01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
[2009-12-29-1]εǡϡ֥ǥפ֥פȤ˿줿٤ȤƤϡ֥ǥפΤۤŪ֥פѤ뤳ȤθѤȤơ(1) ֥פȱƧΤ椬Ĵ뤳ȡ(2) ΤǹŪͤ뤳ȡͤ롥ä (1) ϡơ֥פ֤Ѥ뤳ȤݥȤǤꡤƱ ( assimilation ) ƯƤȤ롥֥פ̵ͭȤˤ夫夫ζ̤դ褦ˤʤꡤɽλ ( production ) Ȥϡôʤࡥ
ɽγ ( perception ) Ȥϡ֥פ̵ͭΤߤ˰¸뺹ۤȤΤϿʤ֥פȯ夫äꡤϤλˤä줿ꤹ硤˰¸Ƥ뤬椨ˡ֥פȤζ̤Τˤʤʤ뤤ϡ֥פȤƸĤޤȤФ¦ϡ֥פ̵ͭռŪ椹Ƕ̤ĤΤ礭γФ¦ˤȤäƤϤषʹְ㤨Ȥꥹ礭γФδϡ֥פȲŪŪ˰פȤΤʤ֥ǥפȤäƤäʹְ㤨뿴ۤʤΤǤ롥ξ硤ưۤʤ֤ѤƺۤΤˤ۲ ( dissimilation ) ƯƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ɽڤ˻Ф褦ȤСǾβžξʤߤ˻̤ä֤ޤ롥Ǥϡ assimilation κѤͥȤʤ롥ɽγФΩ줫餹ȡޤ̤ä֤Фȡ̣ζ̤Ĥʤߥ˥˳롤Ȥä뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ŪγФΤˤϡɽϸߤˤǤۤʤäƤۤ褤Ǥϡ dissimilation κѤͥȤʤ롥쥳ߥ˥ˤƻФγФϾ˥ڥǤꡤ¾ͥ褵櫓ˤϤʤ
assimilation dissimilation ϸߤ˶ĥطˤꡤ˰äƤ롥ĤκѤ˰ƤȤȤϡѲˤĤƤ롥礤ݤȤȤŷ餬Τ褦˾岼ơʤʤŻߤʤΤƱͤˡѲˤƤĤϤ˺ѤƤ뤿ˡʤʤŻߤʤ줬ѲˤʤΤϡĤˤ assimilation dissimilation ʱι˰äƤ뤫Ǥ롥
ε[2009-12-29-1]ǡwomen's /wɪmɪnz/ ܸȯȤƤϡ֥פˤʤäƤޤȤ˿줿ܸǤΤۤȯ֥פȱƧǤʤֻⱤƧ ( eye rhyme ) Ȥˤʤꡤष֥פȤ椬ŪȤ餤뤫⤷ʤ
֥פФơ֥פǤϡθ̤Ф꤫[2009-12-06-1], [2009-12-07-1]Dz⤷첻ѲˤʤɡŪ餹ȵ§𤷤ƤˤʤȤͤ櫓ǤꡤȳȤƱѸؤܸüԤˤϼʤΤ⤷ʤܸˤơ֥ߥפǤϤʤ֥פѤƤ뤳Ȥϡ(1) ݻ(2) ŪʿݻȤĤδǤ褦˻פ롥
̣ȤˡĤδϡfemale ȤñθΤˤͭǤ롥male Ф female Ȥڥϡ(1) ȯǤֻǤⱤƧǤꡤ(2) -male ʬ˷Ūʿߤ뤿˵§ŪʰݤͿƤ롥
츻õ male female Ϥޤä̵طǤ롥male ϡƥ masculum ťեˤƽ̤ޤꡤ14˱ѸäƤ֤Ǥ롥ͽۤȤꡤmasculine ȸ츻ŪʤĤʤ꤬롥female ϡƥ fēmellam ťեˤƽ̤ޤꡤƱ14˱ѸäƤ֤Ǥ롥male female ǡ<l> ؾΰȤƷŪ˴Ϣ뤬촴 <m> ˤϸ츻ŪŪʤĤʤϤʤξڵˡѸؼѤ줿ˤ femel(e), femelle ʤɡmale Ȱۤʤ촴첻ֻʤƤ
male ϢۤŤȻפΤ;Ǥ롥14ȾȤᤤʳǡmale ȱƧ female 㤬ǧƤ롥θ츻Ū֤ʤƤǤ⡤̣Ūоȴطˤ male ȷ֤Ȥ͡λפ¤äΤ褦Ǥ롥
male Ф female ȤΩϡ֥פФ֥פȤΩȤޤäƱǤ롥֥פǤϤʤ֥ߥפ֤ǤʤȼĥͤϡƱ female ǤϤʤ femele ֤ǤʤȼĥʤСƵȤȤˤʤ롥
