Ѹܼ (affix) ϡֲŪʴ2Ĥμ˶̤롥줾쥯饹 I ܼ饹 II ܼȸƤФƤ뤬ξԤ¿оŪǤ롥 (89--90) ˤäơޤȤ褦
| 饹 I | 饹 II | |
| -al, -ard, -ative/-itive, -ian, -ic, -ion, -ity, -ous, in- ʤ | -er, -ful, -ingN, -ish, -less, -ly, -ness, -ship, -yADJ, un- ʤ | |
| ʥ˶ְư (stress shift) | ʤ | |
| párent vs. paréntal | párent vs. párentless | |
| Cánada vs. Canádian | Fíinland vs. Fínlander | |
| átom vs. atómic | yéllow vs. yéllowish | |
| prohíbit vs. prohibítion | óbvious vs. óbviously | |
| májor vs. majórity | ácid vs. ácidness | |
| móment vs. moméntous | cítizen vs. cítizenship | |
| ʥ˻û첻 (trisyllabic shortening) | ʤ | |
| divíne vs. divínity | gréen vs. gréenishness | |
| sáne vs. sánity | bríne vs. bríniness | |
| obscéne vs. obscénity | ráin vs. ráininess | |
| deríve vs. derívative | róse vs. rósiness | |
| ʥ (velar softening) | ʤ | |
| electric vs. electricity, electrician | traffic vs. traffickingN | |
| panic vs. panickyADJ | ||
| ʥ˻Ҳά (consonant cluster simplification) | ʤ | |
| elongate cf. long | singer | |
| bombard cf. bomb | bomber | |
| hymnalADJ cf. hymn | crumby | |
| condemnation cf. condemn | condemner | |
| ʥƬɡƱ (nasal assimilation) | ʤ | |
| immoral | unmoral | |
| impatient | unpack |
Ѹ (suffix) ˤϡȸ촴Ȥζ֤ΰưȤ顤礭3ब̤롥(1) 촴ζ֤ݻΩ (stress-neutral suffix)(2) 촴ζ֤ưư (stress-shifting suffix, stress-affecting suffix)(3) Τ (stress-bearing suffix) 뤤Ͷܼ (stress-attracting suffix) 3Ǥ롥ʲʡ (88--89) ꡤƼ
ΡΩ
-dom: ˈfreedom, ˈkingdom
-en: ˈthicken, ˈwiden
-ful: ˈcheerful, ˈpocketful
-ish: ˈchildish, ˈfoolish
Ρư
A. 綯ľβˤ
-fic: scienˈtific, speˈcific
-ic: alˈlergic, eˈlectric
-ics: matheˈmatics, phoˈnetics
-ion: diˈversion, exˈpansion
-ity: faˈtality, hospiˈtality
B. 綯2βˤ
-cide: ˈgenocide, ˈhomicide
-fy: ˈmodify, ˈsatisfy
-gon: ˈhexagon, ˈpentagon
-tude: ˈattitude, ˈsolitude
C. 綯1ޤ2βˤ
-al: uniˈversal, geoˈlogical
-ar: faˈmiliar, ˈsingular
-ide: diˈoxide, ˈfluoride
-is: syˈnopsis, ˈemphasis
-ive: exˈpensive, comˈpetitive
-ous: treˈmendous, harˈmonious
Ρ
-ade: blockˈade, gingeˈrade
-eer: engiˈneer, volunˈteer
-ese: officiaˈlese, Japaˈnese
-esque: gardeˈnesque, pictuˈresque
ʡ 5ϡȡꥺ ԡˡزءīоȸإ 2īҽŹ2012ǯ84--103ǡ
ѸˤμȤǴ줿Ѥ⤷Ǥcareful careless Τ褦еηƻˤơФȤ -ful -less ֤Ƥޤʤ -ful Ф -less ʤΤǤ礦-less -more εդäΤǤϤʤǤ礦
ΤˡȤʤ餵ޤͤȤʤäǤμ˰ʤ뤳ȤǤǤƬ -ful Ϸƻ full ͳ褹뤳Ȥʬޤη֤ϤޤǸǤ͡Ȥе -less Ϸƻӵη֤äƤޤդʿԲIJǤ
ȡӵ less -less ȤƱΤǤϤʤޤä̸츻ʤΤǤߤǤֻƱʤΤǤޤƤޤޤűѸǤԤ lǣs(sa)Ԥ -lēas Τ褦˰ۤʤ֤Ƥޤ˵äѲη̡ξԤˤƱ֤˼̤ƤޤäȤ櫓ʤΤǤ
ӵ less ϡ־פ̣캬 *leis- ˤΤܤޤ -less ϥޥĸ *lausaz ͳ褷ޤԤ loose, lose, loss ʤɤȴϢ?ʤǡƤפ̣ޤ?ʬˤ롤Ƥפ̣ full, -ful еδطˤ뤳Ȥʬ뤫Ȼפޤ
ȤȤǡѸѤƷޤȡּͳ less ȹ« -less ϸߤ̵ط̸츻ͳ褹뤫פȤʤޤ
ε#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-30-1]) ˰³-ate ĸȯưǤ /eɪt/ Ȥʤ̾졦ƻǤ /ɪt/ ȤʤˤĤơ
Carney Ǥ⤳꤬ƽǰƤꡤä p. 398 ˤθݤñꥹȤƤ롥ʲ˺ƸƤŪǤϤʤȻפ뤬ʰǤ롥
aggregate, animate, appropriate, approximate, articulate, associate, certificate, co-ordinate, correlate, degenerate, delegate, deliberate, duplicate, elaborate, emasculate, estimate, expatriate, graduate, importunate, incorporate, initiate, intimate, moderate, postulate, precipitate, predicate, separate, subordinate, syndicate
