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suffix - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2023-12-18 Mon

#5348. the green-eyed monster ˤߤ̾ƻ첽 -ed [terminology][morphology][word_formation][compound][compounding][derivation][suffix][shakespeare][personification][metaphor][conversion][parasynthesis][adjective][participle][noun]

khelfʷѸ˥եDZĤƤ Discord ߥ˥ƥˤơɸ˷Ǥ the green-eyed monster Фܤ򤷤ʪˤΤ褦ʶˤ -ed ˤĤƵ䤬󤻤줿ưβʬ -ed Τ褦ˤߤ뤬̾ˤĤƤȤΤϤɤȤ⤷Dz狼ȤդƤΤǡ伫ȤĴٻϤƤȤǤ롥
Ϥ뤬ޤɽ˴Ϣƺǽ˲ƤѸҲ𤷤ʻ (parasynthesis) Ǥ롥ؿѸؼŵ٤ɤǤߤ褦

parasynthesis ̸͡ʻˡäơʹžȤ褦ˡĤ¤ˡ٤˹Ԥʤ뤳ȡ㤨Сextraterritorial extra-territorial Ȥ⡤(extra-territory)-al ȤʬϤǤʤʬϤ extra+territory+-al Ǥ롥Ʊͤ intramuscular intra+muscle+-ar Ǥ롥 baby-sitter (= one who sits with the baby) baby+sit+-er Ʊȹͤʻ (parasynthetic compound) ȤȤǤ롥ޤ blockhead ʤФˡpickpocket ʤˤ⡤⤷׸ -head, pick- žˤäơֿ͡פ򼨤ȤСʻȤȤǤ롥


嵭Ǥ green-eyed Υפ㼨Ƥʤʻ1ȤäƤ褤a double-edged sword ξϤη, a four-footed animal ʻͤĵӤưʪ, middle-aged spread ǯˤʤˤϻ礫ʤ
ʤ the green-eyed monster ϸ鷺Τ줿 Shakespeare Othello (3.3.166) ζǤ롥green-eyed the green-eyed monster ⤤ Shakespeare ߽ФɽǡʹߡּʡפεͲɽȤƹѤ褦ˤʤä
⤳ΥפʻˤĤƹͤƤ

⿮ ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ

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2023-05-31 Wed

#5147. ֤إ饸׽б3 --- إ˥¼ŵ6Ǥɤǿ줿 [yurugengogakuradio][notice][youtube][genius6][suffix][prefix][heldio][voicy][hel_contents_50_2023][khelf][consonant][japanese][loan_word][spelling][terminology]


֤إ饸פ餳hellog~Ѹ˥֥Ǥ줿󡤤

(1) ܥ֥󥭥󥰤Υȥå500
(2) note Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פ͵50
(3) note ֤٥ ֤إ饸סߡְʼδѸظإͥסߡVoicy Ѹθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ס
(4) ֤إ饸פ˴طε




530ʲСˤˡYouTube/Podcast ֤ͥإ饸κǿ󤬥åפޤȤȤƽб餵Ƥޤ3ܤȤʤޤʤ12⤴İˡֱѸˤȤȼɤ餹٤Ƥε䤬֤Dz褷#234Ǥ



򽩽Ǥ줿إ˥¼ŵ6ˤơߥֱѸQ&AפɮƤޤƱŵ˴Ϣ hellog genius6 ɤˡνбϤδϢǤǤٸȤȤƱŵڥڥ᤯äƤ⤷ܤ˵Ť顤ơ䤪ȯΤޤޤ٤ŸȤ֤إ饸פ餷ǤŪ˿줿¿ˤ錄ޤhellog heldio ʤɤǼ夲Ƥȥԥå¿ΤǡϢ󥯤ĥäƤޤ

Ρ -esque (e.g. Rubenesque, Kafkaesque)

hellog #216. ̾ƻ -esque ħ ([2009-11-29-1])
hellog #935. (1) ([2011-11-18-1])
hellog #3716. ֤˱ƶڤܤ ([2019-06-30-1])

ΡƬ un- un- θáˡ

hellog #4227. ʤɽ魯ˤ n- ǻϤޤΤ¿ΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-11-22-1])
رˤѸ˥ƥ #36. 츻θ¦ ~ in- un- a- äƲ㤦Ρ~ܲ khelf ŸΡֱѸ˥ƥ50פ

ΡԻҲɽ魯3Ĥʸ <k, c, q>

hellog #1824. <C> <G> ʬ ([2014-04-25-1])
heldio #255. ԻҲ c, k, q Τɤ졩 (2022/02/10)

Ρܸ줫μѸ (e.g. karaoke, karate, kamikaze)

hellog #4391. kamikaze bikini --- 略魯ΰ̣Ѳ ([2021-05-05-1])
hellog #142. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸʬۡ ([2009-09-16-1])
hellog #3872. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸμǯ ([2019-12-03-1])
hellog #4140. Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ܸΡ֤ġפȡ֤ɤΤ餤ס ([2020-08-27-1])
heldio #60. Ѹäܸ줿 (2021/07/31)

Ρư en- -en (e.g. enlighten, strengthen)

#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1])
#3510. Ƭ en- ưʻž֡ ([2018-12-06-1])
#4241. ʤƬ en ĤưˤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-12-06-1])
heldio #62. enlighten Ƭˤ⤪ˤ en Ĥ (2021/08/02)

ΡʸˡѸ桧tense, voice, gender

heldio #644. ֻפ tense ȡֶĥפ tense Ʊ츻 (2023/03/06)
heldio #643. ʤư֡ǽư֤Ρ֡פ "voice" ʤΡ (2023/03/05)
hellog #1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1])
hellog #1449. ˤơס ([2013-04-15-1])

Ρminister θ츻

#4209. ʤ minister mini- ʤΤˡáפʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-11-04-1])

ΡֱѸQ&Aס

hellog #4892. ͽΡإ˥¼ŵ6ǤοߥֱѸQ&AפξҲ ([2022-09-18-1])
heldio #532. إ˥¼ŵ6ǤνǵǰˡֱѸQ&Aץ spring ä򤷤ޤ (2022/11/14)
hellog #4971. often t ȯΤʤΤ ([2022-12-06-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2024-02-18-1] [2024-01-01-1]

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2023-05-22 Mon

#5138. Ӥȯãȸܿ [comparison][adjective][suffix][superlative][contact][synthesis_to_analysis][latin][french][grammaticalisation][german][dutch][french_influence_on_grammar]

