ɥå̾إץեåʥξ (45--46) ˡ衼åѡʵڤܡˤˤɸμݤŤߤɽս꤬롥ħŤƤ¿ϡˤơȸϤΤȤǰ층ؤ֤졤ΰ층ŪͭͤǤȤȯۤ˻ޤǺդƤߡΰ층ˤϤۤӤϤƤΤǤϤʤ
Ҳۤ¿Τϻǯ֤ΤȤǤ롥¿ҲäμҲϡ˶礦ΩɴˤΤܤѥäƤ²ΡʶΡƻΡͳԻԤäȥꥢΥˤϡŷΤ뼫ͳ̱Τä̤ΩɤäۤϥƱ̾ꡤեĥȶƱäħǿͤȹ礬äΩΩˡʼIJޤǤäˤϡΤ褦ʤΤ̵ˤä
θ塤ˤϹȤ̵Υѥ뤳Ȥ衼åѤˤȤʤä뤤ܤˤȤʤä
ưȾФˤϡȶ˴ؤ¿̤ꥫʹˤơȤʾ¤ˤ褽ϻǯˤ錄äơ¿ѻߤȤ줿
ˡȤξΩ˸ޤˤΤȤǽοȿޤ줿Ȥä衤ȿޤ줿Ʊ˥衼åѤǤϡܤλۤΤȻפƤؤΤ褦ʤफȿƤӼᤷ
ʤȤˡμä˶ϡ˶礦Ωȿʤ¿ǤϤʤͣθϡͣȿ¸ߤ٤ǤȤफοŪȤǸΤäΤΤ褦ˡΤϼԤ˽äȤȤϤμƤϡβˤϤʤʤä
ḽ˻ˤ⡤ŪʼҲˤĬή̵Ǥʤɤˤ褯бƤ롥ȤǤϡΤɸಽܻؤ졤ѤǵŪʸˡáˡȯˡꤵƤơĤ٤κ졤褽̱ϸŪʾˤƸոεϤ餹褦ƤĤƤ¿ˤäƳƤո͡褬ʸ̤˰층櫓ǤϤʤƤ
ɥåܤλۤˤĤƽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤդεϼ층⡤ʹߤ˰ٳΩΤ褦ˤߤˡߡɸŪ¿ͤʸոʬǼƤϤƤ褦ˤפ롥
Ѹֻˤ路 Horobin ⡤ֻ¿ȶֻε층Ȥήɤäǡߤ̤ˤ¿碌Ƥ褦˻פ롥ȡʸϡˤȸ̩ܤʴطˤĤơƹͤƤߤ
ɥåP. F. ˡ ˡإץեåʥξ̤Ĺ뤫١ɼҡ2000ǯ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ե˵ŪʸǤȤ롥ϼϱѸˤ⤢뤬եˤϱѸ붯Ϥ롥⤷쵬ϼŪʸȤ뤫⤷ʤΥեεϼγΩȡȼο (language_myth) ˤĤƤϡʲεǰäƤ
#626. ֥եŪʸǤפȤá ([2011-01-13-1])
#1077. Rivarol Υեͥº (1) ([2012-04-08-1])
#1078. Rivarol Υեͥº (2) ([2012-04-09-1])
#1079. Rivarol Υեͥº (3) ([2012-04-10-1])
Perret (70--71) ˽äƥե쵬ϼȯŸˤ⤹ȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥15--16եϥƥäƥեθȤƽѤϥեɸಽή¥ʤ17ˤ Academie française Ω1635ǯ˵ڤӵŪʸˡ伭νǤ꼡18ΥեݲνפФȤʤä18γ̿ˤեϿȤΥܥ˻Ωƾ夲졤եʳθɸŪʥեѼˡŪӽ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤɸեм20ޤ³20ʹߤϡѸŨĬήǻ1994ǯ Toubon ˡǤϡѸɽθŪʻѤ¤褦Ȥаޤ롥ˤ La Francophonie ([2015-04-28-1], [2015-04-29-1]) 20ȾˤȯŸϡΤ褦ʱѸŨδ֤Ť뤳ȤǤեŪȻȼɸŪŪʥե줬θҤɬݻǤʤʤäƤȤ¤Ǥ롥ϰ褴Ȥι̱ŪեѼ (français nationaux) ¸ߴƤƤ롥 (World) Englishes (world_englishes) ΥեǤȤ
եεϼβȥե̿δطˤĤƤϡ4ϡ֥ե̿ȸפɤߤ䤹٤ࡥ
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
Ѹˤˤ final_e ϡȯˤƤֻˤƤפǤ롥űѸ줫ѸˤʹԤοʿ (levelling of inflection) νɾΤfinal e ξüϸαѸˤ˺ǤϤʱƶڤܤȤäƤ褤ˤꡤűѸ줫̾졤ƻ졤ưʤɤζηϤǷѸǷ뤳ȤȤʤää˷ƻ -e ˤĤƤϡilame γƵǰäƤ
ѸޤǤˤϡ final e ϲŪ̵ȤʤäƤȹͤ뤬ֻݻ줿褷ꤹ뤳Ȥ¿ŪʵǽĤĤäChaucer νܤǤϡʼ⤤Τۤ final e 褯ݤƤʤɤλ¤ǧƤꡤ final e ΤݼȵռƤȤ롥ѸޤǤ϶ȤƸŪǽͭƤ final e Ѹʹߤˤʤ˵ڤǼҲŪʸŪǽô褦ˤʤäƤΤǤ롥˶Ѹˡؤδؿޤꡤֻ final e ¸ε§ˤĤƤε⤫ޤӤʤä
final e μҲȤƤ٤ʾ嵭αѸ˾θݤϡ̣Ȥˡɥĸˤ㤬ߤ롥 (113) ˤСɥĸˤ final e βξüϡ15˳礷16ȾڤȤ (ex. im Lande > im Land) ϡѸۤ٤ޤ17 e ֻξǰտŪ褷ͻҤ륿ǤʪθŪ顤ޤʸˡˤߤ뵬ŪʥȤΤ롥17դޤǤˤϡe ղäŪȤʤäƤ褦
⤷ΤϡƥȤˤ뤬̾ñͿʤ e aus dem winde in ihrem hause ʤɤΤ褦褷ФǤϤʤ;̾ؼ̾Ϳʤ e zu ihme sieder deme Τ褦褷Ƥꡤ-ung, -in, -nis νˤ e ղä Zuredunge, nachbarinne, gefengnisse Τ褦˸뤳Ȥ e 16ʹߤ˰̤ˤ褻17ʸˡǤȤƤΤǤʹġp. 114ˡβ꽤 (hypercorrection) Ȥ롥
Ѹˤ final e ȤʤΤϡˤ뤬Ѹ줫ѸȤäƤ褯Ѹ˸ԤˤȤäƤĹƬˤμǤ³ƤɥĸˤǤγϤ٤ۤĹ³ΤǤϤʤä褦ˡʤɤθŪϤǤȤʤäǡξݤӤ롥οʿȤޥν̿Ūʸݤ˵ final e ϡ˻ǤϤ뤬̣ӸؤΥơޤȤʤΤǤϤʤ
ԡ֥ɥĤȽĴ1649ǯˤ˵줿ȤСס˸ʸˡԶɽȯù١١ʶ ҡ ԡ̾ ҡԡˡˡҤĤ˼2014ǯ105--32ǡ
#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])ޤ¾εǡŵŪŷϩȤŪ¦̤˸ڤƤ濴ŪϰϤФгŪϰǤ⤢ꡤϤȾŤƤȤޤ뤿ˤˤη̡濴ϿդϸŤȤʬۤ˻롥ߤ˱Υ줿֤ĤȤݤϡ츫ԻĤˤ꤭줤Ĥ
ʾ夬ŵŪषޤäդ濴ŤդȤʬۤ㤬롥ܸΥʬۤܤǤ͡ʥȤԤƤꡤ弰ȡȡü쥢ȡ췿ȡ̵Ȥ̤롥̣ȤˡΥȤʣʬۤϤ褽ؤƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥㤨2̾4Ĥη̤Ǥʣʵ弰Ȥϡ̾Ȥꡤ濴ȤƶᵦȾΦˤޤʬۤƤ롥γ¦ˤ2̾3Ĥη̤뼡ʣȤʬۤ롥ޤߤ顤ϡʸǽҤ٤̵ϰϽ̤̳ƻޤdzȤäƤꡤ϶ᵦӱۤȶ彣ˤޤʬۤƤ롥ĤޤꡤȤϡᵦʬǤƤʬܽʬۤƤ롥
³2̾2Ĥη̤ü쥢Ȥϡ彣ϤȤƤ鷺ʬۤˤȤɤޤ롥1Ĥη⤿ʤ췿ȤϡǼ縩ԾˤΤǧ롥Ǹ˷̤ʤ̵Ȥϡ븩ڸʡ縩ƶ彣ιϰʬۤƤ롥Τ褦˸ߤ˱Υ줿Ȥߤ뤳Ȥϡ۵롥
ŵŪۤʤΤϡŪˤϤŤ奢Ȥܽ˻ĤäƤꡤ꿷Ȥ¾ŸƤ뤳Ȥޤʿ»εǤ2̾5Ĥη̤ƤȤΤƤ롥ȡʿ»εΥȤΤʣˤƺǤ褯ݤäƤΤ弰Ȥǡ缡ñ㲽줿ȤȾʬۤƤȲǤ롥濴ʣǸŤդñǿȤǤ뤬μĥȤϤषդǤ롥ܤʬ䤹Ҳ𤷤ɧ (77) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ؤˤʸŪǤϡ褯졤ȤФդ뤤⤿䤹äΤǤγ¦ؤˤʤȤ줬ޤꡤ˳ؤǤϤäȼޤޤᵦ濴˱ߤ褦ˤơ濴Ȥη¦ƤΤϡΤǤϡŪѲΤ褦ΤǤ
ߤϤʹơäסʸȯǿ줬ޤƤҤꡤˤϤդ뤤줬ΤɤȤΤȿФȡפ⤷ޤιͤñΤҤˤ褯ƤϤޤޤ
Ǥ⡤Ȥ濴ˤƹͤ줿㤯ϡ֥ȤʤɤΤդĤʷĤΤΤۤѲ䤹פȤȤФΤ⤦ҤȤĤѲλäƤޤ
¤ŪŪñʸʣʥȤϡѲŤλ˴ؤơ̤˰ɬפȤȤ¤ŪʣѲ®٤Ȥδ֤˲餫δϢ뤫⤷ʤȤ붽̣ݤ⤷ʤƱˡΰѤˤ⤢褦ˡϤ䶵ȤҲŪϤѤƤȤͤ롥
ʤǤʬ̵ۤȤǿȤȤǤСϺܸ쥢ȤλѤͽΤǤȤǤ롥¡ɧ (75) ϡ־ܸϤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ޤ㡤ʤǤ礦פȳοŪǤ롥 *
ɧ 롡ϤޤۤΤȤС١ꥹۡ1997ǯ