Carney ΥꥹȤƤΤϡʻˤäȯؤतñ줬ȤˤƤǤ롥¾μȤƤϡؤ̾ư (diatone) Ƥ뤷 -ment ĸˤƤ롥̾ưȤݤȤŪطʤˤĤƤˤĤƤϡǤܥ֥Ǥ diatone γƵܳŪ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤʻˤäȯؤפȤݥȤ -ate ȤĤʤäƤȤΤϡȯä
-ment ˤĤƤϡưǤΤ첻 /-mɛnt/ Ȥʤ뤬̾졦ƻǤۣ첻 /-mənt/ Ȥʤ롥Carney (398) 곺ñΥꥹȤƤcomplement, compliment, document, implement, increment, ornament, supplement.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ɸˤĤƼ䤬ޤȤ appropriate ưȤƤϡֻѤ˶סƻȤƤϡŬڤʡפǤơȯ /əˈproʊpriˌeɪt/, /əˈproʊpriˌɪt/ Ȥʤޤ첻 /eɪt/ ̸ /ɪt/ ǰۤʤäƤޤϤʤǤ礦
ư /eɪt/ ȯϡֻȾȤ餷碌Ф狼褦ˡ첻 (gvs) θ̤Ƥޤ<-ate> Ȥֻɽ蘆ȯ /-aːt(ə)/ Ѹ첻ܤˤ /eɪt/ ؤѲǤޤƱֻ̾졦ƻ -ate ǤϡΤ褦ȯѲϵäƤޤѲϡष첻μ岽Ǥꡤ/ɪt/ ؤȵ뤷Ƥޤ
ΰ㤤ϡ첻ܰζΤΰ㤤˵ޤŪˤСappropriate Τ褦Ĺñξ硤ưˤƤϸβ2֤ޤƻ졦̾ˤƤ֤ʤȤޤappropriate ˤĤƶŪˤСưȤƤ4 -ate ˡ2˶֤ޤ̾졦ƻȤƤϤ줬֤ʤȤȤˤʤޤ
ǻפФ٤ϡ첻ܤϡֶΤĹ첻פˤƺѤ벻ǤȤȤǤĤޤꡤ-ate ưˡˤƤϡ2ǤϤޤ˶֤Τǡξ˹פ /-aːt(ə)/ /eɪt/ ޤ̾졦ƻˡˤƤϡ֤ʤΤ첻ܤȤ̵طˤळȤˤʤޤ̾졦ƻˡǤϡ /-aːt(ə)/ ֻȤƤ <-ate> ݤʤ⡤ȤƤ϶ȤȤ /-at/ ؤû /-ət/ /-ɪt/ ؤۣ첻ΤǤ
Τ褦ʷаޤǡ-ate ʻˤäȯ㤨ȤʤޤäηޤꡤѥǤȡθϼºݤȯ䶯֤ˤ餺ȤˤΩѥŪŬѤ褦ˤʤޤơ-ate ȯ롼뤬ΩΤǤ
Ϣơ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) ⤴Ȥ-age ʤɤ˴ؤƤ⡤ۤƱƤϤޤȻפޤ (310, 313) ȡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
1755ǯ Johnson μνʸ "Grammar of the English Tongue" ꤹʸˡҤξϤ롥ǷƻӤˤĤƤ⥹ڡ䤫Ƥ뤬-er/-est Ӥ more/most ӤȤȤʬϡ§ȤΤä褦Johnson ʤλƤߤ褦
The Comparison of Adjectives.
The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding er, the superlative by adding est, to the positive; as, fair, fairer, fairest; lovely, lovelier, loveliest; sweet, sweeter, sweetest; low, lower, lowest; high, higher, highest.
Some words are irregularly compared; as good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; near, nearer, next; much, more, most; many (or moe), more for moer), most (for moest); late, latter, latest or last.
Some comparatives form a superlative by adding most, as nether, nethermost; outer, outmost; under, undermost; up, upper, uppermost; fore, former, foremost.
Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are only compared by more and most, as benevolent, more benevolent, most benevolent.
All adjectives may be compared by more and most, even when they have comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as fair; fairer, or more fair; fairest, or most fair.
In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative more is oftener used than the superlative most, as more fair is oftener written for fairer, than most fair for fairest.
The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much regulated by commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily reduced to rules.
Monosyllables are commonly compared.
Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared otherwise than by more and most, as deplorable, more deplorable, most deplorable.
Disyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in some, as fulsome, toilsome; in ful, as careful, spleenful, dreadful; in ing, as trifling, charming; in ous, as porous; in less, as careless, harmless; in ed, as wretched; in id, as candid; in al, as mortal; in ent, as recent, fervent; in ain, as certain; in ive, as missive; in dy, as woody; in fy, as puffy; in ky, as rocky, except lucky; in my, as roomy; in ny, as skinny; in py, as ropy, except happy; in ry, as hoary.