ƻ졦ӵ顦Ǿκˤϡ -er/-est դŪˡ more/most ֤Ūˡ롥줾ֶӡפȡֶӡפȸƤǤˤĤƤϡhellogheldio¾Ǥ͡˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ#4834. ӵ顦Ǿˡ ([2022-07-22-1]) ˴Ϣ󥯤ޤȤƤΤǻȤ줿
Ѹޥ󥹽ˤǤϡӤӤؤѲƤ²˰̤˴ѻ礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) Ĭή˱äȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿ѲϡӹʸΩȤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) 1ȤȤ館롥
Heine and Kuteva ˤܿ˴ؤҲ𤷤Ѹ䤤ĤθˤŪ˶Ӥȯã1װȤơޥ󥹽ȤθܿطƤΤǤϤʤȤѸ줬ե󥹸ƥαƶΤȤ˶ӤȯãȤ⼫ΤϸŤ餢ꡤ嵭ΥǤƤ̤Ǥ롥Heine and Kuteva ϡѸΤߤʤ餺¾θˤƤܿθ̤ȤܿŪװäȤϸ鷺Ȥ "an accelerating factor" (96) ȹͤ뤳ȤϲǽǤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥Ѹޤ4Ĥλ㤬󤲤Ƥ (96)

a. Analytic forms were still rare in Northern English in the fifteenth century, while in Southern English, which was more strongly exposed to French influence, these forms had become current at least a century earlier . . . .
b. In German, the synthetic comparative construction is still well established, e.g. schön 'beautiful', schön-er ('beautiful-COMP') 'more beautiful'. But in the dialect of Luxembourg, which has a history of centuries of intense contact with French, instances of an analytic comparative can be found, e.g. mehr schön ('more beautiful', presumably on the model of French plus beau ('more beautiful') . . . .
c. The Dutch varieties spoken in Flanders, including Algemeen Nederlands, have been massively influenced by French, and this influence has also had the effect that the analytic pattern with the particle meer 'more' is used increasingly on the model of French plus, at the expense of the inherited synthetic construction using the comparative suffix -er . . . .
d. Molisean has a 500-years history of intense contact with the host language Italian, and one of the results of contact was that the speakers of Molisean have given up the conventional Slavic synthetic construction by replicating the analytic Italian construction, using veče on the model of Italian più 'more' as degree marker. Thus, while Standard Croatian uses the synthetic form lyepši 'more beautiful', Molisean has più lip ('more beautiful') instead . . . .


Τ褦ʥǤϡȯãȯãϡܿˤäɬ ("propel") 줿ȤϸʤΤΡ® ("accelerate") ȤϸΤǤϤʤȤΤ Heine and Kuteva θǤ롥

Heine, Bernd and Tania Kuteva. "Contact and Grammaticalization." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 86--107.

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2023-05-02 Tue

#5118. Japan-ese θ򿼷ꤹ by khelf Ĺ [aokikun][voicy][heldio][khelf][colloquia][link][demonym][suffix][onomastics]

󡤤ʤ Japan ˤ -ese ȤĤΤˤʤޤ͡*Japan-ian Ǥʤ *Japan-ish ǤʤѸǤ Japan-ese ȤȤˤʤäƤޤ
˱Ѹˤ뤤ϱѸ˸ؤδƧ߹Ǥߤȡ̥Ūʣʥѥ뤬ŸƤޤkhelfʷѸ˥եˤοĹڵʬäƤޤ
ī Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ǤϡڤȤ̤Ǥ̤򿼷ꤷƤޤ#701. ʤܿ͡פ Japan-ese ʤΡο --- ڵȤ̡İ



̤Υ١ȤʤäƤΤϡإ (Colloquia) ʸȤƸɽƤʲΤΤǤ

Aoki, Hikaru. "Why Japan-ese and Not Japan-ian?: Historical Relations between Demonymic Suffixes and Country Names." Colloquia 43 (2022): 85--102.

ʸ˴Ťơڤ khelf ư̤ơӤӸ̤ƤƤޤ

رѸ˿ʹ51̤εֿ̾͡Τɤ --- ʤ X-ish ȤƤ̾ϥꥹդ¿Τ --- ʤ X-ish ȤƤ̾ϥꥹդ¿Τ ---
heldio #680. ʤܿ͡פ Japanian ʤɤǤϤʤ Japanese ʤΡ --- ڵȤ
heldio #683. ʤ English Τ褦 -ish ΤĤƤ̾ϥꥹդ¿Ρ --- ڵȤ̡

Referrer (Inside): [2024-01-07-1]

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2023-02-08 Wed

#5035. 1900ǯʹߤ -ism [neologism][word_formation][oed][suffix][productivity][lexicography]

#5031. -ism εȯã ([2023-02-04-1])#5033. -ism ¿ ([2023-02-06-1]) (suffix) ȤƤ -ism ˾ƤƤ (productivity) ι⤤ȤƾҲ𤷤ƤŪˤϺǶɤΤ褦 -ism 줬ƤƤΤOED 1900ǯʹߤ˽Ф -ism ȴФƤߤΤ724ñ줬󤬤ä10ǯߤǰƤߤ롥



Ρ1900ǯ (1900--1909)135ñ졡

antidisestablishmentarianism, Big Brotherism, cultism, expansionism, heterotrophism, hyperthyroidism, maraboutism, meningism, middle-of-the-roadism, muckerism, Mu'tazilism, neopositivism, neuroticism, Old Testamentism, pentamerism, prostatism, spoonerism, structurism, thanatism, thigmotropism, divisionism, imperativism, motorism, pan-Europeanism, piezomagnetism, productivism, pyromagnetism, Sivaism, sociologism, tabloidism, antilogism, chronotropism, gargoylism, interactionism, ladronism, mescalism, multimodalism, Oblomovism, ogreism, pacifism, pan-Buddhism, seismism, tactism, theoreticism, transitivism, chemotactism, favism, Fletcherism, hippomobilism, homoeothermism, homosexualism, intimism, luminarism, macroseism, Marconism, Mendelianism, Mendelism, neo-Confucianism, osmatism, physogastrism, poikilothermism, polychromism, practicism, preferentialism, racism, stand-pattism, supernationalism, syntonism, aniconism, cryptomerism, Deweyism, ecologism, geneticism, katamorphism, manism, mascotism, microbism, monoclinism, nounism, pan-Africanism, pan-Asiaticism, thermochromism, hypothyroidism, luminism, neurotropism, Nietzscheanism, nomism, pan-Asianism, Parnassianism, Prometheanism, Pygmalionism, quattrocentism, vicinism, Victorianism, Addisonism, champagne socialism, ethnocentrism, hereditarianism, millennialism, new realism, nyctinastism, pismirism, post-classicism, reluctantism, immanentism, immoralism, inhumanism, reactionaryism, reincarnationism, suffragettism, syndicalism, Syrism, Christocentrism, deductivism, expressionism, ingotism, neo-realism, pacificism, Pan-Turkism, rotativism, substitutionalism, super-individualism, theriomorphism, vagrantism, xenophobism, cameralism, heurism, innatism, maximalism, neo-Aristotelianism, oculism, Porro prism, protagonism, Uranianism, voltinism

Ρ1910ǯ塧103ñ졡

adrenalism, conservationism, hypoparathyroidism, perspectivism, pithiatism, post-Impressionism, pre-animism, Sillonism, alloerotism, Cubism, factualism, Georgianism, inspirationalism, masculinism, Ottomanism, Rotarianism, autism, clientelism, eunuchoidism, imagism, marginalism, mobilism, mutationism, orthomorphism, selectionism, Synchromism, transvestitism, trichotomism, Acmeism, apotropaism, behaviourism/behaviorism, monophyletism, moronism, neo-imperialism, taurodontism, Theravadism, transvestism, Zapatism, pansexualism, phobism, postmodernism, supermanism, Thespianism, vorticism, zabernism, Balkanism, consumerism, distributism, Hohenzollernism, homoeroticism, lawyerism, new federalism, polyarchism, rurbanism, Simultaneism, bushism, denationalism, homoerotism, moanism, monenergism, multilingualism, neo-nationalism, pan-Turanianism, Pelmanism, presentism, Russellism, Schoenbergism, Boloism, Bolshevism, defeatism, environmentalism, hyperparathyroidism, indigenism, mathematicism, Mondism, Montessorianism, non-interventionism, pan-Indianism, pan-Turanism, philism, anorchidism, Dadaism, defencism/defensism, diffusionism, Fordism, Leninism, neo-Marxism, preventionism, Rasputinism, surdimutism, biomechanism, culturalism, hegemonism, inflationism, Lukanism, multi-partyism, pan-Arabism, panchromatism, paroicism, predictionism, sadomasochism, social imperialism, unanimism