εǤϡ#1947. Swift clipping Ƚ([2014-08-26-1]) ˤĤƸSwift ƱͤǤ Joseph Addison (1672--1719) ⡤ˤۤƱ깭Ƥ롥
Joseph Addison launched an attack on monosyllables in the Spectator (135, 4 August 1711):
The English Language . . . abound[s] in monosyllables, which gives an Opportunity of delivering our Thoughts in few Sounds. This indeed takes off from the Elegance of our Tongue, but at the same time expresses our Ideas in the readiest manner.
He observes that some past-tense forms --- e.g. drown'd, walk'd, arriv'd --- in which the -ed had formerly been pronounced as a separate syllable (as we still do in the adjectives blessed and aged) had become monosyllables. A similar situation is found in the case of drowns, walks, arrives, 'which in the Pronunciation of our Forefathers were drowneth, walketh, arriveth'. He objects to the genitive 's, which he incorrectly assumes to be a reduction of his and her, and for which he in any case gives no examples. He asserts that the contractions mayn't, can't, sha'n't, wo'n't have 'much untuned our Language, and clogged it with Consonants'. He dismisses abbreviations such as mob., rep., pos., incog. as ridiculous, and complains about the use of short nicknames such as Nick and Jack.
ư -ed ˲ä -es Ჽͭʤ 'sܼ n't ̤˵äƤ롥 Nick Jack ˤޤ̷褬ڤǤ뤫顤ϤϤθȤΤȤˤʤäƤ롥
Addison ˤȤäƤԹʤȤˡƤܤ¿ϸɸѸdzΩ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Addison ˤ Swift ˤڳñ첽ɤޤܵǷäƤΤϤ狼ʤषˤϤӤֱѸפɤ٤ǥߡΩ뤿θ¤Ȥơ̤˵Τñ첽䤽¾κ٤ʹܤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤ⤷ȤȡǤϤΤΡܼŪưŪäȤȤˤʤϼŪʸϡƤȤޤǤDzȤ餽þ뱿̿Ǥ롥ϡͤŤƤ뤫ݤ̤Ȥơ礭ŪΤμʤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿褦˻פ (cf. #468. ꥫȤ Webster ([2010-08-08-1]))
ʤͭʤ 's his ξάǤȤ Addison λŦˤĤƤϡѸˤΩ줫϶̣˴ؤơ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1])#1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])#1479. his °ʤο ([2013-05-15-1]) Ȥ줿
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
ε#1946. ǽŪʴߤû ([2014-08-25-1]) ʤ顤ѸˤˤƸû shorteningȤ櫓ڳ (clipping) äʸ۵1712ǯ˥ǥߡΩƤۤɤޤǤ˸Ǥʸ Jonathan Swift (1667--1745) Ǥ롥#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1]) #141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1]) Ǿ줿̤ꡤSwift ϡλôȤαѸΡפͫθѸ "refine" "fix" 褦ȴޤΤä
Swift ͫθƤܤϤĤ뤬Ȥ櫓ñΤķڤʤä褦Ū˥ޥ°ֶޤο캬ξ ([2011-02-11-1]) Ǽ褦ñΡָ캬פϤ餺ĤˤäѸˤȤäơSwift ñؤηϡޤ˼ȿ뤳ȤäǤ⡤Swift ñ뤤ϤΤˤñ첽Swift θ˴ؤϡBaugh and Cable (259) "Taking his writings as a whole, one may surmise that he would have preferred that the seventeenth century, at least after 1640, with its political, commercial, and scientific revolutions had never happened." ɾƤۤɤݼŪä
դˤСΤȤϡñ첽ˤ˵äƤڵǤ⤢롥Swift ̤˵Τϡrep (< reputation) mob (< mobile) ʤɤڳǤ롥Baugh and Cable (259) ꡤѤ褦
The things that specifically troubled the gloomy dean in his reflections on the current speech were chiefly innovations that he says had been growing up in the last twenty years. One of these was the tendency to clip and shorten words that should have retained their full polysyllabic dignity. He would have objected to taxi, phone, bus, ad, and the like, as he did to rep, mob, penult, and others. The practice seems to have been a temporary fad, although not unknown to any period of the language.