Johnson ϤΤ褦ǡʤε§˱ʤȤơMilton Ben Jonson μƤ롥
Ǥ˰ѤҤˤϡ̣¿ޤޤƤ롥ȤС֡Ѥɽ魯Ǥ most ȤղäȤΤϸ츻Ūˤ⤷ (ex. nethermost, outmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost) outer ˤĤƤϡ#3616. 촴첻ûפӵͳ褹 latter, last, utter ([2019-03-22-1]) ȡޤforemost ˤĤƤϡ#1307. most mest ([2012-11-24-1]) ȡ
äơӤƻˤĤ most ѤǾ more ѤӵΤۤ٤ȤΤⶽ̣ŦӵȺǾǤϤ⤽ⷹۤʤ뤫⤷ʤȤϡ٤ࡥ
Milton λˤϵ줿 virtuousest, famousest, pow'rfullest ʤɤ Johnson ʤλˤǤϵƤʤʤäƤȤ⸫ƨʤJohnson Ǥ˸ŪʴФäƤȤˤʤ뤫ȤʬκСJohnson λޤǤ˸ʬۤȤϤǤäƤȹͤƤ褵
Τ褦ʡֺפ1ˤĤơLass ŦƤ뤳Ȥ⼨ŪǤ롥Lass (157) ϡJohnson ǤϵƤƤʤ woody, puffy, rocky, roomy ʤɤζӤߤǤϵƤƤ¤ͤȡ鸽ޤǤ˶ӤŬϰϤ礷ƤǽȽҤ٤Ƥ롥⤷ʤСθóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȤƤߤ뤳ȤǤ
18εʸˡɤľϡѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤθѲΡȯפ¥Ƥ롥
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." 1476--1776. Vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the English Language. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
Ѹˤɸ䤤ϡޤΤĤƤʤǤ롥ѸŪˤ⡤ȯã丽ˤĤñ˵Ҥ뤳Ȥޤʤ椬ʤƤ롥ӤȶӤζŪطʤˤĤƤϡ#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1])#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1])#3032. ӤȶӤζάˡ ([2017-08-15-1])#3349. ѸˤƻӤζ vs ηװ ([2018-06-28-1])#3614. Ѹ2ӵ顦ǾԸˤʤ ([2019-03-21-1]) ʤɤǾҲ𤷤ƤΤǡ
ϡɸѸˤӵ顦Ǿξפηˡʬۤ˴ؤơLass ˤ복 (156) äƤ
(i) Monosyllabic bases take suffixes: bigg-er, bigg-est, etc. Periphrasis is usually not available (**more big), though there are exceptions, e.g. when two adjectives are predicated of a single head (more dead than alive). Suffixed participles must take periphrasis (**smashed-er).
(ii) Disyllables preferentially take suffixes, though periphrasis is available for many (hairy, hairi-er/more hairy). Some suffix(oid)s however require periphrasis: e.g. -ish (**greenish-er), -est (**honest-er), -ous (**grievous-er), -id (**rigid-er), as well as -less, -ful, and some others. Participles cannot be suffixed (**hidden-er). This may be a function of the somewhat ambiguous status of the comparative and superlative endings, somewhere between inflections proper and derivational affixes. (The former are normally terminal in the word: care-less-ness-es.)
(iii) Trisyllabic and longer forms take periphrasis (**beautiful-er, **religiously-er); hence the comic effect of Alice's 'curiouser and curiouser'. But suffixation of longer forms is available for special stylistic purposes . . . .
Τ褦˴ΤβǾʬƤơ㳰ȯƤޤ(ii) ȤƵƤ褦ˡ-er/-est ϶ܼʤΤܼʤΤȤ䤤⡤Ū˽פǤ (cf. #456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1])) ѸؤˤȤäƤѸˤˤȤäƤ⡤ӡӤʤΤǤ롥
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." 1476--1776. Vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the English Language. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
Ƭ en- ưˤĤơ#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1]) Ǽ夲ϡƬˤĤƷδꤿ
Ǥϡֱ¦§ (right-hand head rule: RHR) Ȥ§Ūˤߤ졤ˤȡŪʣʸμϱ¦ǤǤȤ롥̤θС¦ǤΤʻꤹȤȤǤ⤢롥ȤСsinger μϱ¦ -er ǤꡤϹټԤɽ魯ƬǤ뤫顤Τ̾Ȥʤ롥peaceful μϤϤ걦¦ -ful ǤꡤˤΤƻȤʤ롥ŪˤСʻǽϤäƤ뤳Ȥ¿ȤȤǤ롥
ǤϡƬˤĤƤϤɤƬ屦¦ǤȤʤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤΤǡʻǽϤ⤿ʤϤǤ롥ε ([2014-06-17-1]) 褦ˡΤƬ en- դưϾʤʤƵСΤ̾졤ƻ졤ưΤΤޤ encase, enchain, encradle, enthrone, enverdure; embus, emtram, enplane;, engulf, enmesh; empower, encollar, encourage, enfranchise; embitter, enable, endear, englad, enrich, enslave; enfold, enkindle, enshroud, entame, entangle, entwine, enwrap ʤ¿롥ϡ嵭ΰȿơֺ¦§פŬѤƤ뤫Τ褦˻פ롥