Ρ1920ǯ塧111ñ졡

gangsterism, Kemalism, Menshevism, mid-Victorianism, mosaicism, Moscowism, myrmecophytism, photoperiodism, predatism, retreatism, servomechanism, fascism, futilitarianism, Mennonitism, New Zealandism, pastism, polycratism, Suprematism, abstract expressionism, adaptationalism, ameliorism, anarcho-syndicalism, Couéism, existentialism, finitism, introspectionism, isolationism, Menckenism, metapsychism, nabism, neoprimitivism, Poplarism, Rayonism, romanticalism, Sitwellism, allelism, neo-Communism, Nordicism, parkinsonism, peyotism, porphyrism, robotism, Tubism, constructionism, constructivism, fictionalism, MacDonaldism, Marranoism, Mussolinism, neo-Freudianism, nondeterminism, paragrammatism, peripheralism, Pollyannaism, redemptivism, voyeurism, Babbittism, configurationism, enantiomerism, Hattism, hyperurbanism, Pirandellism, puerilism, reductionism, Sun Yat-senism, Trotskyism, boosterism, conformism, diachronism, holism, liturgism, mechanomorphism, mycetism, squadrism, totalitarianism, unilateralism, Yiddishism, alloeroticism, choralism, contortionism, diatonism, homoism, Machism, minimalism, monolithism, occupationalism, Petrarchanism, pleiotropism, Praedism, providentialism, sexationalism, Stalinism, surrealism, Buchmanism, dispensationalism, Eonism, mesomerism, multilateralism, normativism, stylism, Undinism, welfarism, wholism, bovarism, contextualism, exceptionalism, foodism, market fundamentalism, Marxism-Leninism, productionism, situationism

Ρ1930ǯ塧90ñ졡

corporativism, hyphenism, metakinetism, National Socialism, Nazism, neocapitalism, neo-modalism, operationalism, social fascism, diatonicism, dirty realism, no-Goddism, pentatonism, post-communism, presenteeism, privatism, substantivism, bruxism, conciliarism, connectionism, Narodnikism, neo-Gothicism, polytypism, Rooseveltism, biocentrism, careerism, escapism, magic realism, Marxism, mesomorphism, New Dealism, nice nellyism, socialist realism, elitism, extrinsicism, inhibitionism, monophysism, Morganism, rightism, transvesticism, trilingualism, descriptivism, Edwardianism, Jocism, linearism, male chauvinism, Neo-plasticism, nothing-but-ism, operationism, quadrupedalism, rheomorphism, spatialism, thingism, Zenonism, conspiratorialism, Cubo-Futurism, Goldwynism, microprism, Miltonicism, non-objectivism, non-racialism, polyphyletism, Rexism, shitticism, apoliticism, Blimpism, Bukharinism, Caodaism, logicism, Marxist-Leninism, neocatastrophism, pandiatonicism, pentaprism, cultural Marxism, Francoism, narcism, nemesism, partitionism, photojournalism, pronatalism, pseudoallelism, sanctionism, blondism, Chamberlainism, essentialism, kineticism, neo-traditionalism, precisionism, verificationism, vicariism

Ρ1940ǯ塧58ñ졡

ahistoricism, photoisomerism, post-humanism, semanticism, technologism, megadontism, New Criticism, Pétainism, preservationism, Vansittartism, capitulationism, managerialism, momism, patrimonialism, pseudohypoparathyroidism, chemoautotrophism, do-goodism, globalism, identitarianism, neo-fascism, passéism, pranksterism, againstism, ethnophaulism, multinationalism, critical rationalism, eliminationism, veganism, lettrism, Peronism, reductivism, supremacism, dynamicism, microphonism, Titoism, Afghanistanism, ecumenism, emotivism, ferrimagnetism, Lysenkoism, magmatism, Messalianism, neo-Nazism, one-worldism, prescriptivism, rejectionism, resistentialism, tailism, white supremacism, immobilism, justicialism, Levantinism, marhaenism, Michurinism, Palamism, Panglossism, restrictivism, tectonism

Ρ1950ǯ塧68ñ졡

abstract impressionism, Atlanticism, Gaullism, judgementalism/judgmentalism, majoritarianism, Maoism, Marrism, McCarthyism, multiracialism, Narodnism, ouvrierism, psychoticism, Bevanism, neo-isolationism, photochromism, revanchism, troilism, amensalism, kleptoparasitism, neocolonialism, Nixonism, Nicodemism, obsessionalism, transsexualism, workerism, Butskellism, Islamicism, multi-partism, neo-Stalinism, retributivism, skollyism, tripartism, alternativism, morphism, neo-Gaullism, postcolonialism, Poujadism, ad hocism, Anglocentrism, diffeomorphism, ebullism, Europocentrism, Mendèsism, Nasserism, patternism, polycentrism, superparamagnetism, breatharianism, hipsterism, Khrushchevism, monoglacialism, multiculturalism, neo-expressionism, Parkinsonism, spiralism, transhumanism, Zhdanovism, archaeomagnetism, outsiderism, pentatonicism, televangelism, Antikythera mechanism, disimperialism, ethnonationalism, Fidelism, macrodactylism, nannyism, proceduralism

Ρ1960ǯ塧64ñ졡

Castroism, Goldwaterism, moderationism, multiregionalism, neo-Dadaism, Nkrumahism, nuclearism, supremism, Asiacentrism, audio-lingualism, compressionism, Kennedyism, neo-behaviourism/neo-behaviorism, neo-Keynesianism, non-ism, permissivism, photorealism, mycomysticism, mycoparasitism, prescriptionism, splittism, tokenism, entrism, neo-Pentecostalism, Parsonianism, polyphenism, Rachmanism, aleatorism, allosterism, androcentrism, credentialism, Montaignism, neuterism, triumphalism, dysmorphism, Eurocentrism, generativism, parajournalism, Powellism, renewalism, symphonism, transgenderism, entryism, neo-modernism, Paisleyism, paramilitarism, Popperism, Reaganism, McLuhanism, monetarism, Naderism, Olympism, Pinterism, polysomatism, auteurism, incrementalism, madrigalism, Panglossianism, workaholism, ageism, anarcho-capitalism, consequentialism, gravitropism, yobbism

Ρ1970ǯ塡53ñ졡

migrationism, Naxalism, Orwellism, spontaneism, tropicalism, heightism, logocentrism, multidialectalism, panselectionism, posthumanism, post-minimalism, sizeism, Afrocentrism, heterosexism, new historicism, O'Neillism, phonocentrism, polyglacialism, processualism, supersessionism, Velikovskianism, eliminativism, polystylism, stabilism, monoculturalism, neurotrophism, ockerism, preparationism, Mobutuism, multiculturism, phallocentrism, phallogocentrism, post-structuralism, speciesism, bioregionalism, ecocentrism, Eurocommunism, post-materialism, pre-modernism, social constructionism, Lacanianism, macromutationism, punctuationism, trendyism, lookism, Manhattanism, me-ism, nutritionism, whataboutism, computationalism, machoism, Mitterrandism, reliabilism

