Ѹ Wright ̤ˤߤ뤬ϡֿ͡פΰ̣Ǥ롥̾ȤñΤ wright ʿ͡ˤȤѤ뤳ȤϺϤۤȤɤʤ͡ʼοͤɽΤʣΰȤѤ뤳ȤϤ롥Ū褯ߤΤ playwright ʷȡˤǤ롥ϵʤ (write) ͤǤϤʤŪ˺Ф (wright) Ǥ롥⤷ write ʽˤ˴طƤΤǤСټԤɽ (agentive suffix) Ĥ writer ʽˤȤʤϤۤˤ arkwright, boatwright, cartwright, comedywright, housewright, millwright, novelwright, ploughwright, shipwright, timberwright, waggonwright, wainwright, wheelwright, woodwright ʤɤ롥
wright ϵ̤ȡư work ˴ط롥ưθűѸ wyrcan ϡֹԤ롨߽Фפʤɹ̣Ѥ졤θ촴˸ղä줿 wyrhta (< wyrcta) ֿ͡פȤƻȤ줿θ¾Υޥˤ⸫졤ƸŤΤȻפ롥wyrhta ϡ1첻 r Ȥž (metathesis) wryhta ۷Ȥޤ졤 <a> ɽ첻ʿü˵ڤǡˤĤʤ wright 췿Ǥäžϡwork θŤʬ wrought ˤ⸫롥
MED wrigt(e (n.(1)) ˤȡѸǡθ줬ʲΤ褦ʤޤֻʤƤ餯ȯˤǼ¸ƤȤ롥
wright(e (n.(1)) Also wrigt(e, wrigth(e, wrigh, wriȝt(e, wriȝth(e, wriht(e, writ(e, writh(e, writht, wreth(e, (N) wreght, (SWM) wrouhte, whrouhte & (chiefly early) wricht(e, (early) wirhte, (chiefly SW or SWM) wruhte, wruchte, wurhte, wurhta, wurhtæ, wuruhte & (in names) wrightte, wrighthe, wrig, wri(h)tte, wrihgte, wrichgte, wrich(e, wrict(e, wricth(e, wrick, wristh, wrieth, wreghte, wreȝte, wrehte, wrechte, wrecthe, wreit, wreitche, wreut(t)e, wroghte, wrozte, wrouȝte, wrughte, wrushte, wrh(i)te, wirgh, wirchte, wiche, wergh(t)e, werhte, wereste, worght(t)e, worichte, worithte, wort, worth, whrighte, whrit, whreihte, whergte, right, rith; pl. wrightes, etc. & wriȝttis, writtis, (NEM) whrightes & (early) wrihten, wirhten, (SWM) wrohtes, wurhten, (early gen.) wurhtena, (early dat.) wurhtan & (gen. in place names) wrightin(g)-, wri(c)tin-, wrichting-, wrstinc-, uritting-.
ޤѸǤ castlewright, feltwright, glasswright ʤɤ븽ˤϸʤ̾䡤battlewright ΡˡLatinwright ʥƥؼԡˤʤɤѤ⸫줿ʣο̾⡤ޤäƤΤ⤤Ĥ뤬 Basketwricte, Bordwricht, Bowwrighth, Briggwricht, Cartewrychgte, Chesewricte, Waynwryche, Wycchewrichte ʤ¸ߤ
ѸޤǤ wright ʣǤȤݤäƤ褦θϼ˿ꤨƤߤǤϿۤɤĤäƤʤοθȤơѸʹߤ˥եƥ줫鿷ʿȡ̾줬ήƤȡ-er -ist ޤιټˤȯƤȤ뤬̤ĴǤ롥
̾ -th ˤĤƤϡ#14. ̾-th ([2009-05-12-1])#16. -th ̾ΤȤˤʤäư졦ƻϡ ([2009-05-14-1])#595. death and dead ([2010-12-13-1])#1787. coolth ([2014-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲ƤѲʤɤʣʷаޤˤꡤΤ -th դȤδطȯֻξǤϸˤʤäƤΤ¿Τ褦1Ĥ young -- youth Υڥ롥long -- length, strong -- strength Ǥϡ촴 ng ݤƤΤˡyoung ̾Ǥɡ youth ȤʤΤϲΤ
űѸǤϴΤȤʤƻ geong̾ geoguþ ǤꡤԤǤϤǤɡæƤ롥ޥǤƱߤƤߤȡOld Saxon juguð, Dutch jeugd, Old High German jugund, German jugend ɡ̵ͭɤƤ뤬ϥޥ̾ɡƤ褦ޥĸǤ *jugunþi n ƷƤʥƥ juvenis (adj.), juventa (n.) ⻲ȡˡPartridge ˤȡ"OE geong has derivative geoguth or geogoth---a collective n---prob an easing of *geonth" ȤꡤȯؤΤɡȤȤ餷ܤ̤Ĵĸʳ young θ촴ο long strong ΤȤϰۤʤΤä褦ʤ14ƬˤϷƻ young ľˤ youngth ֤ԤƤ롥
ʤߤ OED ˤȡűѸ geoguþ ϡư dugan (to be good or worth) ̾ duguþ (worth, virtue, excellence, nobility, manhood, force, a force, an army, people) ȥޥʳطˤäǽȤűѸ duguþ Ѹؤ douth Ȥä1400ǯǽȤѤȤʤä
Partridge, Eric Honeywood. Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. 4th ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966. 1st ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; New York: Macmillan, 1958.
եؽγ顤ʼեǤ actif, effectif ʤɸ -if ĸŪ˷ƻˤ¿ꡤǤϸФΤȤ -if Ǥ -ive θե줫ѤѸǤ -ive §Ǥ롥ʤѸϥե줫餳θǼѤΤ
餤С -ive ϥեб -ive ľܤȿǤΤǤϤʤѸϼȤѸ˥ե줫餢ޤǸФˤ -if ηǼѤΤǤꡤ˱ѸǤβѲˤ̵ [f] [v] ͭȯ˹碌 -<ive> Ȥֻ̲ȤȤǤ롥
ѸǤϤΥեѸФֻͥ -<if> Ǥ롥Ǥͭ -<ive> 褷ƾʤʤġñˤäξԤδ֤ǤɤۤʤȻפ뤬Ūˤ -<if> ήǤȹͤ롥ˡ#1178. MED Spelling Search ([2012-07-18-1]) ǡ"if\b.*adj\." "ive\b.*adj\." ʤɤȸФ측ƤߤȡȤƤ -<if> äƤ롥Ѹ٤ι⤤ effective, positive, active, extensive, attractive, relative, massive, negative, alternative, conservative Ĵ٤ƤߤȡMED Ǥ -<if> ФȤƺǽ˵äƤ롥
Ǥ˸ѸˤϤֻɽ蘆ȯ [ɪf] ˤơҲ [f] [v] ͭĤĤäˤ϶֤꤬Ϳ롥ޤեǤΤ˶ƤꡤѸǤƱͤ˶äȤѸǤ϶֤촴ذư뷹ä (cf. #200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥϤ ([2009-11-13-1])#718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1])#861. Ѹθ춯ΰ֤˴ؤ3ס ([2011-09-05-1])#1473. Germanic Stress Rule ([2013-05-09-1])) ˶ʤʤȡ [f] Verner's Law ʤΰ̲ˤ˽ͭ [v] Ȥʤäverners_law ȻҲͭˤĤƤϡäˡ#104. hundred ͥˡ§ ([2009-08-09-1]) ȡ#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]) Ȥ줿
嵭βĶˤ [f] ޤͭΤϡ (378) ˤС14ȾNǤϤˡפȤ롥褽Ʊˡ[s] > [z], [θ] > [ð] ͭⵯä (ex. is, was, has, washes; with)
˽Ҥ٤аޤǡեѸ -if ϸ˸¤ -ive ؤѲΤ㳰Ū -if ˤȤɤޤäΤ롥bailiff ʼ, caitiff ܶԡ, mastiff ʥޥա, plaintiff ʸˤʤɤϡŤ [f] [v] δ֤ɤƤǽŪ [f] βɸಽǤ롥
ʾJespersen (200--01) Ƥ餪
The F ending -if was in ME -if, but is in Mod -ive: active, captive, etc. Caxton still has pensyf, etc. The sound-change was here aided by the F fem. in -ive and by the Latin form, but these could not prevail after a strong vowel: brief. The law-term plaintiff has kept /f/, while the ordinary adj. has become plaintive. The earlier forms in -ive of bailiff, caitif, and mastiff, have now disappeared.