εƤȹ碌ƹͤȡSwift Ϥڳظ˴롤罰 "desire for emotive effects" ɡʤʤäΤ⤷ʤˤäޤ٤Ȥ̤Ф Swift ٤ݼŪʸؤȯŸƤäΤȻפ롥
Swift ڳؤηϡ٤ϼؤѤ줿Ƥ Baugh and Cable (259--60) Ѥ롥
Thus George Campbell in his Philosophy of Rhetoric (1776) says: "I shall just mention another set of barbarisms, which also comes under this class, and arises from the abbreviation of polysyllables, by lopping off all the syllables except the first, or the first and second. Instances of this are hyp for hypochondriac, rep for reputation, ult for ultimate, penult for penultimate, incog for incognito, hyper for hypercritic, extra for extraordinary.
Τ̤˵줿ڳϤ褽ˤϻĤʤäΤǡSwift Campbell Ƥ顤ȤƤȤmob 㳰ǡߤޤĤäƤ롥
ϢơSwift deudg'd, disturb'd, rebuk'd, fledg'd Τ褦ʲʬ -ed Ჽ⡤ñᲽǤꡤƱͤ˴٤άȹͤƤϾ嵭¿ڳȤϰۤʤꡤˤܴۤɸѸˤ夹뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#776. ʬƻ -ed Ჽ ([2011-06-12-1]) Ȥ줿
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Smith ѲѤɽ魯ΤȤơ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ȡ#1928. Smith ˤ٥γإǥưŪǥ ([2014-08-07-1]) Ҳ𤷤ϵŪʸѲθǤꡤʹԺߤΰݤͿ뤫⤷ʤSmith θѲϷ褷ƸμҲŪ¦̡üԤİԤȸδطʤˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤSmith (49) ϡѲμȤƤ variation ¸ߡ variation ΤʤθġθȤ٤ϡѼԤǤ˼Ƥ monitoring ȤѤȿؤ꤬ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Human beings are social creatures, and not simply transmitters (speakers) or receivers (hearers); they are both. When humans speak, they are not only producing sounds and grammar and vocabulary; they are also monitoring what they and others say by listening, and evaluating the communicative efficiency of their speech for the purposes for which it is being used: communicative purposes which are not only to do with the conveying and receiving of information, but also to do with such matters as signalling the social circumstances of the interaction taking place. And what humans hear is constantly being monitored, that is, compared with their earlier experience as speakers and hearers. . . . / This principle of monitoring, or feedback as it is sometimes called (Lyons 1968: 111), is crucial to an understanding of language-change.
üԤϼʬȯդ뤫˾դʧäƤ뤷İԤȯդΤ˾ˤθɸŪηϤȤƤ롥üԤİԤ⡤ȯ줿դƻܤ餻Ƥꡤߤ˥åäƤ롥2ͤθηϤϲʸˡäκˤƼ㴳㤷Ƥߥ˥ȼǤξȹȤ椨ˡߤ礭æ뤳ȤϤʤ2ͤθηϤϾͭƤꡤξΤΤư뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ξԤȤ˰ưƤΤǤ롥줬Ѳˤˤ monitoring Ȥ
ͤθոΤʤѲ뤳ȤˤĤơ#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) #1890. ФȤȤ˸ոѤ ([2014-06-30-1]) ǹͻƤmonitoring ȤͤϡˤƤƤĿͤƸѤʤǡüԤȤδ֤ monitoring ǽѤ monitoring η̤ȤơηϤξİưƤ⤷ʤˤΰư¥Ƥ⤷ʤ
monitoring ϡˤ뵬ϼȤ礤˴ط롥̾üԤİԤ monitoring λϡߤθѡ뤤Ϥ⤦餬°춦ƱΤˤ̤θѤ#1929. ؤΩ줫鵬ϼŪѤɤ٤ ([2014-08-08-1]) Ǽ褦ˡϼŪѤٸ춦ƱΤΤʤ˿ƩȡʸˡΤΤ monitoring λȤʤꤦ롥Ĥޤꡤʬ꤬εϤ餷Ƥ뤫ɤå礦Ȥ̾⤺ä©줷롥ϼŪѤȯãϡmonitoring ȤߤСmonitoring μ̤ŤǤȤ⤤뤫⤷ʤ
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
ѸǤܸǤ⡤ˤ뵬ϼ (prescriptivism) ϷߤǤꡤ˴ŤʸˡˡŹΰѤ碌Ƥ롥ƥӤ俷ʹʤɤΥǥǤ⡤ѤȸѤβϿ͵ʡǤꡤİԡɼԤλݤƤ⤷Фܤˤ롥ϤޤȤ "linguistic complaint literature" (Millar 106) ȸƤФƤ뤬ä˥ꥹǤϿݤƤǥŪʥȤäƤ褤ޤعθضǤϵϼϴʬˤǤȤ뤬ޥ뤫ХĤ᤹Ȥ붵Ǥ¤ꡤŪˤϵϤΰҿǤ롥ؤϡεŪʸѤæŪʸѤ뤳ȤˤȯŸƤΰ̣ǤϡؤȵϼѤȤϿøΩΤǤꡤؼԤȵϼŪʸضաɾȤޤԤΩŨмƱΤǤ롥ΤȤϡ#747. ([2011-05-14-1]) Ǹ褦 Martinet Ƥ
Ѹˤ˸ؤ椷ƸѲõäƤȡθϼŪʸѤ˴ŤΤäꡤ뤤Ϥؤȿȯη̤äꤹ뤳Ȥ롥㤨СǶε (##1920,1921,1922) ǡѸʹߤ singular they οưˤĤƸο⡤͡θεϤФ٤ˤäưܤѤäƤͻҤϢưƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ȡؼԡä˼ҲؼԡˤˤȤäơϼŪѤȤϡ褷ŨФΤǤϤʤषɵ椹٤ҤȤɤθоݤȤȤˤʤʤ
θˤĤơMillar (105) ϡVerbal Hygiene 路 Cameron ΰո˻դɽʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Cameron (1995) makes the persuasive point that the difference between description and prescription may not be as great as linguists think: after all, a description by its nature encourages a sense of what is 'normal' within a system. More importantly, she suggests that it is a good idea for linguistics to listen to what people interested in language have to say about it, primarily so that we can understand why they hold views which, from an insiders' viewpoint, appear ill-conceived or even meaningless.
