȤ٥Ǥ⡤ʩϤ絬ϤʵžݤäƤΤǤϤʤ
忡ָѸˤ-ity-nessξ硽סؤȤФΡʸؤȸؤλߡ ԡҡ2012ǯ213--48ǡ
ε#1189. Ѹˤ -ly ε§طʡ ([2012-07-29-1]) ǻȤ Nevalainen ʸϡ̾μȤꡤѸˤ͡夲Ƥ롥¿ʰݤ뤬ΤȤƼ2ŦƤ褦ɤ롥(1) ѸˤϡΰѤ˵ҤƤȤꡤ-ly ε§ή줬Τǧ뤬٤ߤñ¸ʾˤäƤϳ礹ˤƤꡤޤϴȹͤ٤Ǥ롥(2) λˤϡ-ly ˤñˤ衤줬¿Ͳǽ̣礷
(1) ˤĤƤϡ#984. flat adverb ϥƥϤηƻ줬ƻ ([2012-01-06-1]) #1172. ѸΥƥñ ([2012-07-12-1]) ǿ줿ȤꡤոȤƤ exceeding dreadful ʤɤä¤夲Ƥ[2012-01-14-1]ε#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§פ⻲ȡˡޤʬñ줬ѸʸڤΤΡѸǽƳǧΤ⤢ꡤ¸줫ˤȹͤ (ex. shallow, tight, rough, blunt, dark, quiet, weak, dirty, cheap, bad) ʤ[2012-07-16-1]ε#1176. -ly ΩפǽҤ٤Donner ˤѸǤ -ly ñΰ̣ζ̤ˤĤơNevalainen (251) ϡѸǤϤζ̤ηŪ˸ʤȤƤꡤ̣
(2) ˤĤƤϡλʸ (sentence adverb) äȡäˡ (modal adverb) ¿ͲȤ˿Ƥ (ex. probably, necessarily, undoubtedly, possibly, perhaps) ޤ (focusing adverb) Ȥơeven 16ˡ?פΰ̣Ȥˤ졤Ѹˤ̤Ƹ adverbialization ήΤʤ˰֤ŤƤ (254--55)
Nevalainen ϡȯãˤΤʤǡѸȤ "the transitional status" (256) ɽ路Ƥꡤ"a drift towards a more subjective expression by adverbial means" (257) ΤǤȷŤƤ롥
Nevalainen, Terttu. "Aspects of Adverbial Change in Early Modern English." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 243--59.
[2012-07-12-1]ε#1172. ѸΥƥñפǡ-ly ȯãƤˤñ (flat_adverb) ȯãˤȹ碌άҤäơ#1176. -ly Ω ([2012-07-16-1]) ȡ#1181. -ly Ω (2) ([2012-07-21-1]) ǡ-ly 줬Ω礷طʤˤĤƽҤ٤ȯãΩȤΤϤҴ˷礱ɽǤϤ뤬̩ϡ (productivity) Ʊ餤ϡѸˤ -ly ε§ˤ뤬§ (regularisation) ΤΤǤϵ§ȤѸؤοϤˡ-ly ɸѸǺǤ̤ܼȤǧ졤ʸˡؤƤ椯Ȥơˤ䤫ˤȤ館Ƥ
-ly ε§ˤĤƤϡNevalainen (244) ˤ褯ޤȤޤäҤ롥
The generalisation of the adverbial suffix -ly is usually attributed to the effects of standardisation. Fisher et al. (1984: 49) point out that adverbs were already regularly marked by the -ly suffix in the Chancery documents in the fifteenth century. The acceptance of the Chancery Standard was not, however, explicit outside the Chancery itself. At the beginning of the Early Modern English period, it was the printers and educators who began to assume dominant roles in the transmission of the written standard (see Nevalainen--Raumolin-Brunberg 1989: 83--88). The growing feeling for grammatical "correctness" that Knorrek (1938: 104) and Strang (1970: 139), for instance, refer to is well documented in Robert Lowth's Short Introduction to English Grammar. Bishop Lowth writes in 1762:
Adjectives are sometimes employed as adverbs: improperly, and not agreeably to the genius of the English language. As, 'indifferent honest, excellent well:' Shakespeare, Hamlet, 'extreme elaborate:' Dryden, Essay on Dram. Poet. 'marvellous graceful:' Clarendon, Life, p. 18. (Lowth 1762/1775: 93)
ĤޤꡤѸνޤǤ˰̲ήθƤ -ly 줬Ѹλ˰ȼԤ䶵ԤˤѸɸಽư˸岡Ƶ§18εʸˡˤäܤ줿ȤаޤǤ롥Nevalainen ϡʸǡѸˤƤñ夫;ȤdzƤꡤĤޤ줿Τ⤢𤷤Ƥ뤬 (250) ˰ѤҤŪĬή褯ɽ路ƤȤ
Nevalainen, Terttu. "Aspects of Adverbial Change in Early Modern English." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 243--59.