Ƭμ˲СѸ -ive ľܥեΡʤ뤤ϥƥͳ褹˽ -ive ڤꤿΤǤϤʤե줫Ѥ -if λҲѸβѲˤͭΤɽ魯αѸüԤեν -ive ˤٸƤȤαƶʬϤ뤫⤷ʤޤǤδͿϴŪȤߤʤƤΤ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) ǿ줿Stern ͡ʼΰ̣̤Ƥ롥2ΩǤ狼䤹ΰ̣˴ŪʻΤȤɾǤ롥ΤʤǤŪʴˤȤΰ̣ζ̤褦 (Stern 68--87)
(1) actual vs lexical meaning. ԤϼºݤȯäΤʤΰ̣Ԥϸʤˤʸ̮Ω֤ñΤȤƤỊ̇ԤϼŪʰ̣Ȥ⤤ʸˡʸȤƤʸΰ̣⡤ʸ̮ΩƤȤǡlexical meaning ह롥̣̾ϼºݤȯäΤʤˤƸΤǤꡤñΤǸΤϾ嵭Τ褦˼ʸˡʤɸؤ˴ؤ̤Ƥۤˤʤactual meaning (definiteness) Ĥlexical meaning (indefinite) Ǥ롥
(2) general vs particular meaning. 㤨 The dog is a domestic animal. μϽŪŪʰ̣ĤThat dog is mad. μϸ̤ΰ̣ġ٤Ƥ̾ϡΤ褦˼ɽ魯ŪˡȸΤɽ魯Ūˡġ̾Ȥϼ㴳ϰۤʤ뤬ƻưˤƱζ̤롥
(3) specialised vs referential meaning. λؼоݤĤͭȤüԤϤ1Ĥ뤤ϤĤ˾Ƥʤ餽θѤ뤳Ȥ롥㤨 He was a man, take him for all in all. Ȥʸˤ man ϡƻŪäƤΤȤƤ롥Τ褦ʻؼλʤȤѤƤ specialised meaning ͭƤȤߤʤ롥He had an army of ten thousand men. ȤȤ men ϡơθäƤꡤޤǻؼŪʰ̣ (referential meaning) ͭˤʤ̩ˤϡreferential meaning specialised meaning ΩȤϡüʸ1ĤȤȤ館٤ particular meaning ܹ specialised meaning ϺƱ䤹particular meaning ϸλؼоݤϰϤθȤơspecialised meaning ϸΰ̣ϰϤθȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
(4) tied vs contingent meaning. ԤϸȸŪʸ̮ˤؼоݤꤹΰ̣ǤꡤԤϤǤϻؼоݤꤻüԤ䤽¾ξθʤФʤʤΰ̣Ǥ롥Ԥϰ̣Ūʰ̣ԤϸŪʰ̣ȤäƤ褤
(5) basic vs relational meaning. 줬ָ촴פäƤ硤촴ΰ̣ basicΰ̣ relational Ȥ롥㤨Сƥ lupi ϡϵȤỤ̄ͭ촴 lup- ñ°ʤȤطỤ̄ (syntactical relational meaning) ͭ -i ʤ롥طỤ̄ˤäɽ蘆Ȥϸ¤餺촴첻 ( Ablaut or gradation ) ˤäɽ蘆줿 (ex. ring -- rang -- rung) ˤäɽ蘆줿 (ex. Jack beats Jill. vs Jill beats Jack.) ⤹СˤäƤɽ蘆ʤȤ⤢롥طỤ̄ (derivational relational meaning) ϡ㤨 like -- liken -- likeness Υˤߤ褦 -en -ness ˤäɽ蘆Ƥ롥绨ĤˤäơطỤ̄طỤ̄ϡ줾ܼܼбȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
(6) word- vs phrase-meaning. δѶ (idiom) 䴷Ūʸ (ex. How do you do?) פ⤫٤Ф狼褦ˡΰ̣ϡФФʣñΰ̣¤ˤϤʤʤ
(7) autosemantic vs synsemantic meaning. ʹ˥տޤȯɽŵŪˤʸ̾ˤϡautosemantic meaning ĤȤ롥ֻ졤³졤ƻ졤ưη (ex. goes, stands, be, doing) °ᡤгʤ̾졤ʣγǤ synsemantic meaning ĤȤ롥
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
ε#1982. -ick or -ic (2) ([2014-09-30-1]) ˰³ѸǤ -ic(k) ΰ֤ʬۡʿܡˤĴ롥Ѥ륳ѥϻΤΤΤǤϤʤĿŪ EEBO (Early English Books Online) ɤѤƥȽǤ롥ޤѥƤ餺ɽѹդݤƤʤñʤƥȤνȤΤʤΤǡĴ̤ϲΤΤȤƲᤷƤʬ1617绨Ĥʬ줾쥳ѥ923,115졤9,637,954Ǥʥѥ10ܰʾγԶѹդʼ֤աˡʲǤϡ100 (wpm) ǼƤ롥
| Spelling pair | Period 1 (1501--1600) (in wpm) | Period 2 (1601--1700) (in wpm) |
|---|---|---|
| angelick / angelic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.45 / 0.21 |
| antick / antic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 2.49 / 0.10 |
| apoplectick / apoplectic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| aquatick / aquatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.00 |
| arabick / arabic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.52 / 0.10 |
| archbishoprick / archbishopric | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.00 |
| arctick / arctic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.42 / 0.00 |
| arithmetick / arithmetic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 3.22 / 0.31 |
| aromatick / aromatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.83 / 0.10 |
| asiatick / asiatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.31 / 0.00 |
| attick / attic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.31 / 0.21 |
| authentick / authentic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 3.94 / 0.42 |
| balsamick / balsamic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.73 / 0.10 |
| baltick / baltic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.93 / 0.00 |
| bishoprick / bishopric | 1.08 / 0.00 | 4.25 / 0.00 |
| bombastick / bombastic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.00 |
| catholick / catholic | 5.42 / 0.00 | 38.39 / 1.97 |
| caustick / caustic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| characteristick / characteristic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.10 |
| cholick / cholic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.93 / 0.00 |
| comick / comic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 1.45 / 0.10 |
| critick / critic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.76 / 1.87 |
| despotick / despotic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.62 / 0.21 |
| domestick / domestic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 8.09 / 0.21 |
| dominick / dominic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 0.62 / 0.42 |
| dramatick / dramatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.83 / 0.10 |
| emetick / emetic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.31 / 0.00 |
| epick / epic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.10 |
| ethick / ethic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.00 / 0.10 |
| exotick / exotic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.73 / 0.10 |
| fabrick / fabric | 0.00 / 0.00 | 8.72 / 0.31 |
| fantastick / fantastic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 3.42 / 0.10 |
| frantick / frantic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 3.94 / 0.00 |
| frolick / frolic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 3.32 / 0.00 |
| gallick / gallic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 3.32 / 0.52 |
| garlick / garlic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 2.28 / 0.00 |
| heretick / heretic | 2.17 / 0.00 | 6.02 / 0.00 |
| heroick / heroic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 16.91 / 1.35 |
| hieroglyphick / hieroglyphic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.31 / 0.00 |