ϼѤФ뤳Τ褦ʸ˻Ǥ롥ؼԤ⡤Ω礦ɬפȹͤ롥ؼԤɤޤǼºݤθġθ˲٤ʤΤƤ褤ΤǤΤϡǤ롥Cameron ϸȤŴѤƤǤꡤCrystal ϤΤ褦˴롥ؼԤϵϼŪѤɤ٤ϸؼԤδ֤ǿܤƤ褤ǤϤʤ
Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.
([2014-07-30-1]) ([2014-07-31-1]) ³ƤꡥˤѸ̤ѤƤ̿;ΤФ singular they ϡ18εʸˡδ˽äơ褦ˤʤäǤ16ꡤʤ he ˡȤͤϲƤBodine (134) ˤȡT. Wilson 1553ǯ Arte of rhetorique ͥȤ븫Ƥ롥
Some will set the Carte before the horse, as thus. My mother and my father are both at home, even as thoughe the good man of the house ware no breaches, or that the graye Mare were the better Horse. And what thoughe it often so happeneth (God wotte the more pitte) yet in speaking at the leaste, let us kepe a natural order, and set the man before the woman for maners Sake. (1560 ed.: 189)
ƱͤˡBodine (134) ˤȡ7ˤ J. Pool English accidence (1646: 21) ƱͤθƤ롥
The Relative agrees with the Antecedent in gender, number, and person. . . The Relative shall agree in gender with the Antecedent of the more worthy gender: as, the King and the Queen whom I honor. The Masculine gender is more worthy than the Feminine.
Bodine (135) ϡ̿;Τ he ܳŪʸλȤƺǽΤΤ Kirby A new English grammar (1746) ǤȸƤ롥Kirby 88쵬§ϤȤƷǤ Rule 21 βսǤ롥
The masculine Person answers to the general Name, which comprehends both Male and Female; as Any Person, who knows what he says. (117)
ʹߡθϹ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥L. Murray English grammar (1795) ϤȤεʸˡȤϤä he ٻthey ƤĬήĺAct of Parliament (1850) ϡhe or she he ֤٤ȤˡŪʸڤǤ롥
ơKirby Rule 21 ³ Rule 22 ϡǤϤʤäƤ뤬εȤؤäƤΤǾҲ𤷤Ƥϰ;ΤˤñʣϤߤ˸뤳ȤǤȤ롼Ǥꡤ㤨 "The Life of Man" "The Lives of Men" ƱͤǤȤΤBodine (136) ϡKirby Rule 21, 22 Act of Parliament ˤϵη٤ȻŦ롥
Thus, the 1850 Act of Parliament and Kirby's Rules 21-2 manifest their underlying androcentric values and world-view in two ways. First, linguistically analogous phenomena (number and gender) are handled very differently (singular or plural as generic vs. masculine only as generic). Second, the precept just being established is itself violated in not allowing singular 'they', since if the plural 'shall be deemed and taken' to include the singular, then surely 'they' includes 'she' and 'he' and 'she or he'.
ϡε ([2014-07-31-1]) Ǽ夲ˤ̤롥̿;Τ he ˡȤϡȤˤäƺ졤ƤοäǤȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ
Bodine, Ann. "Androcentrism in Prescriptive Grammar: Singular 'they', Sex-Indefinite 'he,' and 'he or she'." Language in Society 4 (1975): 129--46.
ε#1920. singular they ޤ뵬ʸˡ (1) ([2014-07-30-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥsingular they ͡뤬ºݤˤϤʸˡŪǤʾ˴ؤҲŪǤȹͤͳ롥ΤȤ뤿ˤϡѸ̿;Τ¸ο;̾ɽ褦Ȥݤˡȿ˴ؤ꤬ʤȤλƤɬפ롥
#275. Ѹλ;ñ̾ ([2010-01-27-1]) #1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1]) Ǥ⤤Ĥʸ"If anyone is interested in this blog, () can always contact me." Τ褦ʸˤơif μ anyone ȱ;̤̾βս䤪ȤȡѸǤϴ¸ο;̾Ȥ he, she, he or she, they Τ줫Ȥʤ롥뤤Ͽΰפ˴ؤ꤬ʲϤʤñ;̾ he 뤤 she ˤȡñ anyone ȤξȱˤϤդ路ǤϤˡ뤤ϽΤ줫ƤƤޤȤˤʤꡤ꤬Ĥ롥he or she ʤ뤤 s/he ʤɤɽˤȿξǤ뤬ԼǤʤɽȤʤ餶ʤthey ʤͭǿפȤ꤬Ĥ롥Ĥޤꡤhe she Ĥhe or she ɽȤƤΤʤĤthey ϿĤ
Τ줫ºŤ¾ˤʤ餶ʤǡɤѤ뤫Ȥ꤬롥ϤơɤβƱ٤ȹͤ츫ξμƱ褦˸뤬¤Ͻפʺۤ롥ϼҲӤӤƤʤϼҲӤӤƤȤȤ (cf. social gender) ñʣζ̤ϸ§ȤƻؼоݤΥδؤ°ǤꡤŪʶ̤Ǥ롥ñʣ֤褦ʣñ֤褦ä˼ҲŪʱƶϤʤʿεȤȤǤС thou ΰ ye/you Ƥ T/V distinction λ⻲Ȥ줿ˡȤϸ§ȤƻؼоݤΥҥȤ°Ǥꡤɽꡤɽꤹ뤳ȤˤϡҲŪԶѹդʿްդ롥Bodine (133) Τ褦ˡ"the two [number and sex] . . . are not socially analogous, since number lacks social significance" Ǥ롥
̿;Τ he ɽȤȤϡ(1) ҲްդʤҲްդɸ뤳Ȥӡ(2) κݤ˽Ǥʤ֡Ȥ2ĤΰտŪη̤ȤƤꤨʤ18εʸˡȤϡ2ĤΡ֤ơפhe λѤȿƤΤǤ롥դˡˤ˾̤˹ԤƤ̿;Τ they ɽϡ(1) Ҳްդʤθ̩ʶ̤ˤ(1) ҲްդɸʤȤ̤Ǥ롥ɤβˡҲŪˤ̵Ǥ뤫餫
he or she ʤȤˤĤƤϡΤˤʤ⤷ʤбƤˤĤƤƱ餤ʤɽȤ one or more person or persons ʤɤꡤ̤˻ѤƤ롥äơhe or she ꤢơ֤ʤפɾΤǤϤʤ
ѸüԤϡ̱ηäȤơ̵ʲˡ (= singular they) ƤʸˡȤϡޤ˿ŪտŪԼʤ (he) ʤƤΤǤ롥
Bodine, Ann. "Androcentrism in Prescriptive Grammar: Singular 'they', Sex-Indefinite 'he,' and 'he or she'." Language in Society 4 (1975): 129--46.
Ū˵ʸˡˤäƴƤ singular they ǯ̱ƤȤˤĤơ#275. Ѹλ;ñ̾ ([2010-01-27-1])#1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1])ޤ¾ singular_they εǿƤѸŪˤϡsingular they λѤ϶ǧƤꡤ18εʸˡȤˤä줿ΤΡαƶεڤФʤɸŪѼˤƤϡߤ˻ޤϢʤȻѤ³ƤפˡŪѼ˴ؤ¤ꡤsingular they ϡ500ǯʾδ֡ѤäƤʤΤǤ롥ѲΤʤʿˤκǸ200ǯۤɤˡsingular they ޤ뵬ʸˡ줿ǯδ֤ˤβ褦䤯ޤäƤȤˤǤ롥Bodine (131) ۩
. . . despite almost two centuries of vigorous attempts to analyze and regulate it out of existence, singular 'they' is alive and well. Its survival is all the more remarkable considering that the weight of virtually the entire educational and publishing establishment has been behind the attempt to eradicate it.