Ρ1980ǯ塧29ñ졡

Bushism, ecofeminism, neo-conceptualism, neosemanticism, originalism, popism, ableism, rockism, social constructivism, ecotourism, post-feminism, mimeticism, yuppieism, conspiracism, eco-socialism, shopaholism, post-Fordism, short-termism, cryovolcanism, fattism, long-termism, New Ageism, Euroscepticism/Euroskepticism, Islamofascism, Majorism, Norman Rockwellism, negaholism, phoenixism, techno-shamanism

Ρ1990ǯ塡8ñ졡

Extropianism, voluntourism, Afrofuturism, Blairism, slacktivism, turntablism, hacktivism, Stuckism

Ρ2000ǯ塧5ñ졡

craftivism, lactivism, disaster capitalism, cissexism, clicktivism




ȤƤߤ20ȾԡǡθϸäƤƤ褦ˤߤ롥OED ԻԹǡŤǯΤۤĤƤĤΤ䤷Ƥ֤Ĺ¿ο򸫤ĤФ䤹ȤϤ뤫⤷ʤǿοˤĤƤȤԻƤǽ⤢롥Τ褦θǡ OED ˴Ť -ism ΰɾɬפ
ȤƤ⡤20ȾȤưλ -ism 򤬿᤭Ӥ줿Ȥ϶̣20ȾʹߤϡǤ˽Ф٤ΤϽФäƤޤ-ism ˿̣ȤʤäȿǤƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤤ϡǯǤ⤫Ǥ -ism ղä褦ˤʤäƤޤäˡOED ԽѤΤƤޤäȤȤ⤷ʤ
-ism ΰϤɤɤߤޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-03-28-1]

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2023-02-06 Mon

#5033. -ism ¿ [polysemy][suffix][terminology]

Ρ#5031. -ism εȯã ([2023-02-04-1]) ˰³-ism ȤŪ (suffix) ˤĤơϤ¿ܤޤ
Webster μ3Ǥ˽ A Dictionary of Prefixes, Suffixes, and Combining Forms ˤȡ-ism ˤ礭4Ĥθޤưס־֡סּסħפǤñζȤȤˤߤƤߤޤ礦

-ism n suffix -s [ME -isme, fr. MF & L; MF -isme, partly fr. L -isma (fr. Gk), & partly fr. L -ismus, fr. Gk -ismos] 1 a : act, practice, or process --- esp. in nouns corresponding to verbs in -ize <criticism> <hypnotism> <plagiarism> b : manner of action or behavior characteristic of a (specified) person or thing <animalism> <Micawberism> 2 a : state, condition, or property <barbarianism> <polymorphism> b : abnormal state or condition resulting from excess of a (specified) thing <alcoholism> <morphinism> c : abnormal state or condition characterized by resemblance to a (specified) person or thing <mongolism> 3 a : doctrine, theory, or cult <Buddhism> <Calvinism> <Platonism> <salvationism> <vegetarianism> b : adherence to a system or a class of principles <neutralism> <realism> <socialism> <stoicism> 4 : characteristic or peculiar feature or trait <colloquialism> <Latinism> <poeticism>


Ǥ褯Ѥ -ism ϡǸΡħפθȴϢΤǤ֡ħŪʸոˡפΰ̣ Americanism, Britishism, Canadianism, Irishism, Gallicism, vulgarism, witticism, neologism ʤɤޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-02-08-1]

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2023-02-04 Sat

#5031. -ism εȯã [suffix][greek][latin][french][polysemy][productivity][hellog_entry_set][neologism][lmode][derivation][derivative][word_formation]

Ѹ -ism Ȥ (suffix) Ϲ⤤äƤ롥racism, sexism, ageism, lookism ʤɼҲ̤˴ؤ븽Ūǿȶñ¿Ȥ褯 Buddhism, Calvinism, Catholicism, Judaism ʤɤ뤫ȻפСۤȤ Liberalism, Machiavellism, Platonism, Puritanism ʤɤ󤲤롥
嵭Τ褦ˡּפΰ̣Τäñ줬¿ǡaphorism, criticism, mechanism, parallelism ʤɤ̾̾⤢ǤϤʤޤ Americanism Britishism ʤɤΡ֡ˡפΰ̣ñ¿cf. #2241. Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles ([2015-06-16-1])ˡơǤǤϤʤΩȤƤ ism ¸ߤcf. #2576. æʸˡȸò ([2016-05-16-1]
-ism θ츻ϥꥷ -ismos Ǥ롥ꥷư -izein ʱѸ -ize θˤб̾Ǥ롥Ѹʸ̮Ǥϡư -ize б̾Ȥ -ization פ⤫֤츻Ūˤ -ism Τۤͳ̾ȤȤˤʤ롥ʱѸ -ize/-ise ˤĤƤϡεå򻲾ȡ
ꥷ -ismos ƥ졤ե󥹸ˤ줾 -ismus, -isme ȤƼѤ졤줬ѸˤäƤơѸʹߤ¿Ѥ褦ˤʤäȤ櫓Ѹˡޤꡤ¿ο줬иGörlach (121) -ism ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The 19th century can be seen as a battleground of ideologies and factions; at least, such is the impression created by the frequency of derivatives ending in -ism (often from a personal name, and accompanied by -ist for the adherent, and -istic/-ian for adjectival uses). The year 1831 alone saw the new words animism, dynamism, humorism, industrialism, narcotism, philistinism, servilism, socialism and spiritualism (CED).


λ۾ʬǤʹԤƤ21 -ism ꤨ뤳ȤϤʤ

Görlach, Manfred. English in Nineteenth-Century England: An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 1999.

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2023-01-30 Mon

#5026. -age [suffix][french][latin][word_formation][noun][borrowing][loan_word]

-age ̾ (suffix) Ȥư츫ΩʤճȴŪñˤѤƤ롥㤨 percentage, marriage, usage, passage, storage, shortage, mileage, voltage, baggage, postage, luggage, breakage, bondage, anchorage, shrinkage, orphanage ߤ
츻ȤƤϡŵʹߤΥƥ -agium ̤⤢СƱŵʹߤΥƥ̤θ -aticumʸŵƥηƻ -āticus ˤե󥹸 -age ȤäΤͳ褹⤢롥Ȥ̾ȤƵǽƤ
ñ᤯Ѹ˥ե󥹸ƥ줫ѤƤѸˤʤ peerage, mockage ʤɱѸǸ줿Τ⸽졤η϶ѸˤʤȤȤ櫓ʤäѸˤƤ⤢٤ܼͭǡ1949ǯˤ signage ʤɤθ줬Ƥ롥
μʰ̣ȤȤ˵󤲤Ƥߤ褦

1. 硧 cellarage, leafage, luggage, surplusage, trackage, wordage
2. ư coverage, haulage, stoppage
3. ̡ breakage, shrinkage, usage
4. Ψ̡ acreage, dosage, leakage, mileage, outage, slippage
5. ȡꡧ orphanage, parsonage, steerage
6. ֡ bondage, marriage, peonage
7. ⡧ postage, towage, wharfage

Τ褦 -age ϱѸǤϸ§Ȥ̾ƥηƻ -āticus 굡ǽѤƻȤƥե󥹸äƤ savage Ȥ󤲤Ƥ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-01-01-1]

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2023-01-14 Sat

#5010. δñѸ in English٤Ϣ23֤ʤʬư̾Ʊ -ing ɽΡ [notice][sobokunagimon][rensai][participle][gerund][progressive][polysemy][suffix][heldio]