ФŪнˡ1ĤȤơΤˤʻž (conversion) 뤤ϥβꤹȤΤ롥ƻδ rich Ƭ en- դư enrich ǹͤƤߤ褦нˡˤСƻ rich ˤϡޤư를դ졤ˤɽŪˤϷ֤Ѥ̤ޤưز롥ơθ塤äʻǽϤĤ櫓ǤϤʤƬ en- ղä줿ˤʤȹͤΤǤ롥Τ褦˲᤹Сư를θκǤⱦ¦ǤȤʤꡤ줬ΤʻǽϤĤȲꤹ롤ᦧŬʾ3ƥåפηֲޤȤСΤ褦ˤʤp. 54ˡ
(i) lexicon: [rich] A
(ii) suffixation: [[rich] A + 0] V]
(iii) prefixation: [en + [rich] A + 0] V] V
ǤϡƬ en- εǽϤäʤΤȤϻĤ롥Ūˡϡembolden, enfasten, engladden, enlighten ʤɡ -en դƤǤư첽ƤΤФƤƬ en- դ륱ˤĤƤݤƤǤƤ롥
Ϣơʻž䥼ˤĤ conversion γƵȤ줿
ůͺ2ϡι¤ˤĤơ ůͺԡˡظīоȸإ 3īҽŹ2012ǯ39--63ǡ
ƥˤ첻ǻϤޤΤ¿ˤϻҲǻϤޤΤ¿ (113--14) ɤޤǡλ¤ˤϵŤʤäκۤطʤˤϡƸηŪħȡȴϢ벻λ𤬤褦
PE ΥƥϤƬˤ첻ǻϤޤΤŪ¿ϥƥϤηǹ¤˽äƤѸ줫顤θ촴ݤĤȤͥ褷ơФˤ촴˻ҲĤʬϤ뤿Ǥȹͤ롥ȤСdivinity ξ硤ƻ divine Ȥطռ졤divin-ity Ȥդ첻ڤ뤳Ȥǡ-ity Ȥȹͤ롥Lieber (2005: 384--388) ΥꥹȤǤϡƥϤȤưʲ26ĤƤ뤬-ment /mənt/ -ure /jə/ 2İʳϤ٤첻ǻϤޤäƤʲĤƱ۵صŪ˶̤Ρˡ
-able, -age, -al1, -al2, -an/-ian, -ance/-ence, -ant, -ate, -ation, -ee, -ery, -esque, -ess, -ette, -ic, -ify, -ism, -ist, -ite, -ity, -ive, -ize, -ment, -ory, -ous, -ure
ϻҲǻϤޤΤ¿ϸΩΤǤ岽ˤʤäǤȹͤ롥嵭 Lieber ΥꥹȤȤƤƤ14ĤΤĤΩǤäȹͤΤϰʲ7Ĥ롥줾̤Ǹ츻
-dom (< dōm 'jurisdiction, state, statute'), -ed, -en1, -en2, -er, -ful (< full), -hood (< hād 'state, rank, order, condition, character'), -ish, -less (< lēas 'devoid of'), -ly (< līc 'body'), -ness, -ship (< -scipe 'shape'), -some (< -sum 'same, one'), -y
ˤ첻ǻϤޤϾʤ櫓ǤϤʤ嵭ΩϤޤǷȤɬפ뤬طʤ˳ƸηֲħȤŦϰ̣ĹǤ롥
βǻȤƤСספȤѸˤĤƤϡ#3480. С ([2018-11-14-1]) ȡ
ůȡ6ϡѲä ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ106--30ǡ
̻ŪݤȤƤɸνѸ췲ˤĤ⡤« (bound morpheme) ȼͳ (free morpheme) δ֤ιԤ˴ؤѸ졦ǰǤ롥 (111--12) Ѥ롥
̻ݤȤơ (agglutination) ȤϡΩ줬岽Ωä¾ǤղäܼˤʤؤȤСѸ friendly -ly εΩ̾ līc ΡΡפǤä
εդβ Jespersen (1922: 284) ʤġ(secretion) ǤꡤŪʬϤʤñ̤ʬ (metanalysis) η̡Ūϰ̤ơܼΤ褦Ǥ¤ƤѸǤϡ?ΥϥСפ̣ -burgerֽʹפ̣ -gate ʤɤǤβޤ졤줾 cheeseburger, baconburger Koreagate, Irangate ο줬Ƥ롥
դΤϡפȤѸ϶ˤơȤ櫓ʬˤơ̤γǰɽ魯Ȥʡ#522. ˤ ([2010-10-01-1]) ȡˡ夲Τϡ̻ŪʸݡʸѲˤ˴ؤѤפǤ롥ȤƵƤ līc -ly ϡȤΩƤͳǤ«DzȤʤäǤ롥
СפפƱ«Dz1ͳǤǤϤʤȤȤʤ̣ͭñ̤ǤʤäΤǤħ롥˵Ƥ burger ϡȤ Hamburg + er Ǥ hamburger ʬ (metanalysis) ηָ̡äơڤФ줿Τ줬«ǤȤ夷ƤޤäǤ롥äȤ⡤burger hamburger û̷ȤƤѤΤǡ«Ǥ餵˿ʤǼͳDzȤƤ뤳ȤǤ (cf. hamburger)
Ǥ˴ط붦ŪѸ췲ˤĤƤϡ#700. 졤ǡܼ캬촴ʣ졤Ρ ([2011-03-28-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿ޤȤƿ줿 -ly ˤĤƤϡ#40. -ly ([2009-06-07-1])#1032. -e ο -ly ȯãס#1036. ֻѷפ -ly ([2012-02-27-1]) ⻲ͤޤǤˡФ¾ȤƤϡ#97. ֥åס ([2009-08-02-1])#98. ֥åפ֥˥åפǤϤʤ֥åפڤФͳ ([2009-08-03-1])#105. ܸä֥å ([2009-08-10-1])#538. monokini trikini ([2010-10-17-1]) ʤɤȡ
ůȡ6ϡѲä ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ106--30ǡ
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
ɤ14ȾФ˴5Ĥμ̡߰פ1̤ˤĤơ#3446. 5Ĥμ̤߰ɮƬ duke ([2018-10-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤߰2̤ marquess /ˈmɑːkwəs/ ʸߡˤǤ롥ñȤƤϡƥ marchio ̤ꡤϥեˤơ²פȤιӡն marchˤǹᴱ˵ġˤȤäնȤϹǽӤǤꡤͭǽʻᴱ֤ȤǤ롥նפļˤε²ʤɤǤϤʤĥκŤε²äΤǤ롥marquess Ȥϡ̤ duke ̤˼ʿʬäȤߤƤ褤ɤǤνƤμߤ1385ǯǤꡤñȤƤνФ¿夹ˤ14Τ褦
ꥹʳǤ marquis /ˈmɑːkwəs, mɑːˈkiː/ȤֻȯѤ롥ʤߤ˸ͤϥꥹǤ marchioness /mˈɑːʃənəs/, ꥹʳǤ marquise /mɑːˈkwiːz/ Ǥ롥ǰΤ˽Ҥ٤Ƥmarquess -ess ȴְ㤨ƤϤʤ
˵ֻȯζ̤ˤ˴Ť̯ʴब褦ǡ1905ǯ NED ʸ OEDˤˤϼΤ褦ʵҤäȤ
N.E.D. (1905) notes s.v. 'The prevailing spelling in literary use appears to be marquis. Some newspapers, however, use marquess, and several English nobles bearing the title always write it in this way.' The official spelling used in the Roll of the House of Lords is marquess, which is the usual spelling for the title in the British and Irish peerage; marquis is reserved for the foreign title (in Scotland, however, marquis is sometimes preferred for pre-Union creations, apparently in memory of the 'Auld Alliance' with France). The spelling marquess is sometimes extended to non-French foreign titles.