18ʹߤäʤȡʤñΰ̿;Τ¸Τɤο;̾ɽ魯Ȥäơ(1) εʸˡѥ (Prescriptive Paradigm) ȡ(2) ʸˡѥ (Non-Prescriptive Paradigm) ȤΩƤBodine (132) 줾ο;̾ΥѥƤΤǡƸ褦

Non-Prescriptive Paradigm ˤ YOU WE γĥ̤ʤΤǤƤȤTHEY SHE, HE ΰ˿Ǥʬ singular they ˡ롥ӤȡPrescriptive Paradigm οŪ褯狼ԤΤˤĤơεˤ롥
Bodine, Ann. "Androcentrism in Prescriptive Grammar: Singular 'they', Sex-Indefinite 'he,' and 'he or she'." Language in Society 4 (1975): 129--46.
ѸˤˤҲ /h/ ˤĤơ#214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) #459. ʻҲ /h/ (2) ([2010-07-30-1]) #494. hypercorrection ˤ h ([2010-09-03-1])#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1])#1677. Ƭ <h> ˤˤĤƤν ([2013-11-29-1]) ۤh h-dropping ʤɤε¿夲Ƥ
Ѹʸ塤ҲŪʴؿŪȤʤäƤѸѼ h-dropping εˤĤƤϽ⤢뤬Ѹˡ<h> ֻΤη褷 /h/ ȤȯʤեѸ줬̤˱ѸήǤȤľܡܤαƶͿƤȤȤϡǧƤ褤եΤߤʤ餺ڥ䥤ꥢʤɤΥޥ /h/ ȯʤΤϡƥʳƱæǤ롥äơѸ h-dropping ʥϡȸĶơǽŪˤϥƥ1ĤβѲ˵뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
⤷ȤˡƥǤ /h/ æ褦ˤʤäƤȡޤζܿͤϡæ¯ŪȯȤ褦ˤʤäΤȤϡˡȤ <h> ֤٤ǤϤʤȤ <h> Ƥ뤳ȤФĤäƤ뤳ȤΤ롥λ h-dropping Ф꽤 (hypercorrection) äΤǤꡤۤɤޤǤ h-dropping ŪäȤڵȤߤʤȤǤ롥λϡޤٳ Gaius Valerius Catullus (84?--54? B.C.) ˤΤǤ롥ʲCatullus Poem 84 ±Ǥ롥
1 CHOMMODA dicebat, si quando commoda uellet ARRIUS, if he wanted to say "winnings " used to say "whinnings", 2 dicere, et insidias Arrius hinsidias, and for "ambush" "hambush"; 3 et tum mirifice sperabat se esse locutum, and thought he had spoken marvellous well, 4 cum quantum poterat dixerat hinsidias. whenever he said "hambush" with as much emphasis as possible. 5 credo, sic mater, sic liber auunculus eius. So, no doubt, his mother had said, so his uncle the freedman, 6 sic maternus auus dixerat atque auia. so his grandfather and grandmother on the mother's side. 7 hoc misso in Syriam requierant omnibus aures When he was sent into Syria, all our ears had a holiday; 8 audibant eadem haec leniter et leuiter, they heard the same syllables pronounced quietly and lightly, 9 nec sibi postilla metuebant talia uerba, and had no fear of such words for the future: 10 cum subito affertur nuntius horribilis, when on a sudden a dreadful message arrives, 11 Ionios fluctus, postquam illuc Arrius isset, that the Ionian waves, ever since Arrius went there, 12 iam non Ionios esse sed Hionios are henceforth not "Ionian," but "Hionian."
Ȥʤսϡ1ܤ <commoda> vs <chommoda>2ܤ <insidias> vs <hinsidias>, 12ܤ <Ionios> vs <Hionios> Ǥ롥<h> ɬפΤʤȤ <h> ֤Ƥ꽤ȤޤäƤ롥θǤ뤫ˤϡοǤ롥λ˴ؤ Harrison ɾˤС12ܤ <Inoios> <Hionios> ȡʵϼŪʴ鸫ơ˸äֻǽȤˤꡤˤߤɽФƤȤHarrison ". . . the last word of the poem should be χιoνέoυς. When Arrius crossed, his aspirates blew up a blizzard, and the sea has been snow-swept ever since." (198--99) ȽҤ٤Ƥꡤä <Hionios> ꥷ χιoνέoυς (snowy) ȰäƤΤȲᤷƤ롥ơ10ܤ nuntius horribilis ͽ𤷤ƤȤ⤤Arrius β꽤ˤ /h/ 7ܤ nuntius horribilis ͽ𤵤Ƥ褦ˡ٤Ȥ硼
Harrison (199) ϡϤޤơCatullus Τ褦ʥޤζܿͤˤ h ˴ؤκϡ¿ Venetic ¤Фиʤظαƶ (substratum_theory) ˤ뼪ʥƥѼФŪɾˤΤǤʤȤƱͤ Etruscan ¤ФиȤԤ⤤褦θϤˤ speculation ΰФΤǤϤʤḽѸ h-dropping ؤ stigmatisation ȽŤ碌ƹͤȶ̣
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Harrison, E. "Catullus, LXXXIV." The Classical Review 29.7 (1915): 198--99.
ε#1883. ˤγѡ ([2014-06-23-1]) ˴ϢơѸǤ generic 'he' ꡤƤβȤƻ̱ƤƤ#1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1]) ꤬פФ롥singular they ˤĤơǶᥦ־ A Linguist On the Story of Gendered Pronouns ȤĤΤǾҲ𤷤singular they 㤬 Chaucer ʤѸߤ뤳ȡgeneric 'he' 18ȾεʸˡȤˤФ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥʤɡ˱ѸŪʴäƤꡤɤβͤ롥
θȾˤǡե줬ѸʸˡξüʬŪ˴ͿƤȼƤսˤĤƵ䤬ɮԤˤСΥɤˤѸ Norman French Ȥ2Ѿ2ĤΰۤʤʸˡηϤͤ줬ȤʤäƱѸʸˡηϤ뤳ȤˤʤäȤäȤμ礿븶ȹͤƤ褦ǤϤ뤬Τ褦ʵϰŪ˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤʤ#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥եαƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) 䡤Ѹ줬űѸȥեκǤȤ륯쥪첾ε ##1223,1249,1250,1251 Ȥ줿ˡ
So what you really have is an extended period of several centuries in which many people were more-or-less proficient in both Norman French and Anglo Saxon, which in actual fact meant speaking the highly intermingled versions known as Anglo-Norman and Middle English. But words that belong to one gender in one language don't necessarily belong to the same gender in the other. To use a modern example, the word for "bridge" in French, pont, is masculine, but the word for "bridge" in German, ''Brücke, is feminine. If you couple this with the fact that people had begun to stop pronouncing altogether the endings that indicate a word gender and case, you can see how these features became irrelevant for the language in general.