֥ǥפͤŪǤϤʤѸǤ⡤men's wear Ф ladies' wear ȤΤŪǤ롥Ȥ˥ؤꥻιǡ֥ 3Dˡ 1,490ߡפʤʸĤ
ΤˡѸǤ women's wear ȤɽϤʤǤϤʤष mens' wear Ȥ椬ֻ eye rhyme ȤƸŪ˼ȤϤ뤫⤷ʤ[2009-12-06-1], [2009-12-07-1]Ǹ褦ˡȯ /mɛnz/ /wɪmɪnz/ ȤǤϱƧޤʤ
ܸǤϡֻȯ⸫˱Ƨࡥ֥פФơ֥פȯܸ첽뤫Ǥ롥̵ɸ ( unmarked ) ֥ǥפǤϤʤͭɸ ( marked ) ֥פȤȤΤϡ˥κ̲ά
Ѹä뤬ladies' wear women's wear Τ褦ġʰʾˤ variants ꡤɤλ٤⤤θĤʥ֥ġ뤬롥ʸ [NativeChecker]ϡWebѤƤʱʸƥȤפȤѸΥͥƥ֥åƥפǡʱѸɽΥå˰Ϥȯ롥Ϥ줿ѸɽΥҥåȿˤäơ٤伫٤פΤǡΤ褦˳ѤǤ롥
ˤȡladies' wear ΥҥåȤ2,780,000women's wear ΥҥåȤ1,520,000äԤΤۤ褽ܶ٤ؤ褦褽θդȤƳѤ
10ǯ٤ǯȤȤǻפФΤǥ⡥American Dialect Society Ǥǯ American Speech ˤƱѸήԸޤȯɽƤ롥2000ǯˤϹڤʤȤ "1999 words of the year", "words of the decade", "words of the century", "words of the millennium" 쵤˸ɽ줿
ǯήԸޤΰǯμҲѲ֤ΤˤäƤĤǤΤƱͤˡ10ǯ100ǯ1000ǯȤѥǤΡήԸפܤߤ뤳ȤϡҲˤ֤ΤˤäƤĤǤ롥ʲϡޤ˥Υߥ͡Ȥ줿Ǥ롥ˤ * դƤ롥
Words of the Decade
e-
ethnic cleansing
* Web
Franken --- Genetically modified, as in Frankenfood
senior moment
way --- very
Words of the Century
teenager
* jazz
T-shirt
modern
DNA
media
acronym
teddy bear
World War
cool
melting pot
Words of the Millennium
science
freedom
news
justice
truth
nature
history
human
book
language
go
the
government
OK
* she
millennium ñ̤ˤʤȡΥߥ͡Ȥδʬ褦ʬʤ褦ʡǤ롥ûŪˤϡä go, the, Ƽޤ she ˤʤȤǤ롥⥲ޥϤĶܸǤꡤη֡ǽ夯ޤǤˤ٤λ֤ΤäǤ롥ΤˤäȤäƤ褤
ʤߤ "Words of the Millennium" ˥Υߥ͡Ȥ줿15Τְ㤤ʤѸȤΤ freedom, truth, book, go, the 5ΤߤǤꡤ¾ϼѸǤ롥ΤȤϡ1500ǯ;αѸθûˤħƤ褦˻פ롥
American Speech 75.3 (2000): 323--24 (in "Among the New Words").