ץ饤ɡݴطֻȯδطʤɤνװ̣줿ǡָߡפη֤ޤäƤȤΤ⤷
Wersmer (64, 67) Nevalainen (352, 378, 391) Ȥ Cowie (610--11) ˤСܼѤˤơϤܼѤΤȼѷϤΤΤΨѸ礭ѲȤ
The relative frequency of nonnative affixes to native affixes in coined words rises from 20% at the beginning of the Early Modern English period to 70% at the end of it . . . . The proportion of Germanic to French and Latin bases in new coinages falls from about 32% at the beginning of the Early Modern period to some 13% at the end . . . . Together these measures confirm the emergence of non-native affixes as independent English morphemes over the Early modern period. They also seem to contradict claims that the native affixes in Early Modern English are just as, if not more productive, than ever . . . , although it is always less likely that words coined with native affixes would be recorded in a dictionary . . . .
λνˤϼѷϤ20%äˤ70%ˤޤäƤ롥ΤܤȡѷϤФϤΨϡ32%ۤɡ13%ۤɤǤ롥ΤȤơѸˡѷϤܼӴΤΩĤ褦ˤʤäƤȤϵʤѤκǸâϽפǤϤ롥
Ϣơ#1226. Ѹˤäǯʬۡ ([2012-09-04-1])#3165. ȤƤ conspicuous external ([2017-12-26-1])#3166. ȤƤβʳѸ ([2017-12-27-1])#3258. 17˺줿ư̾췲褹 (1) ([2018-03-29-1])#3259. 17˺줿ư̾췲褹 (2) ([2018-03-30-1]) ȡ
Wersmer, Richard. Statistische Studien zur Entwicklung des englischen Wortschatzes. Bern: Francke, 1976.
Nevalainen, Terttu. "Early Modern English Lexis and Semantics." 1476--1776. Vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the English Language. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 332--458.
Cowie, Claire. "Early Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 38 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 604--20.
ޥɤκǤΩäħ1ĤˡѲư¸ߤ롥#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1]) ǿ줿褦˻ (dental suffix) դȤǡȤñ˲뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤä˴ŤδߤȡˤäƸűѸޤॲޥϡ (inflecting languages) æ (agglutinating language) 뤤ϸΩ (isolating language) ؤȰŤȤˤʤ (cf. #522. ˤ ([2010-10-01-1])) ΰ̣ǤϡѲưƳϡ緶ˤСγ̿ŪפäȤ롥von Mengden (287) βʹƤߤ褦
It is remarkable that in a strongly inflecting language like Old English (in contrast to both agglutinating and to analytic), there is a suffix (-d-) which is an unambiguous marker of the tense value past. The fact that this suffix -d- is the only morphological marker in all the paradigms of Old English with a truly distinctive one-to-one relation between form and value may indicate that this morpheme is rather young.
֤ȵǽƩ٤ι⤤11δطˤȤȤϡѸܸΤ褦ʥפθˤƤȡˤʤʤΤΤ褦ʥפǤϤʤäűѸζǰƬ֤ĤIJƹͤƤߤȡΤ˶ˤȤä-d- ̿1ȤϡθϢŪ˳̿ȤͶȯѸŪѤƤȤˤʤäΤǤ롥
von Mengden, Ferdinand. "Old English: Morphology." Chapter 18 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 272--93.