ޤΥɤ¿οͤ٤κϤ2üԤäȤȤɤٻ¤ȹäƤΤȤ䤬롥²Υեϥɿͤμο͡¿쾯ʤХäǽϹ⤤¿ν̱ϱѸΥΥäʡ#338. Norman Conquest ΥɤΥեüԤγ ([2010-03-31-1]) ӡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) εȡˡѸθѲĬή褷ΤϤ¿ΥΥѸüԤä˰㤤ʤҲŪʸϤϤˤ辯ΥХ뤬˸ŪƶڤܤΤϤʤϤǤ롥
ˡ#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̤˥եαѸؤľŪʸŪƶϺ٤ǤȤϤΤ롥äֻСե줬ѸηŪ˱ƶͿܤϿʤŪʱƶҲŪʱƶϿäɾƤ롥ϡ#1171. եȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1]) #1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1]) ̤Ǥ롥
ξüȤФˤϡեˤ뤳δŪʸ̡ξüŪ¥Ȥ̤ŦǽʬǤϤʤ
ε#1684. ʸˡȵʸˡ ([2013-12-06-1]) Ǹˤ뵬ϤˤĤƼ夲ΤǡϢ#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1]) εǾ줿褦ˡεϤϸѲ˻ߤꡤ®٤٤ȤȤ롥̾Τ褦ʵϤϽդ¸ߡȤ櫓ҿΤѼ¸ߤȤƤ롥εϤˤΤˡɬ⤽Τ褦ɬפʤȤŦ롥Bradley (13) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
[C]ulture is one of the influences which retard the process of simplification. But it should be remembered that culture may exist without books: there have been peoples in which there was little or no reading and writing, but in which nevertheless the arts of poetry and oratory were highly developed, and traditional correctness of speech was sedulously cultivated.
Ϥθϡ˴ؤʸ (culture) (tradition) ¸ߤǤȤŦʤۤɡϤϽդˤäθΤ̤ǤϤ뤬ʰҿΤäդˤäθ⤢ȤΤǼʸء÷ݡͺ۽ѡȥåʤɤϡƬǤʤ⡤ҿȤҲŪǽͭƤ褦˻פ롥
#748. ä ([2011-05-15-1])#849. ä (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) #1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])#1665. äȤФȽȤ (4) ([2013-11-17-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤդäդȤͤȡƬΰҿȤ嵭ϡդŵŪǤ뵡ǽʽԺߤΤȤǡäդդƤ륱ȤƲǤ
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
ɸϡ#747. ([2011-05-14-1]) Ǥ夲ƽפʶ̤ʤΤDzˤʸˡ (prescriptive grammar) ʸˡ (descriptive grammar) ϡCrystal (230--31) ˤСΤ褦롥
A prescriptive grammar is essentially a manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided, and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language. These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries. Their influence lives on in the handbooks of usage widely found today, such as A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858--1933), though such books include recommendations about the use of pronunciation, spelling, and vocabulary, as well as grammar.
A descriptive grammar describes the form, meaning, and use of grammatical units and constructions in a language, without making any evaluative judgements about their standing in society. These grammars became commonplace in 20th-century linguistics, where it was standard practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material, and to describe in detail the patterns it contains.
ˡʸˡŪˤʤȡֻʸˡפȤƥ˰ܹԤȤŦ롥ϵϼŪŪǻȤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤿ᡤΤ褦ʾˤϡϤȵҤˤȤ⤤롥
When a descriptive grammar acts as a reference guide to all patterns of usage in a language, it is often called a reference grammar. An example is A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920--) and his associates. Such grammars are not primarily pedagogical in intent, as their aim --- like that of a 'reference lexicon', or unabridged dictionary --- is to be as comprehensive as possible. They provide a sourcebook of data from which writers of pedagogical grammars can draw their material.
ʸˡפˤϡΰ̣ʸˡ˶̤Ƥɬפ롥ϤȵҤϡǰϽ̤٤ĿͤΤʤƱ路뤳Ȥˤդ
ؼԤϵҤϤͥ褵Τ§Ǥꡤθ§˰¸ϤʤϤˤդȤϼҲؤκǽץơޤ1ĤǤꡤϤ켫ΤоݤˤʤꤦȤȤ˺ƤϤʤʤֱѸˡפȤʬϡ̣ǤϵұѸʸˡˤ˸ꤵ뤬̣ǤϵϱѸʸˡˤޤࡥԤϡֱѸػˡפȤʬ뤳Ȥ¿ϤȵҤ߾ƤΤǤȤʤСᤫ鹭̣ǤΡֱѸˡפȤָΤŬڤΤ褦˻פ롥
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
٤ƤθϸŪˤϤۤʿȤäƤ褤ҲŪˤͥΤ¤Ǥ롥ǤϡҲŪͥϲˤäƷޤΤ㤨Сɸಽ줿ѼȡȸƤФɸŪѼȤ٤СԤΤۤͤ⤤ȤߤʤΤǡɸಽƤ٤פ餷Ȥ狼뤬Ʊ٤ɸಽƤѸȥ륺Ȥ٤˱ѸΤۤҲŪΩ줬Ϥ뤫˹⤤ΤϲˤΤüԤʤˤ⤫餺ƥ˲֤ͤƤΤϤʤȤ⡤ɸಽ٤ȤǤ¬뤳ȤǤʤ
μҲŪʲͤ˴ؤ7Ĥ°ƤƤ롥1976ǯ Bell ƤΤǡWardhaugh (31--39) ⤷ƤΤǡ褦7Ĥ°Ȥϡstandardization, vitality, historicity, autonomy, reduction, mixture, de facto norms Ǥ롥
(1) standardization: 줬ɸಽϲƤ١ɸϡ̾ʸˡʸؤȼäƤꡤҲŪʸŪŪξħȤƵǽ롥̾ˤѤǤ⤢롥ѸˤĤƤϡ#1396. "Standard English" Ȥϲ ([2013-02-21-1]) ȡ
(2) vitality: ȯʸ춦ƱΤ¸ߤƤ뤫ݤѹˤ Manx Cornish Τ褦ʥȷϸϤǤ˻ȤʤäƤꡤüԶƱΤ¸ߤʤΤǡvitality ʤȤȤˤʤ롥ŵꥷƥüԤ¾夤ʤΤ vitality ϤʤȤ뤬θŵϸˤʸŪʱƶϤäƤ뤿ˡManx Cornish ξȤ϶̤٤
(3) historicity: θ춦ƱΤĹˤͭƤȴƤ١ӥνѼüԤϡĹˤͭơθ˸ҤǧϡȷӤĤ뤳ȤˤäƼҲŪʲͤӤӤ롥
(4) autonomy: ¾Ѽ狼ΩƤꡤλʤǸȤߤʤ١Ѽ郎ΩƤ뤫¸Ƥ뤫ɬҴŪʤΤǤϤʤŪʴǤ뤳Ȥ¿δˤĤƤϡ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ӡ#1523. Abstand language Ausbau language ([2013-06-28-1]) εȡ
(5) reduction: Ѥ䵡ǽ̾Ƥ١(4) Ω복ǰǤ heteronomy ˤᤤ㤨Сԥʤɤϲ̤쵡ǽμबɸ٤ƾʤ
(6) mixture: 줬礷ƤǤ١ŪʸѤĿ͡ˤȤäơ¾줫μѸä¿Ѽϡͤ㤤Ѽ˸롥ŵŪˤϡԥϲͤ㤯줬Ǥ롥
(7) de facto norms: üԤεϤ˽Ȥ١ˤäȸääȹͤ뵬ϼζ
ϡüԤФɾδȸƤ褤
ָפȸƤФҲŪͤι⤤ѼǤо7Ĥ°ˤĤƹäƤ롤Ȥ櫓ǤϤʤѼ老Ȥ˳°ͤϰۤʤΤ̤ʾͤ°οȼޤޤ°ͤȤ߹碌Ū˹⤤Ѽ郎ҲŪ˲ͤѼȤߤʤ䤹ָפȸƤФ䤹ȤȤȹͤ롥ʤ7°ϡ#1519. ҲŪؤƻ ([2013-06-24-1]) ˷ǤɽΤʤμҲŪ°ȡʬŪӤǤ롥
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ѸȤ18˱ѸεϤäĿ̾ȸ줿顤ֻˤ Samuel Johnson (1709--84)ʸˡ Robert Lowth (1710-87)Ǥȯï