| lethargick / lethargic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.52 / 0.10 |
| logick / logic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 7.06 / 1.04 |
| lunatick / lunatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.66 / 0.00 |
| lyrick / lyric | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.42 / 0.10 |
| magick / magic | 2.17 / 0.00 | 3.32 / 0.10 |
| majestick / majestic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 4.88 / 0.42 |
| mechanick / mechanic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 4.15 / 0.00 |
| metallick / metallic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| metaphysick / metaphysic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.21 |
| mimick / mimic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.42 / 0.00 |
| musick / music | 7.58 / 627.22 | 40.98 / 251.40 |
| mystick / mystic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.45 / 0.10 |
| panegyrick / panegyric | 0.00 / 0.00 | 4.46 / 0.10 |
| panick / panic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.35 / 0.10 |
| paralytick / paralytic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.00 |
| pedantick / pedantic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.93 / 0.00 |
| philosophick / philosophic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.00 / 0.21 |
| physick / physic | 1.08 / 0.00 | 27.39 / 1.56 |
| plastick / plastic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| platonick / platonic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.93 / 0.00 |
| politick / politic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 15.98 / 1.14 |
| prognostick / prognostic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.52 / 0.00 |
| publick / public | 5.42 / 3.25 | 237.39 / 5.71 |
| relick / relic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.52 / 0.00 |
| republick / republic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 3.01 / 0.31 |
| rhetorick / rhetoric | 0.00 / 0.00 | 5.71 / 0.21 |
| rheumatick / rheumatic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| romantick / romantic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.83 / 0.00 |
| rustick / rustic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.66 / 0.00 |
| sceptick / sceptic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.10 / 0.10 |
| scholastick / scholastic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.31 / 0.42 |
| stoick / stoic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.93 / 0.00 |
| sympathetick / sympathetic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 0.21 / 0.00 |
| topick / topic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.45 / 0.00 |
| traffick / traffic | 3.25 / 0.00 | 8.61 / 0.42 |
| tragick / tragic | 3.25 / 0.00 | 2.91 / 0.00 |
| tropick / tropic | 0.00 / 0.00 | 1.04 / 0.00 |
#872. -ick or -ic ([2011-09-16-1]) εǡ<public> <publick> ֻʬ̻ۤŪѲˤĤơGoogle Books Ngram Viewer Google Books: American English ѤƴʰĴ-ic -ick ˾ѰۤˤĤƤϡJohnson A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) ǤԤޤƤWebster The American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) ǤϸԤؤɤڤäƤȰҤ٤ΰϾɬפΤ褦
#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 CLMET3.0 ѤơѸμ礿 -ic(k) ֻĴƤߤ1710--1920ǯδ֤3ʬơ줾ֻ٤Ȥä̤ʲ˷Ǥ褦
| Spelling pair | Period 1 (1710--1780) | Period 2 (1780--1850) | Period 3 (1850--1920) |
|---|---|---|---|
| angelick / angelic | 6 / 50 | 0 / 68 | 0 / 50 |
| antick / antic | 4 / 10 | 1 / 6 | 0 / 3 |
| apoplectick / apoplectic | 0 / 10 | 1 / 19 | 0 / 14 |
| aquatick / aquatic | 1 / 2 | 0 / 35 | 0 / 56 |
| arabick / arabic | 2 / 101 | 0 / 45 | 0 / 115 |
| archbishoprick / archbishopric | 4 / 7 | 2 / 2 | 0 / 8 |
| arctick / arctic | 1 / 5 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 93 |
| arithmetick / arithmetic | 9 / 32 | 0 / 77 | 0 / 98 |
| aromatick / aromatic | 4 / 14 | 0 / 29 | 0 / 36 |
| asiatick / asiatic | 1 / 101 | 0 / 48 | 0 / 76 |
| attick / attic | 1 / 32 | 0 / 34 | 0 / 71 |
| authentick / authentic | 4 / 160 | 0 / 79 | 0 / 68 |
| balsamick / balsamic | 1 / 1 | 0 / 5 | 0 / 1 |
| baltick / baltic | 4 / 50 | 0 / 33 | 0 / 43 |
| bishoprick / bishopric | 3 / 28 | 2 / 9 | 0 / 19 |
| bombastick / bombastic | 1 / 2 | 0 / 3 | 0 / 4 |
| cathartick / cathartic | 0 / 1 | 1 / 0 | 0 / 0 |
| catholick / catholic | 7 / 291 | 0 / 342 | 0 / 296 |
| caustick / caustic | 1 / 2 | 0 / 11 | 0 / 20 |
| characteristick / characteristic | 8 / 92 | 0 / 354 | 0 / 687 |
| cholick / cholic | 1 / 13 | 0 / 2 | 0 / 1 |
| comick / comic | 1 / 68 | 0 / 67 | 0 / 165 |
| coptick / coptic | 1 / 11 | 0 / 3 | 0 / 35 |
| critick / critic | 12 / 153 | 0 / 168 | 0 / 155 |
| despotick / despotic | 9 / 66 | 0 / 51 | 0 / 65 |
| dialectick / dialectic | 1 / 0 | 0 / 0 | 0 / 6 |
| didactick / didactic | 0 / 10 | 1 / 20 | 0 / 23 |
| domestick / domestic | 46 / 733 | 0 / 736 | 0 / 488 |
| dominick / dominic | 4 / 11 | 0 / 14 | 1 / 3 |
| dramatick / dramatic | 8 / 214 | 0 / 206 | 0 / 216 |
| elliptick / elliptic | 1 / 1 | 0 / 8 | 0 / 2 |
| emetick / emetic | 4 / 5 | 0 / 7 | 0 / 5 |
| epick / epic | 1 / 68 | 0 / 83 | 1 / 38 |
| ethick / ethic | 1 / 6 | 0 / 0 | 0 / 3 |
| exotick / exotic | 2 / 7 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 38 |