#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) 6ĤκΩäޥŪħKastovsky (140) ˤȡΤʲ3ĤˤĤƤϡޥĸ줬ȯãǸߤ̩ܤʴطäȤ
(2) ư˸ߤȲ2λ
(3) ư˶Ѳ (strong conjugation) ȼѲ (weak conjugation) 2γѤ
(4) 촴1˶
One major Germanic innovation was a shift from an aspectual to a tense system. This coincided with the shift to initial accent, and both may have been due to language contact, maybe with Finno-Ugric. Initial stress deprived ablaut of its phonological conditioning, and the shift from aspect to tense required a systematic marking of the new preterit tense. From this, two types of exponents emerged. One is connected to the secondary (weak) verbs, which only had present aspect/tense forms. They developed an affixal "dental preterit", together with an affix for the past participle. The source of the latter was the Indo-European participial -to-suffix; the source of the former is not clear . . . . The most popular theory is grammaticalization of a periphrastic construction with do (IE *dhe-), but there are a number of phonological problems with this. The second type was the functionalization of the originally non-functional ablaut alternations to express the new category, i.e. the making use of junk . . . . But this was somewhat unsystematic, because original perfect forms were mixed with aorist forms, resulting in a pattern with over- and under-differentiation. Thus, in class III (helpan : healp : hulpon : geholpen) the preterit is over-differentiated, because the different ablaut forms are non-functional, since the personal endings would be sufficient to signal the necessary distinctions. But in class I (wrītan : wrāt : writon : gewriten), there is under-differentiation, because some preterit forms and the past participle have the same vowel. (140)
Kastovsky ˤСޥĸϡ餯 Finno-Ugric Ȥθܿη̡(a) ĸŪ (aspect) Ż뤹줫 (tense) Ż뤹ؤɤڤꡤ(b) ѥȤŪʸƬȤؤڤؤäȤ˶̤٤褦ˤʤäη֤ϡȤȤϰĸŪʥѰۤ˰¸Ƥ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ǽŪˡѤƺäΤȡ (dental suffix) դȤΤȤäηȿʣȤؤˤꡤѸưŪʻѲϢʤפΩƤäΤǤ롥츫ȸߤ̵ط˻פ븽ݤ֤εˤƸߤ˴ϢƤȤ1Ĥ
ΰѤǿƤȴϢơ#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥȤؤ ([2015-03-20-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) ⻲ȡ
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.
ѸΡԵ§ưפβʬˤϡŵŪ -(e)n 롥written, born, eaten, fallen ǡǤ롥ϡűѸǶѲưȸƤФưβʬͳ褹ΤǤꡤűѸǤ⤽줾 writen, boren, eten, feallen Τ褦ˡ§Ū -en 줿ʡ#2217. űѸ춯ѲưΤޤȤ ([2015-05-23-1]) ˼ѥȡˡ
űѸζѲư ablaut 뤤 gradation ȸƤФ첻Ǥϡߡ12ʬ4̤졤碌ưΡ4 (four principal parts) ȸƤФ롥4ܤβʬγʤΤűѸ줫餵̤СϤȤȤư줽ΤΤ°볬ǤϤʤäषư줫Ωƻͳ褹餷ޥĸǤ *ROOT - - n- ƷƤꡤĸǤ * ROOT- o - nó- ƷƤ롥ķ˴ޤޤɡ n ѸˤޤǻĤʬ -(e)n εȹͤƤ롥
θϡ촴β֤ˤ⾯ƶͿƤ롥äդ٤ϡĸķǤ϶ n θ³ȤϡޥǤ Verner's Law ͳƸ촴λҲѲȤͽۤ롥ʤߤˡѲ V, VI, VII ˤĤơʬθ촴첻γˤ긽߷ƱˤʤäƤ뤳Ȥˤդ (ex. tredan (pres.)/treden (pp.), faran (pres.)/faren (pp.), healdan (pres.)/healden (pp.))
ʾ塤Lass (161--62) Ȥ-en ˤĤƤϡϢơ#1916. ˡȽˡǰۤʤ֤ķƻ ([2014-07-26-1]) ⻲ȡ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ε ([2018-03-29-1]) ³ԡ Bauer ư̾ΥꥹȤǤϡ-ment -ure ¸ߤΩäƤ17̾ˤɤΤ褦ʼΤΤꡤ줾줬Ĥ̾äƤΤˤĤƤ⡤Bauer (185) OED ˴ŤפȤäƤ롥̤ϰʲ̤ꡥ
| Suffix | Number |
| -y | 2 |
| -ery | 8 |
| -ancy | 10 |
| -ency | 10 |
| -ence | 18 |
| -ion | 20 |
| -ance | 49 |
| -al | 56 |
| -ure | 96 |
| -ation | 190 |
| -ment | 258 |
. . . there is a constant application of unproductive morphology in order to solve problems provided by productive morphology, so that the language is continually having new words added to it which are not the forms which would be the predicted ones, as well as a number of predicted forms. That is, the processes of history add irregularities (which are available to turn into regularities if enough of them are coined). History, rather than simplifying matters (or rather than merely simplifying matters), reflects a process of building in extra complications.
ѼԤοؤϡɬŪͿƤʤȤη̤Ǥʤۤɤʣ̯ʤΤǡŪμʤѤơԵ§ФȤ⤢Τ⤷ʤ˸ؼԤϡѼԤΡΤ褦ʣ̯¤쿴ˤɤޤΤǤϤ뤬ƥʥơޤǤ롥
Bauer, Laurie. "Competition in English Word Formation." Chapter 8 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 177--98.
ѹͥ17ˤϡƥ䥮ꥷ濴Ȥ줫̤θäѤ줿ηаޤˤĤƤϡޤǡ#478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1])#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])#1226. Ѹˤäǯʬۡ ([2012-09-04-1]) ʤɤε͡ʳ٤夲ƤλˤϡФСƱפۤʤäȼäȤݤ줿㤨СǤ1586ǯ discovery Ѹä˲äƤȤˡ17ˤʤäƱ discoverance discoverment ⸽졤û֤ȤϤ硦¸ΤǤʴϢơ#3157. ʤ splendid Ʊ ([2017-12-18-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
ʲϡBauer (186) OED 17˽Фư̾ȤǤ롥
| abutment | abuttal | |
| bequeathal | bequeathment | |
| bewitchery | bewitchment | |
| commitment | committal | committance |
| composal | compositure | |
| comprisal | comprisement | comprisure |
| concumbence | concumbency | |
| condolement | condolence | |
| conducence | conducency | |
| contrival | contrivance | |
| depositation | depositure | |
| deprival | deprivement | |
| desistance | desistency | |
| discoverance | discoverment | |
| disfiguration | disfigurement | |
| disproval | disprovement | |
| disquietal | disquietment | |
| dissentation | dissentment | |
| disseveration | disseverment | |
| encompassment | encompassure | |
| engraftment | engrafture | |
| exhaustment | exhausture | |
| exposal | exposement | exposure |
| expugnance | expugnancy | |
| expulsation | expulsure | |
| extendment | extendure | |
| impartment | imparture | |
| imposal | imposement | imposure |
| insistence | insisture | |
| interposal | interposure | |
| pretendence | pretendment | |
| promotement | promoval | |
| proposal | proposure | |
| redamancy | redamation | |
| renewal | renewance | |
| reposance | reposure | |
| reserval | reservancy | |
| resistal | resistment | |
| retrieval | retrievement | |
| returnal | returnment | |
| securance | securement | |
| subdual | subduement | |
| supportment | supporture | |
| surchargement | surchargure |
Individual ad hoc decisions on relevant forms may or may not be picked up widely in the community. . . . [I]t is clear from the history which the OED presents that the need of the individual for a particular word is not always matched by the need of the community for the same word, with the result that multiple coinages are possible.