[2012-07-16-1]ε#1176. -ly ΩפǼ夲³Donner ˤȡ -ly ϡѸγϤޤǤ˳ͳΩƤȤȤǵ䤬롥äƸűѸǤξϤɤäΤűѸˤơ-lice ϡƻ -lic ˡŪåʸͳ褹 e ղä줿Ū (Lass 207) ȤʬϤƤΤ뤤 -lice ΤȤʬϤƤΤ
Campbell (275) ˤСפ٤ɤ뤫ȤϤΤΡűѸǤ⤹Ǥ -lice ȤǧƤȤ
§664. Since adjs. in -liċ normally formed adv. in -liċe, this ending early became regarded as an adverbial suffix, which could be used beside or instead of -e, e.g. heardliċe, holdliċe, hwætliċe, lætliċe (beside hearde, holde, late), the advs. of heard, hold, hwæt, læt.
ƱݤǡLass (207) ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Since {-e} was typically added to adverbialize the extremely common adjectives in -līc, the complex {-līc-e} was reinterpreted during OE times as an adverbial ending in itself, and there were thus a number of doublets off the same base: from heard 'hard' the adverbs heard-e, heard-līc-e, from hwæt 'brave' hwæt-e, hwæt-līc-e. (Our ModE adverbial {-ly} is of course the descendant of {-līc-e}.) (Lass 207)
λ˼褦ˤϻäƤʤΤΡ-lice ϡǤ˸űѸˡ-e ¤ǡष -e ŪΤޡȤƵǽƤ餷Ѹñ -ly ȤεϡDonner εȤ¤ꡤѸ̤뤳ȤǤȤξȯΤΤϡűѸˤޤ̤뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥ơˤϡޤˤʤΤˤʤΤȤ꤬ͿƤꡤ[2012-07-06-1]ε#1166. -ly ȯãפ줿֤ʤѸ -ly Τ褦ȯãΤפؤȤĤʤäƤ椯褦˻פ롥
Donner, Morton. "Adverb Form in Middle English." English Studies 72 (1991): 1--11.
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ѸΤ -ly Ω礷ȤˤĤơ##40,981,984,998,1032,1036γƵǿƤѸΤɤΤ餤ᤤʳdzΩΤ⤦ŪʬʤΤDonner MED ˴ŤĴ¾Ū˼ƤƤΤǡҲ𤷤 (2)
The rise in incidence of the suffix [-ly], as a matter of fact, hardly needs tracing at all. It does indeed enjoy a great increase in use during the course of Middle English, but not, as seems generally assumed, by gradually superseding the flat form. Instead, according to the evidence of the MED, it not only is predominant throughout the period but was already established in that role at the very outset, so that the increase simply reflects the growing number both of new Romance adoptions introduced and of further native constructions recorded in the expanding corpus of writings extant. Adding the suffix to adjectives of whatever origin or substituting it for -ment or -iter when adopting a Romance adverb evidently constituted common practice with the general run of modal adverbs from no later than the closing decades of the twelfth century on.
̵ֳΩפȤΤϡ (##935,936,937,938) Ʊ餤ΤΤDonner Ĵ˴Ť¤ꡤѸκǽˤϤǤȤƤ -ly QŪʰ̣ˤƳΩƤȹͤƤ褤ΩƤȤءѸΥޥϼѸδΤΤ褦ήߡ-ly 줬礷ȤȤǤ롥
Donner ʸǤϡ-ly ñ줬ʻ¸륱ǤϡԤ "modal reference" (3) Ԥ "diminished modality" (3) ްդȤΤȯãηϤ˨꤬ѸˤǤǧȤȤĥƤ롥Ѹʹߡ-ly ηŪʥ٥ǤγΩȳظạ̇̄Ūʥ٥ǤñȤκ̲˿ʤǤȤˤʤ롥
Donner, Morton. "Adverb Form in Middle English." English Studies 72 (1991): 1--11.
ñ (flat_adverb) ˤĤƤϡޤǤ¿εǼ夲Ƥäˡ#983. flat adverb μ ([2012-01-05-1]) (1) ǤϡѸñ -ly Ȥʻ¸ˤϸߤ˰̣㤨뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ˿줿-ly ϡŪŪʰ̣ȯŸ뤳Ȥ¿ηƻΰ̣ץ饹եñϤΤ褦ʰ̣ȯŸष̣ӤӤ뤳Ȥ¿äƤߤСޥʥե -ly ˤĤƤϡ#996. flat adverb ΤӤӤʡ ([2012-01-18-1]) Ǥβ¼ (34) ͤ˿줿ƱݤϡJespersen (48) ǤڤƤ롥
1.55. In several cases we have two adverbial forms, one = the adj and the other with -ly. These are often differentiated, the former being used of time, etc, and the latter usually of manner and often in a figurative sense.