ϡJohn Walker (1732--1807) Ǥ롥路 A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ϡҤȯ18Υꥹ̱˳Τƻ٤Ϳǰʹߡ100ǰʾŤͤƿ͵ƤǤ "Elocution Walker" ȸƤФޤǤ˻ä18 Walker 夵Ťϩϡ1920ˤǧȯ (RP = Received Pronunciation) ߽ФפɸѸˤޤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤ롥
ɽˤäĹ"A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language: to which are prefixed Principles of English Pronunciation: Rules to be Observed by the Natives of Scotland, Ireland, and London, for Avoiding their Respective Peculiarities; and Directions to Foreigners for Acquiring a Knowledge of the Use of this Dictionary." ɽɽȤꡤɥ濴˶ŤǤޤäϼǤ롥ʸǤɥȯ "undoubtedly the best" ǸƤ뤬ɥȤϤäƤ Cockney ȯ㳰Ǥꡤåȥɤ䥢ɤȯ礤˽Фʤ Cockney "a thousand times more offensive and disgusting" ȵƤƤ롥
Walker μȯϼ¤˾ܺ٤ǡ㤨 drama θ22ۤɤǽäƤ뤬ȯ770˵ڤ־ܤϿ36,600ϡ饤Х뼭Ȥ⤤ Thomas Sheridan A General Dictionary of the English Language (1780) 38,000ˤϾڤФʤȯξܺ٤Ӥˤʤʤ
British Library English Timeline ˤ Walker's correct pronunciation ꡤФ "BACK" ǻϤޤ뼭ΥڡǤ롥ʾ塤Crystal (52) ӻ߷ (19--20) ȤƼɮ
ˤĤƤϡ#571. orthoepy ([2010-11-19-1]) ȡ
Crystal, David. Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices. London: The British Library, 2010.
߷ ˧ͺԡˡؼѸ졦١ұѸʸꡡ8ҡ2006ǯ
εǡ#1420. Johnson's Dictionary ħȳס ([2013-03-17-1]) Ҳ𤷤Samuel Johnson (1709--84) ϡѸ켭˾Τߤʤ餺Ѹ˾ǤפʿʪǤ롥λ (the Age of Reason) 18ϼο18Ҥʤ⡤ʴѼΩѸνաȤ櫓ֻˤɸಽ⤿餹Ȥ夬äΤǡJohnson ¿ʬŪʵϴѤΤȤϤäŪˤߤвơQХȤä碌ʸͤä
ʲǤϡThe Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language (1747) ڤ "The Preface to A Dictionary of the English Language" (1755) ΰѤˤꡤDr Johnson θѤΰüΤƤߤѤΥڡϡCrystal ˤ롥
Johnson ϡ2Ⱦˤ錄Ѹֻɸಽή˻¾νǤäʪȤߤƤ褤बѤˤϸ¼ŪʴѽŻϩä[2013-03-04-1]ε#1407. Ѹ3Ĥפ (2) ȡˡΰ٤ͺۤʪäƤ롥
When a question of orthography is dubious, that practice has, in my opinion, a claim to preference, which preserves the greatest number of radical letters, or seems most to comply with the general custom of our language. But the chief rule which I propose to follow, is to make no innovation, without a reason sufficient to balance the inconvenience of change; and such reasons I do not expect often to find. All change is of itself an evil, which ought not to be hazarded but for evidence advantage; and as inconstancy is in every case a mark of weakness, it will add nothing to the reputation of our tongue. ("Plan" 7)
ŪֻפԲǽäƤꡤǤãѤƤ뤫Τ褦Johnson ϡܼŪ˸ϼ˽ΤȤϡʹ֤δѤλʪǤȹͤƤ롥ΰѤǤϡQuintilian 礤˽Фơanomalist Ω餫ˤƤ[2012-12-03-1]ε#1316. analogist and anomalist controversy (2)פȡˡ
To our language may be with great justness applied the observation of Quintilian, that speech was not formed by an analogy sent from heaven. It did not descend to us in a state of uniformity and perfection, but was produced by necessity and enlarged by accident, and is therefore composed of dissimilar parts, thrown together by negligence, by affectation, by learning, or by ignorance. ("Plan" 11)
Johnson "Plan" (1747) "Preface" (1755) ޤǤδ֤ˡꤹ뤳ȤԲǽäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥κȤ̤ơ겺ʴѼطФƤäΤǤ롥ʸϤϡJohnson Ѳ褯սȤơФʸ˰ѤƤ롥
Those who have been persuaded to think well of my design, require that it should fix our language, and put a stop to those alterations which time and chance have hitherto been suffered to make in it without oppositions. With this consequence I will confess that I flattered myself for a while; but now begin to fear that I have indulged expectation which neither reason nor experience can justify. When we see men grow old and die at a certain time one after another, from century to century, we laugh at the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years; and with equal justice may the lexicographer be derided, who being able to produce no example of a nation that has preserved their words and phrases from mutability, shall imagine that his dictionary can embalm his language, and secure it from corruption and decay, that it is in his power to change sublunary nature, and clear the world at once from folly, vanity, and affectation. ("Preface" 37--38)
ʴѼȤϡθ경ȤۤФԤǰ˶ᤤȤ롥
If the changes that we fear be thus irresistible, what remains but to acquiesce with silence, as in the other insurmountable distresses of humanity? it remains that we retard what we cannot repel, that we palliate what we cannot cure. Life may be lengthened by care, though death cannot be ultimately defeated: tongues, like governments, have a natural tendency to degeneration; we have long preserved our constitution, let us make some struggles for our language. ("Preface" 40)
ͥοʸԤθ˽ä뤳Ȥˤäơܤ䤹Ѹ경Ȥ˾ϡ18ŪǤ롥Johnson ˤ⸽Ƥ뤳θѤ뤤ϸѲѤϡ19ӸؤȤȤˡޤۤʤä֤Ƥ椯褦ˤʤ롥
Johnson ϡѸˤΤߤʤ餺ػ˾1ʪä
Johnson, Samuel. A Dictionary of the English Language: An Anthology. Selected, Edited and with an Introduction by David Crystal. London: Penguin, 2005.