δñѸ in English٤2椬ȯȤʤޤϢܡˤ򤭡ѸΥܥʵפ23ϡ֤ʤʬư̾Ʊ -ing ɽΡפǤ

δñѸ in English2023ǯ2



Ѹ -ing ¿Ǥ͡ʬ (present participle) ϡbe Ȥ߹蘆äƿʹԷ (progressive) ꡤƻȤ̾򽤾Ҥꡤʬ칽ʸ뤳ȤǤޤư̾ (gerund) ȤƤϡư̾žŪˡ󶡤ƤޤĤޤꡤ-ing ưƻˤꡤˤꡤ̾ˤȬϻ群γ򼨤ƤΤǤ
ʬ -ing ư̾ -ing ϵޤäۤʤޤŤϷ֤ۤʤäƤΤǤˤβ -ing ȤƱ˹蘆äƤޤäǤϢܵǤϡդλפǫ˲⤷ƤޤޤʹԷ϶Ѹ˳ΩŪʸˡʤΤǤʤɤΤ褦ΩΤŪ⤿ɤäƤޤĤΤ褦εȤʤäƤޤҤɤ
Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)δϢȤ#375. -ing ˤ3ढäΤäƤޤҲ𤷤ƤޤϢܵȹ碌 -ing ؤ򤬿ޤȻפޤ


Referrer (Inside): [2024-01-01-1]

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2022-12-26 Mon

#4991. -ise -ize --- 2Ĥ [spelling][suffix][z][greek][latin][french][verb][oed][academy][orthography]

ε#4990. ư -ize/-ise ˡ ([2022-12-25-1])ӰΡ#305. -ise -ize ([2010-02-26-1])#314. -ise -ize (2) ([2010-03-07-1]) εȹ碌ơ -ise -ize ˤĤƹͤʸȤ̤2Ĥۤɲä롥
εǡOED -ize ֻܤȤƺѤƤݤҲ𤷤<z> Ѥۤꥷθ츻¤Ǥꡤ <z> /z/ δطȥ졼Ȥ顤ȤΤѤͳǤ롥 OED μĥˤĤơCarney (433) -ise/-ize ⤷Ƥսǵ褷Ƥ롥ͭѤʤΤDzΤѤƤ

17 /aɪz/ in verbs as <-ise>, <-ize>

The <-ize> spelling reflects a Greek verbal ending in English words, such as baptize, organize, which represent actual Greek verbs. There are also words that have been made up to imitate Greek, in later Latin or in French (humanise), or within English itself (bowdlerise). Some printers adopt a purist approach and spell the first group with <-ize> and the second group with <-ise>, others have <-ize> for both.
   Since this difference is opaque to the ordinary speller, there is pressure to standardize on the <s> spelling, as French has done. To standardize with a <z> spelling as American spelling has done has disadvantages, because there are §Latinate verbs ending in <-ise> which have historically nothing to do with this suffix: advertise, apprise, circumcise, comprise, supervise, surmise, surprise. If you opt for a scholarly <organize>, you are likely to get an unscholarly *<supervize>. The OED argues that the pronunciation is /z/ and that this justifies the <z> spelling. But this ignores the fact that <s>/z/ happens to be the commonest spelling of /z/. To introduce more <z> spellings would probably complicate matters for the speller.


⤦1ĤϡꥹѸ -ise ϥե󥹸켰ֻ򿿻Τ򤷤Ƥ褤Ūʾܺ٤ˤĤƤĴɬפȤȤΤϡե󥹸ǤĹ餯 -ize ϻȤƤ褦ǡե󥹸ǤĤɤΤ褦 -ise ֻ̲ΤȤʤ롥ޤʥꥹ˱Ѹ줬ĤɤΤ褦ˡΤ褦ʥե󥹸Ǥ -ise ؤΰ̲˹碌-ise 򹥤褦ˤʤäΤפ䤤Ȥʤ롥Upward and Davidson (170--71) βΰҥȤˤʤ롥

          The suffix -IZE/-ISE

There are some 200 verbs in general use ending in the suffix -ISE/-IZE, spelt with Z in American usage and s or z in British usage. The ending originated in Gr with z, which was transmitted through Lat and OFr to Eng beginning in the ME period.

Three factors interfered with the straightforward adoption of z for all the words ending in /aɪz/:
   - The increasing variation of z/s in OFr and ME.
   - The competing model of words like surprise, always spelt with s (-ISE in those words being not the Gr suffix but part of a Franco-Lat stem).
   - Developments in Fr which undermined the z-spelling of the Gr -IZE suffix; for example, the 1694 edition of the authoritative dictionary of the Académie Française standardized the spelling of the Gr suffix with s (e.g. baptiser, organiser, réaliser) for ModFr in accordance with the general Fr rule for the spelling of /z/ between vowels as s, and the consistent use of -ISE by ModFr from then on gave weight to a widespread preference for it in British usage. American usage, on the other hand, came down steadfastly on the side of -IZE, and BrE now allows either spelling.


Ѹ -ise/-ize α˥ǥߡե󥻡ƯäȤΤϤ⤷ɵᤷƤߤ

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-10-10-1]

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2022-12-25 Sun

#4990. ư -ize/-ise [spelling][suffix][z][greek][latin][french][consonant][diphthong][verb][oed][ame_bre]

ư -ize/-ise ˤĤơΥڥ󥰤Ѥ뤫Ȥ顤#305. -ise -ize ([2010-02-26-1])#314. -ise -ize (2) ([2010-03-07-1]) ˤƤ OED εҤ󤷤ʤ顤ˤ⤹롥
-ize/-ise ϥꥷư -ƦŦɦ ̤롥̱ͤ²ɽ魯̾ˤĤơ~̱͡²ˤȤơʤΤ褦ˡ˿񤦡פΰ̣ư뤳Ȥ¿äѸбǤ barbarianize, tyrannize, Atticize, Hellenize Τ褦
34ˤϥƥ -izāre ȤƼޤ졤Ϥ夷ƤäꥹȶůؤѸȤ baptizāre, euangelizāre, catechiizāre, canōnizāre, daemonizāre ʤɤ߽Ф줿䤬ơꥷưѤꡤ路ư¤줹ݤΰŪʷȤ夷
ϡƥʥ顼ˤơ䤬ưŪ˥ƥηƻ̾줫ư뵡ǽȯãεǽΰ̲Ϥ餯ե󥹸ˤƺǽǤ -iser ֤褦ˤʤäciviliser, cicatriser, humaniser ʤɤǤ롥
ѸѸե󥹸줫 -iser ưѤݤˡե󥹸켰˴Ť -ise ֤뤳Ȥ¿äϡ˱ѸǤȼ᤿κݤ˥ƥե󥹸ǤΤȤưˤ -ise 򡤥ꥷǤ˴Ťˤϥꥷ츻ºŤ -ize Ѥʤɤη⸽줿ηϤޤȾüʤΤäˡ-ize -ise Τ䤳꤬˻롥OED ˤȤƤϡ츻ŪǤꡤ /z/ ʸ̤ɽ魯ڥ󥰤Ȥ -ize 줷ƤȤ
ʤѸΤ2첻뤳ȤˤĤơOED ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

In the Greek -ιζ-, the i was short, so originally in Latin, but the double consonant z (= dz, ts) made the syllable long; when the z became a simple consonant, /-idz/ became īz, whence English /-aɪz/.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-10-10-1] [2022-12-26-1]

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2022-11-05 Sat

#4940. ʬϤˤ -ess -ness [reanalysis][metanalysis][analogy][suffix][morpheme]