| fabrick / fabric | 15 / 116 | 1 / 84 | 0 / 111 |
| fantastick / fantastic | 9 / 45 | 0 / 157 | 0 / 198 |
| frantick / frantic | 5 / 88 | 2 / 163 | 0 / 124 |
| frolick / frolic | 19 / 44 | 0 / 46 | 0 / 32 |
| gaelick / gaelic | 1 / 1 | 0 / 30 | 0 / 64 |
| gallick / gallic | 1 / 75 | 0 / 11 | 0 / 10 |
| gothick / gothic | 2 / 498 | 0 / 131 | 0 / 66 |
| heretick / heretic | 2 / 31 | 0 / 37 | 0 / 24 |
| heroick / heroic | 17 / 201 | 2 / 224 | 0 / 211 |
| hieroglyphick / hieroglyphic | 2 / 4 | 0 / 7 | 0 / 8 |
| hysterick / hysteric | 1 / 9 | 0 / 10 | 0 / 6 |
| laconick / laconic | 2 / 13 | 0 / 14 | 0 / 7 |
| lethargick / lethargic | 1 / 12 | 0 / 8 | 0 / 14 |
| logick / logic | 4 / 62 | 0 / 361 | 0 / 367 |
| lunatick / lunatic | 2 / 32 | 0 / 34 | 0 / 77 |
| lyrick / lyric | 3 / 15 | 0 / 26 | 0 / 37 |
| magick / magic | 9 / 110 | 0 / 296 | 0 / 292 |
| majestick / majestic | 4 / 73 | 0 / 149 | 1 / 115 |
| mechanick / mechanic | 6 / 79 | 0 / 47 | 0 / 58 |
| metallick / metallic | 1 / 9 | 0 / 79 | 0 / 137 |
| metaphysick / metaphysic | 1 / 2 | 0 / 11 | 0 / 9 |
| mimick / mimic | 2 / 25 | 1 / 46 | 0 / 23 |
| musick / music | 87 / 549 | 3 / 1220 | 3 / 1684 |
| mystick / mystic | 1 / 39 | 0 / 92 | 0 / 167 |
| obstetrick / obstetric | 1 / 2 | 0 / 1 | 0 / 0 |
| panegyrick / panegyric | 19 / 121 | 0 / 43 | 0 / 16 |
| panick / panic | 14 / 58 | 1 / 90 | 0 / 314 |
| paralytick / paralytic | 1 / 15 | 0 / 41 | 0 / 14 |
| pedantick / pedantic | 3 / 31 | 0 / 28 | 0 / 29 |
| philippick / philippic | 2 / 2 | 0 / 3 | 0 / 2 |
| philosophick / philosophic | 1 / 140 | 0 / 80 | 0 / 155 |
| physick / physic | 35 / 157 | 4 / 51 | 3 / 38 |
| plastick / plastic | 1 / 4 | 0 / 19 | 0 / 32 |
| platonick / platonic | 5 / 48 | 0 / 30 | 0 / 22 |
| politick / politic | 8 / 40 | 2 / 37 | 0 / 51 |
| prognostick / prognostic | 2 / 18 | 0 / 5 | 0 / 1 |
| publick / public | 767 / 3350 | 1 / 3171 | 2 / 2606 |
| relick / relic | 1 / 26 | 4 / 56 | 0 / 65 |
| republick / republic | 12 / 515 | 0 / 185 | 0 / 171 |
| rhetorick / rhetoric | 26 / 109 | 2 / 40 | 0 / 65 |
| rheumatick / rheumatic | 1 / 7 | 0 / 33 | 0 / 30 |
| romantick / romantic | 32 / 191 | 0 / 346 | 0 / 322 |
| rustick / rustic | 3 / 102 | 0 / 157 | 0 / 80 |
| sarcastick / sarcastic | 1 / 37 | 0 / 66 | 0 / 60 |
| sceptick / sceptic | 3 / 26 | 0 / 19 | 0 / 26 |
| scholastick / scholastic | 2 / 24 | 0 / 42 | 0 / 46 |
| sciatick / sciatic | 1 / 1 | 0 / 1 | 0 / 3 |
| scientifick / scientific | 2 / 16 | 0 / 451 | 0 / 814 |
| stoick / stoic | 5 / 34 | 1 / 15 | 0 / 26 |
| sympathetick / sympathetic | 3 / 26 | 0 / 70 | 0 / 248 |
| systematick / systematic | 1 / 13 | 0 / 64 | 0 / 104 |
| topick / topic | 12 / 128 | 0 / 177 | 0 / 176 |
| traffick / traffic | 80 / 67 | 1 / 164 | 0 / 203 |
| tragick / tragic | 4 / 65 | 0 / 65 | 0 / 209 |
| tropick / tropic | 12 / 37 | 0 / 7 | 0 / 23 |
(pet name) 俷 (term of endearment) ϡŪˤ hypocorism ȸƤФ롥ꥷ hupo- "hypo-" + kórisma (cf. kóros (child))) ƤꡤҶ䤹ɽȤȤǤ롥Ѹ hypocorism κˤϤĤ뤬ŵŪʤΤ Robert Rob Τ褦˸ûΤǤ롥ε#1950. ʤ Bill William ΰΤˤʤΤ ([2014-08-29-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡƬ˲ѰۤȼΤ⤢ꡤEdward Ned (cf. mine Ed), Edward Ted (cf. that Ed?), Ann Nan (cf. mine Ann) Τ褦ǤȤΰʬϤȤ뤳Ȥ롥
ۤˡ (hypocoristic suffix) -y -ie ղä Georgie, Charlie, Johnnie ʤɤ㤬ꡤȤ櫓̾˹ޤ롥ޤṳ̂Ĥ Elizabeth Betty, William Billy, Richard Ritchie ʤɤ¿ΰ۷Ȥ -sy, -sie ⤢ꡤElizabeth Betsy/Bessy, Anne Nancy, Patricia Patsy ʤɤˤߤ롥
ؿѸؼŵ (542) ˤСŪˤϡղäδ15溢 Charlie ʤɤåȥɤǻϤޤꡤ줬16ʹߤ˳Ϥ˹ޤäΤȤ롥ޤظʸˡŵ (670) ˤСϰΤǤ뤫̾ǤϤʤä18̾ȤƤǧ褦ˤʤä
OALD8 δ "Common first names" Ȥ䤬ꡤά̾䰦ΤΤˤĤƤϡǺܤƤ롥ʲФΤˤʳ̤դΤϡ̤λͿΡˡ
1. Female names
| Abigail | Abbie |
| Alexandra | Alex, Sandy |
| Amanda | Mandy |
| Catherine, Katherine, Katharine, Kathryn | Cathy, Kathy, Kate, Katie, Katy |
| Christina | Chrissie, Tina |
| Christine | Chris |
| Deborah | Debbie, Deb |
| Diana, Diane | Di |
| (Dorothy) | (Dol) |
| Eleanor | Ellie |
| Eliza | Liza |
| Elizabeth, Elizabeth | Beth, Betsy, Betty, Liz, Lizzie |
| Ellen, Helen | Nell |
| Frances | Fran |
| Georgina | Georgie |
| Gillian | Jill, Gill, Jilly |
| Gwendoline | Gwen |
| Jacqueline | Jackie |
| Janet | Jan |
| Janice, Janis | Jan |
| Jennifer | Jenny, Jen |
| Jessica | Jess |
| Josephine | Jo, Josie |
| Judith | Judy |
| Kristen | Kirsty |
| Margaret | Maggie, (Meg, Peg) |
| (Mary) | (Moll, Poll) |
| Nicola | Nicky |
| Pamela | Pam |
| Patricia | Pat, Patty |
| Penelope | Penny |
| Philippa | Pippa |
| Rebecca | Becky |
| Rosalind, Rosalyn | Ros |
| Samantha | Sam |
| Sandra | Sandy |
| Susan | Sue, Susie, Suzy |
| Susanna(h), Suzanne | Susie, Suzy |
| Teresa, Theresa | Tessa, Tess |
| Valerie | Val |
| Victoria | Vicki, Vickie, Vicky, Vikki |
| Winifred | Winnie |
| Albert | Al, Bert |
| Alexander | Alex, Sandy |
| Alfred | Alfie |
| Andrew | Andy |
| (Anthony) | (Tony) |
| Benjamin | Ben |
| Bernard | Bernie |
| (Boswell) | (Boz) |
| Bradford | Brad |
| Charles | Charlie, Chuck |
| Christopher | Chris |
| Clifford | Cliff |
| Daniel | Dan, Danny |
| David | Dave |
| Douglas | Doug |
| Edward | Ed, Eddie, Eddy, (Ned), Ted |
| Eugene | Gene |
| Francis | Frank |
| Frederick | Fred, Freddie, Freddy |
| Geoffrey, Jeffrey | Geoff, Jeff |
| Gerald | Gerry, Jerry |
| Gregory | Greg |
| Henry | Hank, Harry |