ǤϡѸñ -ly 줬ʻ¸ڥϡºݡɤΤ餤ΤJespersen (48--51) 42ФΥꥹȤǤ褦
cheap(ly), clean(ly), clear(ly), close(ly), dead(ly), dear(ly), deep(ly), direct(ly), due / duly, easy / easily, even(ly), evil(ly), fair(ly), false(ly), fast(ly), fit(ly), flat(ly), free(ly), full / fully, hard(ly), high(ly), just(ly), late(ly), like(ly), loud(ly), low(ly), near(ly), new(ly), plain(ly), pretty / prettily, quick(ly), right(ly), round(ly), scarce(ly), short(ly), sound(ly), still / stilly, straight(ly), strong(ly), swift(ly), wide(ly), wrong(ly)
¾ˡǾ˴Ϣơmost(ly), last(ly), first(ly) ʤɡ usual (as in more than usual) / usually, sure(ly), doubtless(ly), needless(ly) ʤɤäѤΥꥹȤȤơˤ̣ˡκۤĴꡤˤ̤뤳Ȥǡξü⤭Ħˤʤ뤳ȤԤ롥
ʤ42ڥΤñ25졤-ly 23줬BNCٽꥹȤ6318 ([2011-04-05-1]ε#708. Frequency Sorter CGIפ) ޤȤʤƻ42ΤΤ40ޤǤBNCٽꥹȤ6318ٷƻǤ뤳ȤźƤ
ѸξԤˡκۤˤĤơϢϡ#995. The rose smells sweet. The rose smells sweetly. ([2012-01-17-1]) ǤⰷäΤǡȤ줿ޤѸˤñ -ly ʻ¸ˤĤƤϡ#998. Ѹ flat adverb -ly adverb ([2012-01-20-1]) ȡ
¼ ʹ塡ñ loud, quick, slow ˤĤơסػرѸʸظ22桤1978ǯ25--38ǡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 7. Syntax. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
[2012-01-06-1]ε#984. flat adverb ϥƥϤηƻ줬ƻפǡٹ (127) νҤ٤Ƥ֥ƥϤηƻ줬ѤȤʤפɤٻ¤ʤΤȤռäФ餯ƤȤ Schmitt and Marsden (57) ˼Τ褦ʵҤĤ
Most adverbs of manner in Modern English have the suffix -ly. This derives from Old English lice (meaning "like"), which went through several changes before it was eventually reduced to -ly. Many adverbs in Modern English derive directly from their Old English versions: boldly, deeply, fully, openly, rightly. Others come from the great period of adverb formation in English in the later 16th century, when many adjectives were simply converted to adverbs with zero inflection. These included many so-called "booster" adverbs, such as ample, extreme, detestable, dreadful, exceeding, grievous, intolerable, terrible, and vehement. But others were supplied with -ly from the start (horribly, terribly, violently), and use of the inflection gradually gained ground. During the 18th century, the pressure for normalization ensured that the suffix became the rule. We still use this suffix regularly today to make new adverbs from adjectives.