Ūʺʬ (reanalysis) ˤϤĤμब뤬 Fertig (32) ѤĤġ̾첽 -ness ¤ -ess ͳ褹ȤҲ𤹤롥

This [type of reanalysis] occurs frequently when the reanalysis affects the location of a boundary between stem and affix. A well-known example involves the Germanic suffix that became English -ness. The corresponding suffix in proto-Germanic was -assu. This suffix was frequently attached to stems ending in -n, and this n was subsequently reanalyzed as belonging to the suffix rather than the stem. In Old English, we find examples based on past participles, such as forgifeness 'forgiveness', which could still be analyzed as forgifen + ess, but also many instances based on adjectives, such as gōdness 'goodness' or beorhtness 'brightness', which provide unambiguous evidence of the reanalysis and the new productive rule of -ness suffixation . . . . Similar reanalyses give us the common Germanic suffix -ling --- as in English darling, sapling, nestling, etc. --- from attachment of -ing (OED -ing, suffix3 'one belonging to') to stems ending in l, as well as the German suffixes -ner and -ler, attributable to words where -er was attached to stems ending in -n or -l and then extended to give us new words such as Rentner 'pensioner' < Rente 'pension' and Sportler 'sportsman'.


رѸ츻ŵ٤⤦äƤ -ness ϶Ѳʬθ˸ n ޥĸμѲưܼ *-atjan ͳ褹 *-assus ʸθűѸ -essˤ³ΤǤ롥Ĥޤ n ϴΤΰäΤ줬 -ess Ȱβơ-ness ʤ뿷ǤȤ櫓
-nisɥĸ -nisȸ -inassus Τ褦ʿŪ㤬ޥ˳ǧ뤳Ȥ顤κʬϤβϥޥĸʳǵäƤȹͤ롥ޥ֤첻κۤˤĤƤԾܤǤ롥ѸǤߤƤѸǤ -nes(se) -nis(se) ʻ¸ƤѸʹߤԤͥȤʤä
ȶ -ness Ȥ1ĤȤäƤ⡤̣ˤƤΤ

Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ

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2022-05-31 Tue

#4782. cleanse ˺פĤư -(e)sian [suffix][etymology][oe][verb][word_formation][derivation][vowel][shortening][shocc]

ε#4781. open warn -(e)n ư ([2022-05-30-1]) ǡűѸư -(e)nian 夲űѸˤϤۤ -(e)sian Ȥư⤢äϤѲư2ब롥
ƱͤˡLass Hogg and Fulk Ѥǡ-(e)sian ˤĤƤβñ򼨤

(i) -s-ian. Many class II weak verbs have an /-s-/ formative: e.g. clǣn-s-ian 'cleanse' (clǣne 'clean', rīc-s-ian 'rule' (rīce 'kingdom'), milt-s-ian 'take pity on' (mild 'mild'). The source of the /-s-/ is not entirely clear, but it may well reflect the IE */-s-/ formative that appears in the s-aorist (L dic-ō 'I say', dīxī 'I said' = /di:k-s-i:/). Alternants with /-s-/ in a non-aspectual function do however appear in the ancient dialects (Skr bhā-s-ati 'it shines' ~ bhā-ti), and even within the same paradigm in the same category (GR aléks-ō 'I protect', infinitive all-alk-ein). (Lass 203)


(iii) verbs in -(e)sian, including blētsian 'bless', blīðsian, blissian 'rejoice', ġītsian 'covet', grimsian 'rage', behrēowsian 'reprent', WS mǣrsian 'glorify', miltsian 'pity', rīcsian, rīxian 'rule', unrōtsian 'worry', untrēowsian 'disbelieve', yrsian 'rage'. (Hogg and Fulk 289)


űѸȤƤϤ褯ư줬¿Τǰʤ -(e)nian ƱͤˡߤޤǻĤäƤưϵǤ롥1줬 cleanse Ǥ롥ƻ clean /kliːn/ бư cleanse /klɛnz/ 첻ûʤäȤˤĤƤϡ#3960. Ҳûλ ([2020-02-29-1]) 򻲾ȡ

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2022-05-30 Mon

#4781. open warn -(e)n ư [suffix][etymology][oe][verb][word_formation][derivation]

ε#4780. weaken Ф strengthen, shorten Ф lengthen ([2022-05-29-1]) ǡư -en ˿줿 (suffix) ˤĤƤϡ#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1])#3987. ťΥɸαƶ (2) ([2020-03-27-1]) εʤɤǤ夲Ƥ
ϸűѸ -(e)nian ͳ褷˥ޥˤ⤵ΤܤŤưǤǤ롥űѸǤϡ̾줢뤤Ϸƻ줫ưΤäѤ졤ưϼѲư2°롥űѸ줫 Lass (203) ȤȤ˰Ѥ롥

(iii) -n-. An /-n-/ formative, reflecting an extended suffix */-in-o:n/, appears in a number of class II weak verbs, especially denominal and deadjectival: fæst-n-ian 'fasten' (fæst), for-set-n-ian 'beset' (for-settan 'hedge in, obstruct'), lāc-n-ian 'heal, cure' (lǣce 'physician'). The type is widespread in Germanic: cf. Go lēki-n-ōn, OHG lāhhi-n-ōn, OS lāk-n-ōn.


Ʊ Hogg and Fulk (289) 󤲤Ƥ

(ii) verbs in -(e)nian, including ġedafenian 'befit' (cf. ġedēfe 'fitting'), fæġ(e)-nian 'rejoice' (cf. fæġe 'popular'), fæstnian 'fasten' (cf. fæst 'firm'), hafenian 'hold' (cf. habban 'have'), lācnian 'heal' (cf. lǣċe 'doctor'), op(e)nian 'open' (cf. upp 'up'), war(e)nian 'warn' (cf. warian 'beware'), wilnian 'desire' (cf. willa 'desire'), wītnian 'punish' (cf. wīte 'punishment') . . . .


ߤޤ¸³Ƥư¿ʤ㤨 open, warn -(e)n ˤκפǧ뤳ȤǤ롥ߤ¿ -en ưϡűѸˤΤܤ櫓ǤϤʤѸʹߤοǤ롥

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-05-31-1]

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2022-05-29 Sun

#4780. weaken Ф strengthen, shorten Ф lengthen [suffix][word_formation][phonology][morphology][chiguhagu_channel][antonymy][word_formation][derivation]

khelfʷѸ˥եˤؤäǶ̤ǤѸˡѸؾͷӤΤ褦ʤΤȤơ֤Ϥͥ (chiguhagu_channel) Ȥ򡤤줳2ǯۤ³Ƥޤγɤ֤ϤפФƤΤǡܳŪʵνȯȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ڤǤޤSlack ȤåȥġΤʤΡ֥ͥסʥʡΤ褦ʤΡˤȤΩƤΤǡ̾ĤƤޤΰյϼ̤ꡥ
'

ȿε17ʸ31ʸɽΤж硤ûΤȤСʱѸˤԾ1~2ԤɽΤ֤ϤͥפǤڤ̣Ǿ餹褷֤Ϥס֤򤫤פǾ餹褷Ǿ餹褷ؼԤǿ̤ͤʤƱɶǡֱӤפȤŰͥǤ


ơرԤ֤ϤפƤޤʤرȤϡܲΡرѸ˿ʹ2ԽѰĹ̳ƤƤǤ2𤦤ԡˡ

weakʷˡweakenư
strength̾ˡstrengthenư


ä2ԤǤƱԳѤʻŦäȤʤޤθ塤Ρ֤Ϥפ˥󥹥ԥ졼䤫鼡Τ褦ʼݤǡֲΡפޤ

ΤϤ˴ؾ褵Ƥ餤ޤ

shortʷˡshortenư
length̾ˡlengthenư

ͤʤ顤ɤɤȤʤȵλ򤿤ɤäƤʤΤǤư -en ϡΤΤβ֡˳äʡˤȤȤäȻפΤǤ͡ƻ strong long IJ /ŋ/ ǽΤǡ-en ³ʤʤȤ³ǤʤˤȤȤǤϤʤȡäĴ٤ƤߤޤȤפФƤߤޤ