| Herbert | Bert, Herb |
| Jacob | Jake |
| James | Jim, Jimmy, Jamie |
| Jeremy | Jerry |
| John | |
| Johnny | |
| Jonathan | Jon |
| Joseph | Joe |
| Kenneth | Ken, Kenny |
| Laurence, Lawrence | Larry, Laurie |
| Leonard | Len, Lenny |
| Leslie | Les |
| Lewis | Lew |
| Louis | Lou |
| (Macaulay) | (Mac) |
| Matthew | Matt |
| Michael | Mike, Mick, Micky, Mickey |
| Nathan | Nat |
| Nathaniel | Nat |
| Nicholas | Nick, Nicky |
| Patrick | Pat, Paddy |
| (Pendennis) | (Pen) |
| Peter, Pete | |
| Philip | Phil |
| Randolph, Randolf | Randy |
| Raymond | Ray |
| Richard | Rick, Ricky, Ritchie, Dick |
| Robert | Rob, Robbie, Bob, Bobby |
| Ronald | Ron, Ronnie |
| Samuel | Sam, Sammy |
| Sebastian | Seb |
| Sidney, Sydney | Sid |
| Stanley | Stan |
| Stephen, Steven | Steve |
| Terence | Terry |
| Theodore | Theo |
| Thomas | Tom, Tommy |
| Timothy | Tim |
| Victor | Vic |
| Vincent | Vince |
| William | Bill, Billy, Will, Willy |
ε#1880. -ee εȯŸ (1) ([2014-06-20-1]) ³θѸˤƤμŪѲŪȯŸˤĤơIsozaki ˵ʤͤ롥
Isozaki ϡOED ۤλͻꡤѸ줫500Ķ -ee ơǯ塤졦̣μ̡촴θ츻ˤʬϤѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤĬή2ͤߤενǽҤ٤(1) ޥϸ촴ǤϤʤ촴³뷹ƤƤ뤳ȡ (2) standee Τ褦ưʼ˥פƤƤ뤳ȡ2ĤǤ롥
(1) ˤĤƤϡOED ѤĴ̤ղȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Isozaki 7)

ե촴³뷹ӤƶȤ餫Ǥ롥촴³㤬긽ƤȤܤͤ롥ʤ19ȯθ20̣˸ΤϡOED θüϿħˤȤ礭⤷ʤ
(2) ˤĤƤƱ OED Ѥơʰ̣Ūʴʬष̤ϰʲ̤Ǥ (Isozaki 6) դΤʤǡDO ưľŪ졤IO ϴŪ졤PO ֻŪ졤S ϼ졤Anom. ưȤľܤ˴طʤ§ŪʤΤǤ롥

跿 DO פͥǤ³Ƥ뤳ȤǤꡤS פγĥäΩʤ褦ˤߤ롥OED Υơ1900--2005ǯμܤ仲ͿǤνиθȡDO 117㡤IO 23㡤PO 4㡤S 32㡤Anom. 18ȡS ʼ쥿סˤοĥ (Isozaki 6)
-ee ŪʻȤ¿졤Ѱΰ̲ʤǤ褦˻פ롥ϸŪĴɬפȤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤܼ (productivity) Ȥ⡤ƥʤĥäƤǤ롥
Isozaki, Satoko. "520 -ee Words in English." Lexicon 36 (2006): 3--23.
emplóyer ʸۤˤФ employée ʸۤƤ͡ˤȤڥϤ褯ΤƤ롥appóinter/appointée, exáminer/examinée, páyer/payée, tráiner/trainée ʤɤΥڥƱͤǡ줾Ȥ -er ԤǽưŪư-ee ĸԤưŪưɽ魯
absentee ʷʼԡ, escapee æԡ, patentee õͭԡ, refugee ̱, standee Ωҡˤʤɡ̣Ū˼ȤȤϲǤʤ¸ߤ롥ºݡstandee stander ƱǤϤʤȤƤ⡤ʤȤǤϤ롥-ee ȤƬƯϤɤΤ褦ʤΤ
-er ŪʸűѸ -ereˤ-ee ϥե줫ѤǤ롥ե -é(e) ưβʬǤꡤ¾ư³мȤΰ̣Ȥʤä켫Τϥƥ1Ѥưβʬܼ -ātus ̤Τǡcommunicatee, dedicatee, educatee, legatee, relocatee ʤɤǤƱ2ĤղäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ-ate ˤĤƤϡ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1]) #1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) ȡˡ
-ee δŪʵǽϡư촴ͤͭʪɽ魯ư̾뤳ȤǤ롥¾ħȤƤϡ -ee /ˈiː/ ˶뤳ȡջηǡȤ̣뤳ȡˡΧѸȤѤ뷹ȡʤɤ롥ˡΧȤѰ (register) ˤĤƤСAnglo-Norman ˡΧѸ apelour/apelé Ѹä appellor/appellee ʾʿ͡ʿ͡ˤʤɤΥڥȤʤꡤѸʹߡΤθ츻ˤ餺 -or (or -er) -ee ˤˡΧѸڥ³ޤ줿
ưȤҤȤˤäƤ⡤ŪˤϴΤưľŪ졤Ū졤ֻŪΡ˼Τ䡤ưȤľܤ˴ϢʤΤޤơ͡ʼब (Isozaki 5--6)examinee "someone who one examines" ľŪpayee "someone to whom one pays something" ǴŪlaughee "someone who one laughs at" ֻŪ standee attendee "someone who stands" "someone who attends something" Ǽ롥¾§ŪʼȤơamputee "someone whose limb was amputated" ʣطpatentee, redundantee, biographee ̾ƻΤȤƤġ
ˤĤƸѸ줫鸽ѸؤƤ̻Ūܤߤȡޥϸ촴ǤϤʤ촴³뷹ƤƤ뤳ȡstandee Τ褦ưʼ˥פƤƤ뤳ȤŦ롥ĬήˤĤƤϡεǡ
Isozaki, Satoko. "520 -ee Words in English." Lexicon 36 (2006): 3--23.
enlighten ַؤפȤưǤϡΤ light Ƭ en- -en ղäƤ롥̾줬ư첽ƤƱ褦ʵǽܼ2դƤΤ̯Ȥ̯Ǥ롥줫ΤߤǤɤʤΤºݤ -en Τߤղä lighten Ȥư줬¸ߤ롥ܼϤɤΤ褦˻ȤʬƤΤ
¤ϡƬ en- -en θ츻ϤޤäۤʤäƤꡤʤƬΤۤϡƥƬ in- ͳ褷ťեͳƱѸäܼǤ롥Ѹֻ in ȵŪˤƱǡءפȤספȤưΤǡưƬȤƵǽϤΤ̾δΤˤĤΤܤƻ䤹ǤưǤΤˤĤȤ⤢ (ex. encase, enchain, encradle, enthrone, enverdure; embus, emtram, enplane; engulf, enmesh; empower, encollar, encourage, enfranchise; embitter, enable, endear, englad, enrich, enslave; enfold, enkindle, enshroud, entame, entangle, entwine, enwrap) Τưξ硤ˤ̤ -en ȤʤäƤΤꡤembolden, enfasten, engladden, enlighten Τ褦ʷ֤ƤѸˤʤäΤȤơencolden, enlengthen, enlessen, enmilden, enquicken, enwiden, enwisen ⤢ˡenclose/inclose, encumber/incumber, enquire/inquire, ensure/ensure ʤ en- in- θؤ⤢뤬츻ŪˤԤϥեԤϥƥǤ롥
-en ϡ¾ưűѸ -nian ̤㤨СűѸηƻ fæst (fast) Фư fæstnian (fasten)ˡߤɡϡ -nian κǸ -n ǤϤʤǽ -n ĤäΤǤ롥ηƻ̾δΤˤĤ?ˤס?ˤʤפΰդɽ魯Ȥơdarken, deepen, harden, sharpen, sicken, soften, sweeten; heighten, lengthen, strengthen; steepen ʤɡΤΤϾ嵭Τ褦˸űѸ̤뤬˵¿ϸѸѸǤ˴Ťη̤Ǥ롥
#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) ³3ñ -th -s ѲˤĤƼ夲ƤѲ⤿餷װˤĤƤϽ⤬Ƥ롥ޤ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤ3ʣˤƤʿŪ -th -s ѲäƤ餷ڵꡤ2Ĥ߹äƤȤ롥
ǤϡűѸľˡߤο;θȤ -es ѤƤꡤ -eþ Ȥϰ褷ƤäơѸʹߡȤ櫓ѸǤ -th -s ѲαƶȤ⤬Ť餢롥ǡˤƤǧ줿2ñ -es(t) /s/ 3ñθˤڤΤǤϤʤȤ롤ѥǤ⤢롥¾be ư is αƶȤ⡤Ѳʤɤ⤢뤬Ϥ礯
ʶȤʤǡJespersen (17--18) ϲδָΨŸ롥ˤֺǾϤˡ§ ('law of least effort') ȸƤ褤
In my view we have here an instance of 'Efficiency': s was in these frequent forms substituted for þ because it was more easily articulated in all kinds of combinations. If we look through the consonants found as the most important elements of flexions in a great many languages we shall see that t, d, n, s, r occur much more frequently than any other consonant: they have been instinctively preferred for that use on account of the ease with which they are joined to other sounds; now, as a matter of fact, þ represents, even to those familiar with the sound from their childhood, greater difficulty in immediate close connexion with other consonants than s. In ON, too, þ was discarded in the personal endings of the verb. If this is the reason we understand how s came to be in these forms substituted for th more or less sporadically and spontaneously in various parts of England in the ME period; it must have originated in colloquial speech, whence it was used here and there by some poets, while other writers in their style stuck to the traditional th (-eth, -ith, -yth), thus Caxton and prose writers until the 16th century.