Ĥޤꡤ16Ⱦˡƻ줫饼ñ (flat_adverb) 礷äȤŦǤ롥ٹθڤѸǰƬˤƤ褦ʤΤǡSchmitt and Marsden Ʊλ¤ˤĤƸäƤȸƤ褤ƥϤηƻȤƤʤ˵Ƥ9Τ dreadful 8ޤǤʥեͳޤ˥ƥϼѸǤ롥
ܤϤ¿̤Ĵפ뤬-ly ñȯŸγάϼΤ褦ˤʤűѸȯãƤ -ly ѸˤʤäʤűѸ̤ -e üȤˤñλѤ⡤Ѹˤ˿ꤨ뤳ȤϤʤäषѸˤϡƥϼѸˤ岡⤢ꡤñμϰŪ礷ñˤϡˤ³Ū connotation ޤȤĤƤ褦ǡ18˵ϼŪʸˡѤƬ˵ڤӡʸȤߤʤ褦ˤʤäθ塤-ly ŪͥȤʤꡤߤ˻äƤ롥
ʤ -ly ˴ؤˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ -ly suffix adverb γƵǼ夲ƤΤǡȤ줿
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Fortson (132--33) ˤСĸˤϡѸ -ly 褦ʡƻ줫θ¸ߤʤäष̾ƻζѤ뤳ȤǡŪʵǽƤꡤˡϤ٤Ƥ̼ǹ롥Τ褦ˤ줿ŪΤǤꡤĸˤޤ̤ΤϤƾʤȤƻ줫Ūǽ߽ФŵμʡгʤñǤꡤ㤨С礭ʡפФ礭礤ˡפϰĸ *meĝh2 ƷƤ롥ϡHitt. mēk, Ved. máhi, Gk. méga, ON mjǫok 롥űѸǤ⡤ƻгñ˶ޤ efen "even", full "full", (ge)fyrn "ancient", gehwǣde "little", genōg "enough", hēah "high", lȳtel "little" ȤƵǽ (Campbell 276)
ŵ鳰줿ΤȤơۤˤ⡤ʤ줿 Lat. rursus "back(wards)"åʤ줿 Lat. meritō "deservedly"ʤ줿 Lat. quī "how" ʤɤꡤűѸǤ⡤°ʤѤ ealles "entirely", micles "much"ͿʤѤ ǣne "alone", lȳtle "little" ʤɤ (Campbell 276) ʷ͡ˤƻͳϡŪ˶ޤˤȹͤ롥
ŪϥޥˤѾ줿ޤ¿ʤȤʿʤʤɤȤηŪʶ̤ĤʤʤäǤ⡤̤ʽ֤ϻܤ줺ַƻǻѸˤƤ flat adverb Ǥ롥ѸǤϡflat adverb Ȥ̤ˡƻŪ˶̤ȤФ -ly ȯãƤäơѸϡǥޥΤʤǤðۤʿƤ褦˻פ롥
ޥɤγС[2012-03-01-1]ε#1039. ֿפ -mentפǼ夲褦ˡޥɤǤȯãƤ롥äơѸ줬ðۤǤꤹ뤳ȤɬǤʤ⤷ʤ
ϢơKillie (119) ϡѸθʬƻ줬 -ly 褦ˤʤäŪаޤĴʸƬǡѸΤοΥ륦졤ǥ졤ɥĸʤɤˤϸʤðۤʸݤǤȼƤ롥ʤѸ -ly Τ褦ȯãΤˤĤƤϡʸǤƤʤKillie (127) ϡѸ˾ΰ drift ȤƤ "adverbialization process" ˸ڤƤꡤ-ly ȯãϤΰĤǤƤ褦
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
Killie, Kristin. "The Spread of -ly to Present Participles." Advances in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Marcin Krygier. Mouton de Gruyter: Berlin and New York: 1998. 119--34.
Fortson (121--22) ˤСĸˤϷƻӵܼˤ2ढä*-iōs *-tero- Ǥ롥ԤλҲϡޥĸͭ *z (*-izon-) Ȥʤꡤ rhotacism ˤűѸ졤ť졤Źϥɥĸ졤ťΥɸǤ r ȯŸűѸǤñʤܼ -ra Ǥ롥줬Ѹ -er ؤȯŸƤƥηƻӵ -ior 䥮ꥷб -iōn ƱǤ롥
ĸ *-tero- Τۤϡ衤ӵܼǤϤʤä2ĤФʤΤΤ¾ȶ̤뤿ܼǤꡤthe one . . . the other . . . ްդ㤨СѸ dexterous, sinister μѸǤƥ dexter ֱ, sinister ֺפˤ줾ޤޤ -ter δްդŵŪ촴ΰ̣Ϥ줾Ϥäꤷʤdexter- ϰˤС֤ɤפȲǤȤ[2010-03-22-1]ε#329. αȺפȡˡ*-tero- ϡѸǤϥˡ§Ф -ther 롥other, either, neither, whether ʤɤС2ĤΤΤΰפȤ褯ȿǤƤΤʬˡϡѸǤӵ (absolute comparative) Ȥǧ (ex. the upper class, a higher class hotel, the younger generation)
*-tero- ͳ褹ܼϡǡ̤ӵɽ魯ܼؤȯŸѸ after of "away from" ӵǤꡤnether ϲΡˤϡ֤㤤פۤɤ̣ (cf. the Netherlands) ꥷͳ褹 presbyter ĹϷʺסˤϡ"one who comes earlier" ۤɤθǤpriest ϸƥ줫űѸäû̷ˡƥ dēteriōrātus Ѥ deteriorate ϡdē "down" ӵܼ -ter ղäˤ̤ӵܼ -ior ղäӵ (double comparative) ͳ褹롥
farther further ˤĤƤϡ[2012-05-08-1]ε#1107. farther and furtherפǡfar forth ӵηŪʺƱȤͿ츻Ūˤ far + -ther Ȥ롥2Ĥɬ̷⤹櫓ǤϤʤth forth ˤ -ther ˤޤޤƤȤŦƤȤפ
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
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