θ塤ŵפФɤ夯ȤǤޤJespersen ǤJespersen pp. 355--56 濴Ȥơư -en ˴ؤܺ٤ʲ⤬ޤ§Ȥ -en ˳ (obstruent) ǽΤˤĤIJ (sonorant) 첻ǽΤˤϤĤʤȤȤǤΤ *strongen *longen ȤϤʤΥ롼ˤʤ̤δΡʺΥǤ̾ strength, lengthˤФ졤 -en ĤȤȤǤ

   There are no examples of n-vbs formed from adjs in vowels (or diphthongs): free, blue, low, slow, hight, sly, shy, new; narrow, yellow, steady, holy; nor of such disyllables as able, noble; nor of adjs in m, n, ŋ, r: slim, thin, brown, clean, long, strong; far, poor, near. Note the contrast in Kipling L 135 to see the smoke roll outward, thin and thicken again | Hardy L 147 her hair greyed and whitened | Quincey 295 to soften and refine the feelings.
   . . . .
   Our rule accounts for the formation of length(en) and strength(en): there are no vbs long or longen 'make or become long, strong or strongen. On the analogy of these we have the rare depthen (17th c.) and breadthen (19th c.); no corresponding vbs without -en.
   Adjs in -l generally have no vbs in -en (thus none from small, full, still); the two named above [= dullen and palen] are exceptional and late.


Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-05-30-1]

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2022-05-10 Tue

#4761. -er, -or, -ee ʤɤϡֹ԰ټפȤϡּʼԡס [semantic_role][terminology][suffix][noun][word_formation][agentive_suffix]

ܥ֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)Ǥϡ-er, -or, -ee ʤɤΡ~͡ʤΡˡפֹ̣̾԰ټ (agentive_suffix) ˤĤơȼ夲Ƥ

#214. -er -or ¤äȤΥҥȡ (heldio)
#215. ԰ټ -ster (heldio)
#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])
#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) ([2014-06-20-1])
#1881. -ee εȯŸ (2) ([2014-06-21-1])
#3791. ԰ټ -er, -ster ϥƥͳ褹롩 ([2019-09-13-1])
#4056. deme, demere, demande ([2020-06-04-1])
#4222. ԰ټ -eer ([2020-11-17-1])
#4302. ԰ټ -ar ([2021-02-05-1])

ޤǡ (suffix) ˤĤƿͤˡֹ԰ټ (agentive_suffix) ȸƤӡΤΥꤷƤBauer (285--86) εɤߡषּʼԡ (subject suffix) 餤Ѹ줬ȵŤԤϰ̣Ū̾դǡԤŪ̾դǤ롥

There is a class of nominalizations which is sometimes given the name 'agentive nominalization' in the literature . . . . This class is made up mainly of forms such as baker, examiner, killer, where the suffix -er is added to a verbal base. 'Agentive nominalization' is actually a misnomer because such forms do not always denote agents, in any normal sense of the term 'agent'. In words like curler, opener, synthesizer the derivative in -er denotes an instrument; in words like lover the derivative denotes an experiencer or patient. These various semantic effects, however, can be given a unitary explanation if it is said that the derivative is a lexeme which is a typical subject of the verb used in the base: a curler curls, an opener opens, a lover loves, and so on. A better name for this group of nominalizations, therefore, is subject nominalization, although this label will cover more than just -er suffixation.


ʵǤ롥԰ټ (agentive suffix) ȤѸ⤽ʤ夷ƤꡤˤϼΤƤȤ³ˤƤ⡤Bauer λŦռĤĻȤȤˤ褦

Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.

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2022-05-09 Mon

#4760. ʬȸʬͳ礭ۤʤ [infinitive][germanic][morphology][inflection][verb][oe][germanic][indo-european][etymology][suffix]

#4349. ʤʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿Τ˸ʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤ ([2021-03-24-1]) ȤѤʵȴϢơ⤽ξԤͳ褬礭ۤʤˤĤơLass βѤ褦ޤʬˤĤơȤ櫓Ѳưͳ˾Ƥ (Lass 161)

. . . its [= past participle] descent is not always very neat. To begin with, it is historically not really 'part of' the verb paradigm: it is originally an independent thematic adjective (IE o-stem, Gmc a-stem) formed off the verbal root. The basic development would be:
IE PGmc
*ROOT - o - nó->*ROOT - α -nα-


Ѳư˴ؤ¤ꡤʬư캬ˤϤʤȤưѥȤ߹ޤƤʤäȤȤŪˤϡư줫Ωưζΰ㤤ˤ¸
ʬˤϡŪưζΰ㤤˰¸ʤȤ𤬤ä (Lass 163) ˤĤƤϤǤˡ#4345. űѸޤǤθʬȯã ([2021-03-20-1]) ǰѤȤǤ롥
֤ʤʬˤԵ§ʤΤ¿Τ˸ʬ -ing ǵ§ŪʤΤפȤ˸礦äơ⤽ʬȸʬͳ褬礭ۤʤäƤפȤʤ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2022-01-20 Thu

#4651. ʤ fire ƻ fiery ϤֻʤΤǤ [sobokunagimon][spelling][pronunciation][adjective][gvs][vowel][syllable][analogy][suffix]

ѤʵϻĹ餯ʥäΤǤǶ᥼ߤγ˻ŦƤ餦񤬤ꡤƹͤФǤfire -y դΤǤСΤޤ *firy Ǥ褵ʤΤǤʤ fiery ȤʤΤǤ礦expire expiry, mire miry, spire spiry, wire wiry ʤɤϤΤǤfire fiery Υפ¾㤬ʤ褦ʤΤǡޤޤԻ׵ĤǤ
Ū뤤ϥҥȤȤƤϡѸ fire 1ǤϤʤ2ǡfiery 2ǤϤʤ3ȯ줿ȤطΤǤϤʤˤǤޤ
ʽŪˤСѸ [fiːr], [ˈfiː ri] 첻 (gvs) ФƳơ [fəɪr], [ˈfəɪ ri] ѲޤĹ첻2첻ѲǡѲǤ줾첻ѲϤޤǤ
r αƶǡľϤ겻Ȥۣ첻 [ə] 졤줬ΩγˤȤʤ褦ȯѸˤѰ۷Ȥ¸ߤ褦ʤΤǤפ fi-er, fi-e-ry Τ褦ʥץ饹1ΰ۷֤äȤȤǤ褦ʲĸˤĤơλݤƱ夫餢ޤJespersen ʡ11.11ˤεҤ򸫤Ƥߤޤ礦

The glide before /r/ was even before that time [= 1588 or 1639] felt as a distinct vowel-sound [ə], especially after the new diphthongs that took the place of /iˑ, uˑ/. This is shown by the spelling in some cases after ow: shower < OE scūr bower < OE būr . cower < Scn kūra . lower by the side of lour < Scn lūra 'look gloomy'. tower < F tour; cf. on flower and flour 3.49. Thus also after i in brier, briar, frier, friar, ME brere, frere; fiery, fierie, fyeri (from the 16th c.) for earlier fyry, firy. The glide-vowel [ə] is also indicated by Hart's phonetic spellings 1569: [feiër/ fire (as /heiër/) higher) . /meier/ mire /oˑer/ oar . [piuër] pure . /diër/ dear . [hier/ here (hie r, which also occurs, many be a misprint).