[2009-12-23-1]ֻαƺ˿줿Ϥä˭٤˺ѤǽȤʤ褦˥ꥹȤηǤޤȤƤʲоɽϡDavies (84--90) The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Τ줾줫顤ƤǤŵŪ֤ȴΤǤ롥ˡܥޡΤΤϡ¾ֻŪ㤤٤ǤϤ뤬Ѥ줦뤳Ȥ
| US | UK |
|---|---|
| abridgment | abridgement |
| accouterment | accoutrement |
| acknowledgment | acknowledgement |
| adapter + | adaptor |
| aging | ageing |
| aluminum | aluminium |
| ameba | amoeba + |
| analyze | analyse |
| anesthetic | anaesthetic |
| apologize + | apologise |
| appall | appal |
| appetizer + | appetiser |
| arbor | arbour |
| ardor | ardour |
| armor | armour |
| armorer | armourer |
| armory | armoury |
| artifact | artefact |
| authorize + | authorise |
| behavior | behaviour |
| behoove | behove |
| caliper | calliper |
| calisthenics | callisthenics |
| canceled | cancelled + |
| candor | candour |
| capitalize + | capitalise |
| catalog | catalogue |
| center | centre |
| chamomile | camomile |
| check (bank) | cheque |
| checkerboard | chequer-board |
| chili | chilli |
| civilization + | civilisation |
| civilize + | civilise |
| clamor | clamour |
| clangor | clangour |
| clarinetist | clarinettist |
| color | colour |
| counselor | counsellor |
| cozy | cosy |
| curb (on a street) | kerb |
| czar | tsar |
| defense | defence |
| demeanor | demeanour |
| dependent (noun) | dependant |
| dialing | dialling |
| diarrhea | diarrhoea |
| disk | disc |
| distill | distil |
| dolor | dolour |
| draft | draught |
| economize + | economise |
| enamor | enamour |
| endeavor | endeavour |
| enroll | enrol |
| enthrall | enthral |
| equalize + | equalise |
| favor | favour |
| favorite | favourite |
| favoritism | favouritism |
| fervor | fervour |
| fiber | fibre |
| flavor | flavour |
| fulfill | fulfil |
| furor | furore |
| gage | gauge + |
| gemology | gemmology |
| gray | grey + |
| harbor | harbour |
| harmonize + | harmonise |
| honor | honour |
| honorable | honourable |
| humor | humour |
| initialize + | initialise |
| inquiry + | enquiry |
| installment | instalment |
| instill | instil |
| jail | jail/gaol |
| jeweler | jeweller |
| jewelry | jewellery |
| judgment | judgement |
| labor | labour |
| license | licence |
| liter | litre |
| maneuver | manoeuvre |
| marvelous | marvellous |
| memorize + | memorise |
| misdemeanor | misdemeanour |
| mobilize + | mobilise |
| mold | mould |
| molding | moulding |
| mom | mum |
| mustache | moustache |
| naught | nought |
| neighbor | neighbour |
| neighborhood | neighbourhood |
| normalize + | normalise |
| odor | odour |
| organize + | organise |
| pajamas | pyjamas |
| paralyze | paralyse |
| parlor | parlour |
| pasteurize + | pasteurise |
| peddler + | pedlar |
| percent | per cent |
| persnickety | pernickety |
| plow | plough |
| polarize + | polarise + |
| practice (verb) | practise |
| pretense | pretence |
| program | programme |
| pulverize + | pulverise |
| rancor | rancour |
| realize + | realise |
| recognize + | recognise |
| rigor | rigour |
| rumor | rumour |