"Efficiency" Ȥϸο (progress) ˤ̤롥̯ʸJespersen ˡ¤ Jespersen ŪȸJespersen ŪȤϲˤĤƤϡ#1728. Jespersen θѡ ([2014-01-19-1]) Ȥ줿[s] [θ] ˤĤƤϡ#842. th-sound Ϥޤȯ ([2011-08-17-1]) ȡ#1248. s th Ĵκ ([2012-09-26-1]) ɤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ε#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1]) ǻȤ Kytö (115) ϡ17ɾԤľܰѤʤ顤17Ⱦˤ -eth ֤줿Ǥ -s ȤȯƤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Contemporary commentators' statements, and verse rhymes, indicate that the -S and -TH endings were pronounced identically from the early 17th century on. Richard Hodges (1643) listed different spellings given for the same pronunciation: for example, clause, claweth, claws; Hodges also pointed out in 1649 that "howesoever wee write them thus, leadeth it, maketh it, noteth it, we say lead's it, make's it, note's it" (cited in Jespersen, 1942: 19--20).
Kytö (132 fn. 10) ǤϡHodges θǤǤȯҲ𤵤Ƥ롥
In the third (and final) edition of his guide (1653: 63--64), Hodges elaborated on his statement: "howsoever wee write many words as if they were two syllables, yet wee doo commonly pronounce them as if they were but one, as for example, these three words, leadeth, noteth, taketh, we doo commonly pronounce them thus, leads, notes, takes, and so all other words of this kind."
17ˤϰŪ <-eth> /-s/ ȤȯƤȤϡ/θ/ /s/ Ȥϰۤʤ벻ǤǤȤĤޤƤ䤿ˤȤäƤϡ츫ۤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤϡäդǤѲԤդǤѲɤĤƤʤȤѲΤդ줿1Ĥˤʤ˽դäդ˹碌 <-s> ֤褦ˤʤäֻȯɤĤˤ¿ʤȤֺäȤȤǤ롥ܸɽ줫ʤŤ鸽夫ʤŤؤȲޤǤƻΤ٤С<-eth> <-s> ؤֻѲϤष®äȸۤɤǤ롥
ʤJespersen (20) ˤȡĶ٤ư hath, doth, saith ˤĤƤϡ<-th> 18ȾФޤ̤˸줿Ȥ
ɽʸȯȤЪΥˤĤƤ spelling_pronunciation_gap ¿εǼ夲ƤȤ櫓#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) ȡ#62. ʤ֤ȯЪΥƤ椯Τ ([2009-06-28-2]) εȤ줿
Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.
Hodges, Richard. A Special Help to Orthographie; Or, the True Writing of English. London: Printed for Richard Cotes, 1643.
Hodges, Richard. The Plainest Directions for the True-Writing of English, That Ever was Hitherto Publisht. London: Printed by Wm. Du-gard, 1649.
Hodges, Richard. Most Plain Directions for True-Writing: In Particular for Such English Words as are Alike in Sound, and Unlike Both in Their Signification and Writing. London: Printed by W. D. for Rich. Hodges., 1653. (Reprinted in R. C. Alston, ed. English Linguistics 1500--1800. nr 118. Menston: Scholar Press, 1968; Microfiche ed. 1991)
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ư3ʣˤĤơ#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1])#1687. Ѹ3ʣ -s (4) ([2013-12-09-1])#1850. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s ([2014-05-21-1]) ǰäƤ3ñˤˤĤƤϤޤ夲Ƥʤäͽۤ褦ˡ3ñΤۤʤǤꡤȤ櫓ɤǸűѸ -th ΤѸ -s 褦ˤʤäаޤˤĤƤϡ¿ФƤ롥
ѸξΤˤФа礤˽ФΤϡ1611ǯ The Authorised Version (The King James Version [KJV]ˤǤŪ -th ݤƤ뤬Ʊ Shakespeare Ǥ -th -s ߤƤȤȤΤȤϡ17ޤǤ˸ǤϤǤ -th -s ؤѲٿʤǤݼŪνդˤϤ줬ȿǤʤäΤȲᤵƤ롥
ơ礦Ʊ˱Ѹ줬ΦذܿϤƤǤϡλǤ˻ϤޤäƤ -th -s ѲΤθΥ塼ϡꥹѸȥꥫѸȤǰۤʤäϤäΤKytö ϡ16--17ΥꥹѸ쥳ѥȡ17ΥꥫѸ쥳ѥѤơ䤤ؤ͡ʸŪҲŪʥѥꤷӤƤ뤬Ūˤ1Ĥηǧ줿17ξߤ¤ꡤ-s ؤѲϥꥫѸΤۤꥹѸ®˿ʤǤΤǤ롥Kytö (120) ˤɽ
| British English | American English | ||||||
| -S | -TH | Total | -S | -TH | Total | ||
| 1500--1570 | 15 (3%) | 446 | 461 | - | |||
| 1570--1640 | 101 (18%) | 459 | 560 | 1620--1670 | 339 (51%) | 322 | 661 |
| 1640--1710 | 445 (76%) | 140 | 585 | 1670--1720 | 642 (82%) | 138 | 780 |
Contrary to what has usually been attributed to the phenomenon of colonial lag, the subsequent rate of change was more rapid in the colonies. By and large, the colonists' writings seem to reflect the spoken language of the period more faithfully than do the writings of their contemporaries in Britain. In this respect, speaker innovation, rather than conservative tendencies, guided the development.
˽ colonial_lag γƵǤ褦ˡܤˤäƥꥫѸ줬ꥹѸʤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ѽ⤢̣ǤݼŪǤꡤ̣ǤϳŪǤ롥 Kytö η϶ä٤ΤǤϤʤꥹܹˤƸ夹Ǥ˻ϤޤäƤѲꥫϤäˤɤΤ褦˿ʹԤ1ĤλȤưյ롥
Kytö, Merja. "Third-Person Present Singular Verb Inflection in Early British and American English." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 113--39.
ɸϡ#790. Ѹˤưʬۡ ([2011-06-26-1]) Ǥñ˿줿Ϥ⤦ܤ夲ܤΤϡľˡ3;ñߤθȡʿ;ΤʤʣߤθǤ롥
ѸΰŪʬˤĤƤϡ#130. Ѹʬ ([2009-09-04-1]) #1812. 6ñѰۤǸѸ ([2014-04-13-1]) Ȥ줿ľˡ߷ưθȤϡѸ礭3ʬ뤳ȤǤ롥 "the Chester-Wash line" ¦ (North)ʣ -eth ħȤ (South)δ֤˰֤ (Midland) Ǥ롥θˤĤƤϤ줾1ĤΥѥȤƤޤȤ뤳ȤǤ뤬Ǥϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) ˤ褦ˡưȤŪʴط˱2ĤΥѥब̤롥쵬§ "Northern Personal Pronoun Rule" 뤤 "Northern Present Tense Rule" ʰʲ NPTR άˤȤΤƤꡤMcIntosh (237) ˤСΤ褦꼰롥
Expressed in somewhat simplified fashion, the rule operating north of the Chester-Wash line is that a plural form -es is required unless the verb has a personal pronoun subject immediately preceding or following it. When the verb has such a subject, the ending required is the reduced -e or zero (-ø) form.