פˡfire ηƻ˴ؤ¤ꡤȤȤȯ2Ǥꡤֻ2ˤߤͳ firy ⤢äɤ⡤ѸդˤȯϤ겻3Ȥʤꡤֻ⤽3ȯȿǤ fiery ʻѤ줿ȤȤΤ褦ǤơȤ̾ǤƱȤäƤȡ
ȤѸδ鿶֤äƤߤȡ̾ǤϤ겻ȿǤƤʤΤ褦 fire ֻɸȤƺѤ졤ƻǤϤ겻ȿǤΤ褦 fiery ֻɸȤƺѤƤޤä褦˸ޤɤ顤ѸˤǤŵŪʡʤȤ⡤դΡˡ֤ϤפǤⵯäƤޤäȤȤǤϤʤǤ礦
뤤ϡ̣Ρַ㤷פĤʤϢۤƻ fierce Ȥֻ (analogy) ⤢ä⤷ʤȵäƤޤǤ礦
ΰѤǤ⿨Ƥޤflower flour Ʊ츻ƱȯǤʤ⡤ۤʤֻʬȡ϶ᤤ褦˻פޤ#183. flower flour ([2009-10-27-1])#2440. flower flour (2) ([2016-01-01-1]) flower ʲ֡ˤ flour ʾʴˤƱ츻 (heldio) ⻲Ȥ

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.

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2021-12-30 Thu

#4630. Shakespeare ӵ顦Ǿä [shakespeare][emode][comparison][superlative][adjective][adverb][suffix][periphrasis][suppletion]

ε#4629. Shakespeare 2ӵ顦Ǿ ([2021-12-29-1]) ǡѸεʸˡǤϵƤʤ2ӵ顦Ǿ餬 Shakespeare ˤäƻȤƤ򸫤
Ȥϰۤʤ륿פǤ more, most ֤뱪ѤȤ Shakespeare Ǥ -er, -est դ޷ѤƤ䡤εդλѻ롥ˤϡǤӵǾˤʤʤŪפʰ̣ķƻ졦줬Shakespeare ǤϤθ¤ǤϤʤäȤ⤢롥 Shakespeare ˤ400ǯλ뤳ȤͤСΤ褦ʰ̣ŪѲäȤƤä٤ȤǤϤʤ
Shakespeare ȸθˡǰۤʤΤ Crystal and Crystal (88--90) 󤷤褦

[ ѸǤϱˡShakespeare Ǥ϶ˡ ]

Modern comparative Shakespearian comparative Example
---------------------- ----------------------------- -----------
more honest honester Cor IV.v.50
more horrid horrider Cym IV.ii.331
more loath loather 2H6 III.ii.355
more often oftener MM IV.ii.48
more quickly quicklier AW I.i.122
more perfect perfecter Cor II.i.76
more wayward waywarder AY IV.i.150

Modern superlative Shakespearian superlative Example
---------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------
most ancient ancient'st WT Iv.i10
most certain certain'st TNK V.iv.21
most civil civilest 2H6 IV.vii.56
most condemned contemned'st KL II.ii.141
most covert covert'st R3 III.v.33
most daring daring'st H8 II.iv.215
most deformed deformed'st Sonn 113.10
most easily easil'est Cym IV.ii.206
most exact exactest Tim II.ii.161
most extreme extremest KL V.iii.134
most faithful faithfull'st TN V.i.112
most foul-mouthed foul mouthed'st 2H4 II.iv.70
most honest honestest AW III.v.73
most loathsome loathsomest TC II.i.28
most lying lyingest 2H6 II.i.124
most maidenly maidenliest KL I.ii.131
most pained pained'st Per IV.vi.161
most perfect perfectest Mac I.v.2
most ragged ragged'st 2H4 I.i.151
most rascally rascalliest 1H4 I.ii.80
most sovereign sovereignest 1H4 I.iii.56
most unhopeful unhopefullest MA II.i.349
most welcome welcomest 1H6 II.ii.56
most wholesome wholesom'st MM IV.ii.70

[ ѸǤ϶ˡShakespeare Ǥϱˡ ]

Modern comparative Shakespearian comparative Example
---------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------
greater more great 1H4 IV.i77
longer more long Cor V.ii.63
nearer more near AW I.iii.102

[ ѸǤӵ顦ǾʤShakespeare ǤϼäƤ ]

Modern word Shakespearian comparison Example
---------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------
chief chiefest 1H6 I.i.177
due duer 2H4 III.ii.296
just justest AC II.i.2
less lesser R2 II.i.95
like liker KJ II.i.126
little littlest [cf. smallest] Ham III.ii.181
rather ratherest LL IV.ii.18
very veriest 1H4 II.ii.23
worse worser [cf. less bad] Ham III.iv.158

ȲȤӵ顦ǾκۤʤˤĤƤϡ#3618. Johnson ˤӵ顦Ǿκε§ ([2019-03-24-1]) ⻲ȡ

Crystal, David and Ben Crystal. Shakespeare's Words: A Glossary & Language Companion. London: Penguin, 2002.

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2021-12-10 Fri

#4610. marriage, carriage, verbiage [spelling][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation_gap][noun][suffix][sound_change]

դȻפĤ䡥marriage/ˈmærɪʤ/ carriage /ˈkærɪʤ/ 2ȯ뤬Ʊ <-iage> ֻ verbiage /ˈvəːbiɪʤ/ 3ȯ롥ʤʤΤ
-age ϥե󥹸̾ͳ褹롥̤ȥƥ -āticum ƻˤˤɤĤѸǤ13鸫졤14--15ʹߡ¿Ѥ褦ˤʤäե󥹸ͳǤ뤫顤ѸǤ϶ȼä /-aːʒ/ ȯƤ14˥ե󥹸줫Ѥ줿Ѹ mariage, cariage ⡤ե󥹸ˤۤɶᤤ /mariˈaːʒ/, /kariˈaːʒ/ ۤɤ3ȯäϤǤ롥
ȤȤˤ2ϡֱѸ첽פƤäѲΥ롼Ȥˡ(1) 1˰ܤꡤ(2) 23ᤫ鶯å -iage /-iɪʤ/ Ȥʤꡤ(3) Ʊʬ˼岽ûƱФ /-ɪʤ/ ȤʤäΤñΤȤƤߤ3ᤫ2ûʤäȤˤʤ롥
verbiage 3ݤäƤ롥嵭Υ롼ȤǤ (1), (2) ޤǤϷФ (3) ϷФƤʤȤʳǤ롥ñ marriage, carriage ⤺ä٤18˥ե󥹸줫ѤƤˡֱѸ첽פʬ˿ʤǤʤȤȤʤΤ
ʤߤƱ <-iage> triage /ˈtriːɑːʒ, triˈɑːʒ/ 18˥ե󥹸줫Ѥ줿ֱѸ첽פΥ롼ȤǤ (1) ʳˤ뤫뤤Ϥޤ롼Ȥ˾äƤʤʳˤȤ
<-iage> ȤֻбȯμϡǯȴˤϢưĤġ¿ͤǤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2021-12-11-1]

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