ˤ衤Ū𤬡Ѹư̾η֤˾ʤȺ⤿餷³Ƥ뤳Ȥϻ¤Ǥ롥塤Ƥ椯ȤƤ⡤餯ˤϿȤĹ֤뤳Ȥ
Bauer, Laurie. "Competition in English Word Formation." Chapter 8 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 177--98.
ɸȴϢϡ#1493. Ѹʤ̱ ([2013-05-29-1])#1927. ʩ ([2014-08-06-1])#2979. Chibanian ϥƥ졩 ([2017-06-23-1]) 䡤waseieigo γƵǼ夲Ƥ
Baugh and Cable (222) ǡ˱Ѹ줬ƥñݤ˻ܤŬ (adaptation) Ƥ뤬Τ褦1ʸä
. . . the Latin ending -us in adjectives was changed to -ous (conspicu-us > conspicuous) or was replaced by -al as in external (L. externus).
αñϡ̣ǤϼѤ줿Ȥ⤤뤬̣ǤϱѸ줬Ȥ⤤롥ֱפȸƤ֤Τդ路ǤϤʤ
OED ˤСconspicuous ϡƥ conspicuus ˴ŤѸ¦ǤϤƥͳηƻ -ous դȤˤäƿ˷Ǥ롥16ȾФ˽ФƤ롥
1545 T. Raynald tr. E. Roesslin Byrth of Mankynde Hh vij These vaynes doo appeare more conspicuous and notable to the eyes.
¤ϤΡʼȤƥƥͳ¾θξ⤢ˤղäƼͳ˿ʷƻѥϥޥ˹줿Τǡե -eus դΤ14--15濴ȤƱѸˤ -ous η̤äƤĤޤꡤޤäʩȤ٤Τ졤줬ѸˤήǤȤ櫓Ȥơdangerous, orgulous, adventurous, courageous, grievous, hideous, joyous, riotous, melodious, pompous, rageous, advantageous, gelatinous ʤɤOED -ous, suffix ˡ
ޤѸǤե˽ǤΥѥѶŪѤ conspicuous Τ褦ʱ褦ˤʤäƤƱȤơguilous, noyous, beauteous, slumberous, timeous, tyrannous, blusterous, burdenous, murderous, poisonous, thunderous, adiaphorous, leguminous, delirious, felicitous, complicitous, glamorous, pulchritudinous, serendipitous ʤɤOED -ous, suffix ˡ
ɸΤ⤦1Ĥñ external conspicuous Ȥ褯ѥñϡƥ externus ˴ŤѸ¦ǥƥͳηƻ -al դȤˤäƷǤ롥Ф Shakespeare
a1616 Shakespeare Henry VI, Pt. 1 (1623) v. vii. 3 Her vertues graced with externall gifts.
a1616 Shakespeare Antony & Cleopatra (1623) v. ii. 340 If they had swallow'd poyson, 'twould appeare By externall swelling.
ȿո internal Ʊͤλ𤫤Ȼפ䡤ϰΤȤ post-classical Latin Ȥ internalis ǧȤθΥƥȤƤλѤ "14th cent. in a British source" ȤȤʤΤǡϤϤפפ롥ѸǤνϡ15 Polychronicon
?a1475 (?a1425) tr. R. Higden Polychron. (Harl. 2261) (1865) I. 53 The begynnenge of the grete see is..at the pyllers of Hercules..; after that hit is diffusede in to sees internalle [a1387 J. Trevisa tr. þe ynnere sees; L. maria interna].
֡פϷ褷ʤ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Ѹˤưβʬ˷ -ed "dental suffix" ȤƤФ졤ղäϥޥͭηֲǤʡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) ȡˡˤäƥޥϡ촴첻ѲƲ췿ζѲưԵ§Ѳưˤȡ dental suffix ղäѲưʵ§ѲưˤȤ2ʬ뤳ȤˤʤäԤϡֵ§Ūפʤ˸¿ưعäƤѸưˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤʡ#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1])#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1]) ȡˡ
Ѹ -ed Υޥˤ뵯ˤĤƤϽ⤢ꡤ夬ĤƤʤͭϤˤȡư do ƱǤϤʤȤdo ΤưṲ̄ȤȤǧˤ衤ʬˤΰ̣ɤФƤΤϼǤϤʤƱˤȡޥˤ do 촴Τʣ (reduplication) ȤŤֲäƤˡƱҲ2ٸ *dēd- ʤɤη֤Ȥʤä䤬첻üλҲ蘆äƽŻҲȤʤäæŻҲơɤΤȤ *d- ˼ޤäĤޤꡤ-ed λҲϡdo θ촴ҲбƱˡ줬Τ˽ʣƱҲˤб뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ǥϡϲ餫ʸˤٻΤȸ˾嵭ηֲ碌㤬ĤȤLass (164)
The origin of the weak preterite is a perennial source of controversy. The main problem is that it is a uniquely Germanic invention, which is difficult to connect firmly with any single IE antecedent. Observing the old dictum ex nihilo nihil fit (nothing is made out of nothing), scholars have proposed numerous sources, none of which is without its difficulties. The main problem is that there are at least three consonantisms: /d/ (Go nasida 'I saved', inf. nasjan), /t/ (Go baúhta 'I bought', inf. bugjan), and /s/ (Go wissa 'I knew', inf *witan).