McIntosh (238) ˤNPTR αդѸ3ΥѥȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) North (north of the Chester-Wash line)
i) subject not a personal pronoun in contact with verb
| North: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -es | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| North: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -e, -ø (-en) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -es |
| Midland | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en, -e (-ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| South | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: i) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -eth | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
| North/Midland: ii) | sg. | pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -en (-e, -ø) | |
| 2nd person | ||
| 3rd person | -eth |
ưƻ줫̾ -th ˤĤơ#14. ̾-th ([2009-05-12-1])#16. -th ̾ΤȤˤʤäư졦ƻϡ ([2009-05-14-1])#595. death and dead ([2010-12-13-1]) ˤϸѸǤŪǤϤʤ̾Ͼʤ餺¸ߤ櫓ǤꡤüԤ -th ̾첽ȤƤεǽˤϵŤƤȹͤ롥äơ餫Τä -th Ŀ̾줬Ū˸줿ȤƤ⡤ۤɶäϤʤ
coolth ʤ̾ߤĤ̾Ϸƻ cool Ф̾ coolness coolth OED ˤ1547ǯ˽Фư衤ΤȤߤˤޤ³Ƥ롥졼٥Ȥ "Now chiefly literary, arch., or humorous" ȤʤäƤꡤͽ̤̤λȤǤϤʤ褦cool ΡäפθǤϤʤŪʡ֤äפθ̾ȤƤ coolth 1966ǯ˽ФƤ롥̤ᤤ뤤Ūʸ촶ϡθѸ줫ʸ˸Ƥ롥
The walls of the house alone have 230,000 lb of adobe mass that can store heat and coolth (yes, this is a word).
Of course, just saying 'hippest' gives away my age and my utter lack of coolness or coolth or whatever term those people are using these days.
How soothing it is, forsooth, to desire coolth and vanquish inadequate Brit warmth.
ѥ餤Ĥ㤬ΤǡŵŪ (nonce-word) ȤϤʤǡòƤȤۤɤΰ괶ϤʤΤ褦ʸͷӤˤᤤŪ褷Ȥǡ#732. -dom Ū ([2011-04-29-1]) Ǽ夲 -dom Ω˶ܤ롥coolth ϡ-th Ⱦü褯Ƥȸ
ŪˤȤС#1761. Ȥʧֹ⤵פȡֹߡס ([2014-02-21-1]) δϢơĿŪʻ㤬롥٤Ҥơ뤤ˤĤޤȤ줿줬äȤˡ֤Τߤ줿dzڤˤʤäʤפȸФܸθȤơ֤뤵פϤäƤ֤ߡפ̤ǤϤʤȵŤƶФΤΡ֤뤵פǤϤʤʬΤߤΤäƤ뤢äԲȼ֤뤵סʬˤȤäƤϽʬ˶ŪƤ˸òƤ٤֤뤵פɽ魯ˡǤŪ֤ߡפФ̤ȯư֤ߡפФ줿Τʤ
ʤܼ¤Ȥǰϸߤ˴طǼ褦ˡñΩȤ褦ʤΤǤϤʤˤĤƤϡ#938. (4) ([2011-11-21-1]) #940. ¤ ([2011-11-23-1]) ȡŤԤεǡޤ coolth *դˤƤ
Ѹ (-ing) 2ĤѰ۷ˤĤơ#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1]) ӡ#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1]) ǰäƬ (h) Ѱۤȹ碌ơѸˤŪ˺Ǥ褯Τ줿ҲŪѰۤȤߤǤϡ[ɪŋ] ȯɸŪǡ[ɪn] ȯɸŪǤ롥ε ([2013-06-13-1]) Ǥ줿Ȥꡤ1ۤˤξѰ۷μҲŪʲͤϵդǤä[ɪn] ҿΤȯǤꡤ[ɪŋ] ɸŪäΤǤ롥ɾˤĤƾܤŵõƤΤCrystal (309--10) ؤγǸڤƤΤĤΤǡȤꤢѤ롥
Everyone has developed a sense of values that make some accents seem 'posh' and others 'low', some features of vocabulary and grammar 'refined' and others 'uneducated'. The distinctive features have been a long-standing source of comment, as this conversation illustrates. It is between Clare and Dinny Cherrel, in John Galsworthy's Maid in Waiting (1931, Ch. 31), and it illustrates a famous linguistic signal of social class in Britain --- the two pronunciations of final ng in such words as running, [n] and [ŋ].
'Where on earth did Aunt Em learn to drop her g's?'
'Father told me once that she was at a school where an undropped "g" was worse than a dropped "h". They were bringin' in a country fashion then, huntin' people, you know.'
This example illustrates very well the arbitrary way in which linguistic class markers work. The [n] variant is typical of much working-class speech today, but a century ago this pronunciation was a desirable feature of speech in the upper middle class and above --- and may still occasionally be heard there. The change to [ŋ] came about under the influence of the written form: there was a g in the spelling, and it was felt (in the late 19th century) that it was more 'correct' to pronounce it. As a result, 'dropping the g' in due course became stigmatized.
(-ing) 뤳ˤϡѰ۷ȯΤΤͥȤäͤտ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤ餫ˤƤ롥#1535. non-prevocalic /r/ μҲŪʲ͡ ([2013-07-10-1]) Ǥ褦ˡܤʣѰ۷δ֤ˡͤͥ褦˸ȤƤ⡤βͤϼҲŪʥƥ쥪פˤƱΤ˱ѰۤήưŪʲͤˤʤȤȤǤ롥
ܸѲʹΡ֤ȴȤСפ֤줳ȤСפμҲŪͤʤɤ⻲ȤƤߤȤ⤷
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ܸ֤̾פȡ֤ߡפˤĤơHagiwara et al. ʸɤƻθ촴³̾첽뵡ǽäƤ뤬֤פŪǤǡ֤ߡפϴΤ֤ȤȤΤƤ롥ֲסִŤס뤤סˤסֽŤסֹ⤤סֶסֶ줤סֿסִݤסֽ餫פʤɤϤ뤳ȤǤ뤬䤿סָǤסְ¤פʤɤϡ֤ߡפӽ뤷ʣƻֻҶ餷סֱפʤɤƱͤºݡ֤ߡפ³ǤΤ30ۤɤ˸¤졤ˤƸꤵƤ롥̣⡤̵֤̾ɸͽ¬ǽ⤤֤ߡ̾ͭɸͽ¬ǽ㤤㤨Сֹ⤵פŪֹ̾ߡפϡֹ⤤ȤפۤɤΤŪʰ̣̾Ǥ롥
Ρ֤פȡ֤ߡפηỤ̄Ūΰ㤤ϡѸ -ness -ity ΰ㤤Ȥ褽ʿԤƤ롥Ѹ2Ĥ̾ˤĤƤϡ#935. (1) ([2011-11-18-1]) Ǽ夲ΤǡȤƤܸȱѸΥȤǤκۤϡѸŪ -ity ϴΤβ֤Ѳ (ex. válid vs valídity) ΤФơܸŪ֤ߡפϴΤβ֤ݤĤȤȤΤȤƤϡѸ4Τʿˤܤ٤
Hagiwara et al. εϤǤ롥Ѹε§ưγѷϵ§ˤ뤬Ե§ưγѷϵľܰФ롥Ʊ褦ˡܸΡ֤̾ϵ§ˤ뤬֤ߡ̾ϵľܰФƤΤǤϤʤκݤˡѸư϶ (inflectional morphology) °ǤꡤܸΡ֤ס֤ߡפ (derivational morphology) °ǤϤ뤬ƱξޤƯƤڵǤϤʤȡ衤Ͻ̤٤2ĤȹͤƤζˤƹ⤤βϡषޤ˶ᤤȹͤΤǤϤʤȤΤ Hagiwara et al. ƤǤ롥ʾεɴԤΥƥȤи (neurolinguistics) δʤƤ롥Ѥ褦
Our investigation of the Japanese nominal suffixes -sa annd -mi led us to the conclusion that the affixation of these two suffixes involves two different mental mechanisms, and that the two mechanisms are supported by different neurological substrates. The results of our study constitute a new piece of evidence for the dual-mechanism model of morphology, where default rule application and associative memory are supposed to operate as mutually independent mechanisms. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the dual-mechanism model is valid for morphological processes in general, and is not limited to inflectional ones. This, in turn, shows that some derivational processes can involve default rules or computation, much like those in inflection or syntactic operations. From the neurolinguistic point of view, our study has contributed to the clarification of the localization of linguistic functions, namely, the Broca's area functions as the rule-governed grammatical computational system whereas the left-middle and inferior temporal areas subserve the unproductive/semiproductive memory-based lexical-semantic processing system. (758)
ȤʬŪ˼ʧȤȤοиؾƤϡ㤨С#456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1]) Τ褦ˤ⿷ʸꤲ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
Hagiwara, Hiroko, Yoko Sugioka, Takane Ito, Mitsuru Kawamura, and Jun ichi Shiota. "Neurolinguistic Evidence for Rule-Based Nominal Suffixation." Language 75 (1999): 739--63.