ε#1389. between θ츻 ([2013-02-14-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡbetween among λȤʬϡѸθˡȤ̾Ǥꡤ¿ʸˡ仲ͽǿƤ롥̤˱ʸˡˤֻλȤʬäƼפǤ⤢ΤֻܼŪʰ̣뤳ȤοǤ롥Ǥϡbetween among Τ줾ħṬ̌Ȥϲ
ξֻγƼˡˤĤƤ OED ʬƾܺ٤˵ҤƤΤǡäɤΤ褤λͽȡbetween ϸŻ뤷among ϽŻ뤹ȤäħŦƤ뤳Ȥ¿Τ between 2ȤȷӤĤפʤΤ2ȤȷӤĤбǤ롥among ϡ2礭ʿȷӤĤ䤹ΤϳΤפʤΤ϶ŪʸġιȤȤΤȴϢŤȤȤ
⤷ among 3ʾפ̣ˡγˤȤƤĤΤǤСamong the soldiers ȤĤ˸Ŀͤդä *among the soldiers and John ȸºݤˤϸʤޤ*the relations among a, b, c, d, and e ʤɤȸ̤˹뤳ȤǤʤϽθ§ȿ뤫ȹͤ롥
դˡbetween 3ʾפŪ˼ͤȡˤϸ뤷ޤ2αĹˤȤ̣Ǥ3ʾǤ롥the divisions and conflicts between the various parts of Christendom, the fullest collaboration between all nations, a white and shining road between the singing nightingales, with long pauses between the sentences ʤɤ᤹ȡʤۤɤŪ3ʾǤ뤬ޤ2Ȥñ̤ĴȤȤ߹碌ܿǰƬ֤Ƥɤ롥
between Ū빽οȡߤδ֤δطˤĤơŪʴɵ椷ʥǥޡԤȤߤBolbjerg ʸ롥ۤŰŪ˰¸ between äʸϤʤϰפϤʤ¤ȤƤ롥˵Τޤ between ̣positive, negative, synthetic, analytic, midway, front, complex, reciprocity, interrelation ʤɤȤäȼѸȳǰȤơֻˡ줤ʬषΤǤ롥Ǿܺ٤Ҥ٤뤳ȤϤǤʤ (Bolbjerg 132) ˵Ƥ wires between the houses between the teeth ˤȤäơ6ĤˡޤȤ褦
| wires between the houses | between the teeth | |
|---|---|---|
| MIDWAY | "wires lying between the two houses" | "a fishbone between the teeth" (two) |
| FRONT | "wires (being extended) from one house to another" | "the distance between the teeth" (two) |
| RECIPROCITY | "wires connecting two houses" | "nip a cigar between the teeth" (one in lower, one in upper jaw) |
| TWO-ROW SYSTEM | "(overhead) wires (for tramcars) between two rows of houses" | "with a handkerchief between the teeth" (lower and upper jaw) |
| ONE-ROW SYSTEM | "wires between houses in a row (like railway carriages)" | "the interstices between the teeth" (lower or upper jaw) |
| ABSTRACT CONNECTION | "(telephone) wires connecting all houses individually" | "the similarity between the teeth" (types of teeth) |
Thus between, inherently dual in character, has the function of a feeler, i.e. it establishes a relation from one element to another or others individually. It cannot grasp a heap-like area, but must seek units one by one. It is a linguistic organ of touch built as a line. The feeler may act as a medium, as 'something between', i.e. an intermediate element with relations to either side. Or it may create a distance, or 'nothing between'. Finally it may function synthetically: feeling its way along by touching left and right, thus establishing a path between two rows of objects, --- or analytically: touching each of a number of objects individually or severally for examination.
Bolbjerg ʸɤǻʤˤޤȤȡbetween Ͽȴطֻ졤ʤֻǤꡤްդamong ϾֻǤꡤްդ롤ȤȤˤʤ
ǥޡˤϡ#1074. Hjelmslev θء ([2012-04-05-1]) Τ褦Ūʸؤ뤬Bolbjerg ⤽ʤˤѤǤ뤫Τ褦˻פ碌ʸä
ʤbetween ζ̡ʬۤˡˤĤƤϡ#1068. choose between war or peace ([2012-03-30-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Bolbjerg, A. "Between and Among: An Attempt at an Explanation." English Studies 30 (1949): 124--32.
ʸˡǤϡbetween among λȤʬˤĤơԤϡ2ĤΤΤδ֡סԤϡ3İʾΤΤδ֡פΰ̣˻Ȥ٤ȤƤ롥ξԤζ̤εҤϡºݤλѤ˾Ȥ餷Ūʴ¿Խʬ٤§ȤƤͤ¿ε§εäΩĴפϡbetween θ츻ˤ롥츻 "by two" Ǥ뤫顤Ūˤ2ĤΤΤƤϤʤʤȤ櫓Ǥ롥
Ǥϡ⤦ܤ between θ츻ߤƤߤ褦űѸǤϡbetwēonum η betwēon ηȤäԤθȾ -twēonum Ͽ twā (two) ʣͿʷбԤθȾ -twēon Ʊʣгʷб롥Ԥηϡbetwēonan ʤɤΰ۷֤ȯãѸ bitwene(n) ȤʤꡤԤη˸¤줿Ѹ bitwen Ȥʤäμ岽ȾüˤꡤɤΤȤ15ˤ2ͻ礷 between Ϣʤ֤ΩĤޤꡤbetween ϡűѸ̤2η֤Ѹˤͻ礷̤뤳ȤǤ롥űѸ between the seas ʤɤιʸϡbe sǣm twēonum "by seas two" ȤƸ뤳Ȥ顤 "by" "two" ̡ŪǽôäƤȹͤ뤬"by two seas" Τ褦ܤ֤¤Ȥˡ1Ĥʣֻʬ (metanalysis) ˻äΤˡto us-ward to-ward us ΰʬϤ롥
ơbetween ˤϡŤᤫƱ줬롥betwixt Ǥ롥ϸűѸ betwēox ͳ褹뤬Ⱦ -twēox ̤ȡޥĸ *twa "two" + *-iskaz "-ish" ˤɤĤ2ĤۤɤΤΤδ֡פȤ褦ʡȤäΤűѸǤ betwux, betyx ʤɤΰ۷֤äѸǤ bitwix(e) ʤɤη֤ͥȤʤä1300ǯˡDracula ˸ whilst ([2010-09-17-1]) #739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ -t źä졤줬̲ʤѸθˡbetwixt and between ʤɤäĤϤäꤷʤˤȤ礬롥
Ѹˤ֤ʤɤϡMED "bitwēne (prep.)" "bitwix(e) (prep.)" ȡ
ʤƬ˽Ҥ٤ between among εŪʻȤʬˤĤơOED "between, prep., adv., and n." ϸ19ˤơŪʴʰոҤ٤Ƥ롥
In all senses, between has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than two. . . . It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally and individually, among expressing a relation to them collectively and vaguely: we should not say 'the space lying among the three points,' or 'a treaty among three powers,' or 'the choice lies among the three candidates in the select list,' or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower'.
Fowler's (106) Ǥ⡤Ūʶ̵̤뤳ȤƤ롥 (176) Ǥϡbetween 3İʾΤΤѤˡϼǧ뷹ꡤäƹǤϤηפȤ롥
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ
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