But even given this complexity, the most likely primary source seems to be compounding of an original verbal noun of some sort with the verb */dhe:-/ 'put, place, do' (OHG tuon, OE dōn, OCS dějati 'do', Skr dádhati 'he places', L fēci 'I made, did').
This leads to a useful analysis of a Gothic pret 3 ppl like nasidēdun 'they saved':
(7.18) nas - i -dē - d - un
SAVE-theme-reduplication-DO-3 pl
I.e. a verbal root followed by a thematic connective followed by the reduplicated perfect plural of 'do'. This gives a periphrastic construction with a sense like 'did V-ing'; with, significantly, Object-Verb order . . ., i.e. (7.18) has the form of an OV clause 'NP-pl sav(ing) did'. An extended form also existed, in which a nominalizing suffix */-ti/ or */-tu/ was intercalated between the root and the 'do' form, e.g. in Go faúrhtidēdun 'they feared', which can be analysed as {faúrh-ti-dē-d-un}. This suffix was in many cases later weakened; first the vowel dropped, so that */-ti-d-/ > */-td-/; this led to assimilation */-tt-/, and then eventual reinterpretation of the /t/-initial portion as a suffix itself, and loss of the 'do' part from verbs of this type . . . . The problematic /s(s)/ forms may go back to a different (earlier) development also involving */-ti/, in which the sequence */tt/ > /s(s)/ . . . but this is not clear.
פˡ-ed ղäθϼ̤ޤư촴̾첽ܤư̾Τ褦ʤΤ롥ľˡdo β did Τ褦ʤΤ֤ơΤȤơ֡ưˤưԤʤäפȤ롥Τ褦ˤȤȤOVαŪ칽¤ȤƻϤޤä䤬ΤĤŤޤäʣΤ褦ʤΤȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤꡤŪʲؤȰܹԤʳ˻äơ-ed ʬϡŪǤȤʤ«ǤȲᤵ줿ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ȤߤƤ褤
ΰѤ Lass Go wissa ˸ڤȤȤˡǸ /s(s)/ ˸ڤǤ뤬бűѸˤư wāt βȤ wiste/wisse ꡤŪꤲƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2231. ưβ˸ -st- ([2015-06-06-1]) Ȥ줿
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
#3106. ʤ -ed դ -(e)s դֻˤưۤʤΤ ([2017-10-28-1]) ³ơƤ褦ǴˤʿŪǤʤ2Ĥζܼդ˴ؤֻꡥtry ˤĤơ-s <y> <ie> Ѥղä tries Ȥ뤬-ing ղäϤΤޤޤ trying Ȥʤ롥ȻפСdie Ǥϡ-s Τޤդ dies Ȥ뤬-ing <ie> <y> ѤդΤ dying Ȥʤ롥츫ԻĤʡȿиε§ˤĤƤϡʬˤ -ed ȸʬ졦ư̾ -ing äȤʤ顤#3069. Ϣ9֤ʤ try tried Ȥʤꡤdie dying ȤʤΤ ([2017-09-21-1]) ǹͤ
Carney (73--74) ϡѸֻܳŪʸΤʤǡMcLead ˤֻΤֻ§Ƥ롥Τ -(e)s -ing ղäľܡܤ˴ͿΤȤưʲΤΤƤΤǡѤ褦
Rule VII --- Words ending in 'y' preceded by a vowel simply add 's'.
--- an adaptation rule, presumably to form the plural or 3rd pers. pres. sg.: boy -- boys, say -- says, employ -- employs.
. . . .
Rule IX --- If you want to add other letters to a word ending in 'y' preceded by a consonant change 'y' into 'i'.
--- an adaptation rule; it refers in effect to the corresponding <y>/aɪ/ (deny--denial); the restriction 'preceded by a consonant' is intended to rule out betray--betrayal, employ--employer. McLeod points out that it does not apply before <-ing> (denying)
Rule X -- 'i' before another 'i' becomes 'y'.
--- a graphotactic rule; presumably it refers in an oblique way to examples such as die--dying or carrying--carrier--carried; the recent loan-word skiing is an exception.
Rule XI --- Words ending in a hissing sound form their plural by adding 'es' instead of 's'.
--- this has the form of an adaptation rule. It is a recognition that <s>, unlike the <ed> of the past tense, does not represent all the allomorphs /s/, /z/ and /ɪz/ of the plural . . . .
嵭ϡ-(e)s, -ed, -ing դε§Ū˵ҤƤˤ̻ŪʴޤޤƤʤСʤʤΤƤ⤤ʤ̻ŪפɬפȻפΤޤ긫ȤʤΤǡͤƤǤ롥
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
McLeod, M. E. "Rules in the Teaching of Spelling." Studies in Spelling. Publications of the Scottish Council for Research In Education XL. Ed. H. J. L. Robbie. London: ULP,1961.
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