#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ڤӺε#1752. interpretor interpreter (2) ([2014-02-12-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ
Marchand (221--22) ˤȡѸ줫ѸˤƤξؤΤȻפ뤬-er, -or, -ar ʤɤμư -er ذܲ礭ήȡФ -or, -ar ʤɤؤȸʵήȤ¸ߤȤ
Variants in -or are sailor 1642, orig. sailer LME, vendor 1594 (AE also vender), editor (cp. to edit), conqueror (cp. conquer), visitor (formerly -er, cp. visit), operator(cp. operate), survivor (coined as a legal term 1503; in law terms the spelling -or with pronunciation [ɔ(r)] is usual), director (cp. direct) and many others. / . . . . Original loans from French (ending in -ier, -our, -oir) which had a verb or a suffixless noun to go with, naturally came to be felt as derivatives. Examples are: farmer, jeweller, gardener / miner, commander / dresser, counter. On the other hand, classical influence produced a certain counter-action in the 16th and 17th c. insofar as -er words received a Latinizing spelling in -ar or -or . . . . There are thus two opposite currents: one is to assimilate foreign elements to the native -er, and the other to introduce a learned or pseudo-learned element. The latter is responsible for the frequent AE pronunciation [ɔ(r)] in creator, actor a.o. / Latin-coined words in -ator also contain the sf -er for the present-day linguistic feeling. Their stress is dictated by that of the underlying verb in -ate: génerate/génerator, oríginate/oríginator. Between 1550 and 1750 the stress was often on the penult, after the Latin accentuation (see B. Danielsson 137--142).
Marchand θ̤Ȥȡinterpreter ϡ-or -er ؤΤŪĬή˾ä1ĤȤȤˤʤ롥ɤθ줬ɤĬή˾뤳ȤˤʤäΤȤФơŪˡŪˤɤޤڤ뤫Ϥ狼餺ʾƧ߹ΤϤ뤬塤ݤˤդƤȻפ
Marchand, Hans. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation: A Synchronic-Diachronic Approach. 2nd. ed. München: Beck, 1969.
ɸηˤĤƤϡ#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ȡ#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) ǿƤνȯǤ롤16 interpretor interpreter ִ줿ȤڤˤĤơ¤ɤǧƤɬפ롥θڤϡرѸ츻ŵ٤ǤʤƤꡤ餯 OED "In 16th cent. conformed to agent-nouns in -er, like speak-er" ˰͵ƤΤȻפ뤬ˤ16λΤĤΥѥܺ٤Ĵ٤Ƥߤ
ޤϡMED ѸֻΤƤߤ褦 Wycliffite Bible, Early Version (a1382) ޤᡤ33ޤǤ -our 뤤 -or ޤߡ-er Τ Reginald Pecock ˤ Book of Faith (c1456) 2ΤߤǤ롥а衤ѸΰŪֻϡ-o(u)r äȤäƤ
ƱѸξPPCME2 ǤߤƤߤȡPeriod M4 (1420--1500) Interpretours 1Τߵä
ˡѸ (1418--1680) 45줫ʤʥѥΥץ CEECS (The Corpus of Early English Correspondence Ǥ⸡Ƥߤ2˶ʬ줿ѥ2ʬ (1580--1680) interpreter interpretor 줾1㤺Ĥäˤʤ
³ơMEMEM (Michigan Early Modern English Materials) Υ饤ѥϡΥڡΤȤꡤѸ켭ԻΤ˽줿ȤˡưΤʸǡ١ؤʥѥȤѤǤ롥ĤֻǸȤinterpretour 2㡤1535? Thomas Elyot ˤ The Education or Bringing up of Children 줿Ū interpreter(s) ֻϡ9ΰۤʤƥȡ3Ĥ166Ĥ17ˤ16ǧ줿Τˡ16餸露 -er ӤƤƤ褦
LC (The Lampeter Corpus of Early Modern English Tracts) ϡ1640--1740ǯ罰ʪ119Υѥ줿7Ϥ -er ֻä
Ʊͤη̤330ζḽѸ쥳ѥ ARCHER 3.2 (A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers) (1600--1999) Ǥǧ줿1672ǯǽȤơ13㤬 -er Ǥ롥
ǸˡѸ줫Ѹˤ̻ŪˤߤƤߤ褦HC (Helsinki Corpus) ˤȡE1 (1500--70) Henry Machyn's Diary ꡤ"he becam an interpretour betwen the constable and certein English pioners;" 1Τ߸줿HC 礵 PPCEME ˤȡ嵭ޤ17λʬۤϰʲ̤ꡥ
| -o(u)r | -er(s) | |
|---|---|---|
| E1 (1500--1569) | 2 | 1 |
| E2 (1570--1639) | 3 | 5 |
| E3 (1640--1710) | 0 | 6 |
#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ˤ -er -or ˤĤơξԤϤȤ˹ټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ȸƤФ빴«Ǥ̣֡ʬۤʤɤ˴ؤơߤˤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤϡŪʻȤϸѸζŪʻ顤ξԤΰƱ
Carney (426--27), Huddleston and Pullum (1698) (170--73)ĤʤɡĤλʸäƤߤȤȡʲ̤ˤʤ롥
| -er | -or | |
|---|---|---|
| ¿ | Ūʤ | |
| Ū | Ū | |
| ܼ饹 | Class II | Class I |
| ³Τθ츻 | Romance Ϥ˸¤ʤ | Romance Ϥ˸¤ |
| ³Τμͳ | ͳ˸¤ | ͳ˸¤ʤ |
| ư | ʤ | |
| Τؤζ | ʤ | |
| ʤղ | ʤ | Class I դ |
| Ending | Word types | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| -ator | 291 | indicator, navigator |
| -ctor | 63 | contractor, predictor |
| -itor | 29 | inheritor, depositor |
| -utor | 16 | contributor, prosecutor |
| -essor | 15 | successor, professor |
| -ntor | 14 | grantor, inventor |
| -stor | 12 | investor, assistor |
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