| savor | savour |
| savory | savoury |
| skeptic | sceptic |
| skillful | skilful |
| specter | spectre |
| spilled | spilt |
| splendor | splendour |
| story (of a building) | storey |
| succor | succour |
| sulfur | sulphur |
| symbolize + | symbolise |
| sympathize + | sympathise |
| theater | theatre + |
| tire | tyre |
| traveler | traveller |
| tumor | tumour |
| utilize + | utilise |
| valor | valour |
| vapor | vapour |
| vaporize + | vaporise |
| vigor | vigour |
| vise (tool) | vice |
| willful | wilful |
| worshiper | worshipper |
ε[2009-12-25-1]ǡ塦첻ֶᤤפ塦첻ֱ礭פȤѸ phonaesthesia ˤ
ǧβʳؤǤϡŪʡֱפȻŪʡֱפطƤ뤳ȤϹǧƤ롥塦첻 "here-me-now" 塦첻 "there-you-then" ħȤ֤α phonaesthesia ˤĤƤ⡤Smith Τ㤬ΤǾҲ𤷤
ȤΤ Prokosch ΰѤˤȤŤΤǤꡤʲ¹Ȥʤ뤬Smith ʸƷǤ롥
American nursery talk offers an amusing illustration. A little steam train tries to climb a hill and says cheerfully, 'I think I can, I think I can.' But the hill is too steep, the poor little engine slides back and says sadly, 'I thought I could, I thought I could.' The front vowels [ɪ æ] aptly characterize the active interest in the successful performance, the back vowels [ɔ ʊ] the melancholy retrospect to what might have been. (Prokosch 122 qtd in Smith 13)
Ե§Ѳư첻 ( Ablaut or gradation ) ѻƤߤȡ߷Ȳ˸첻첻ȸ첻бƤ㤬ʤ餺 ( Smith 14 )äˡ첻ܰȯꤹȡη褯狼
| ߷ | |
|---|---|
| write | wrote |
| bind | bound |
| bear | bore |
| tread | trod |
| shake | shook |
Glasgow ؤβ Jeremy J. Smith ΤΰĤ sound symbolism 롥sound symbolism ˤ onomatopoeia phonaesthesia ꡤԤˤĤƤ[2009-11-20-1]ǿ줿
衤켫Ȥϰ̣⤿ʤ벻䲻Ϣγǰ뤤Ϥ٤ι⤤ݡȷӤĤȤ롥ηӤĤΤȤ phonaesthesia ȸƤ֡ϸ줴Ȥ˰ۤʤ뤬֤Ƕ̤뤳Ȥ¿ѸǤϡ첻첻ϡֶᤤװݤ첻㤤첻ϡֱ礭װݤȷӤĤȤ¿㤨СΩϰʲΥڥˤߤ롥
| ᤤ | |
|---|---|
| me | you (sg.) |
| we | you (pl.) |
| here | there |
| this | that |
| these | those |
When the tongue is high and at the front of the mouth, it makes a small resonant cavity there that amplifies some higher frequencies, and the resulting vowels like ee and i (as in bit) remind people of little things. When the tongue is low and to the back, it makes a large resonant cavity that amplifies some lower frequencies, and the resulting vowels like a in father and o in core and in cot remind people of large things. Thus mice are teeny and squeak, but elephants are humongous and roar. Audio speakers have small tweeters for the high sounds and large woofers for the low ones.
Pinker Steven. The Language Instinct. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. Harper Perennial Modern Classics. 2007.
ε[2009-12-22-1]ǼꤢĤαѸˤޤȤȤεҤǡCaxton ΰƳ˴ؤǯ椬Ǥ1475ǯ¾Ǥ1476ǯȤʤäƤϡˤĤƥȡ
Ѹ˾Τߤʤ餺ʸ˾̾Ĥ William Caxton ϡ1422ǯ England Kent [2009-09-02-1]Ǥ줿ȤꡤϸߤΥ٥륮 Brugge 30ǯʾںߤFlanders Holland ޤӤξͤ¤ȤĹ餯ƶϤؤäƤ
δ֤ʸؤؤδؿᡤ1469ǯ1471ǯˤ Raoul Le Fèvre Recueil des histoires de Troye 礦ɤλ Cologne ǰѤؤǤꡤBrugge ȰΩ1475ǯ˱ The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye ˾αѸΰʪǤ롥
1476ǯˤϡ⤦ĤΥե줫αǤ The Game and Playe of the Chesse Brugge ǽǤǯ England ꡤWestminster ˰ΩEngland ΰǤ롥
Caxton ϸˡChaucer Canterbury Tales (1478? and 1484?), John Gower Confessio amantis (1483), Sir Thomas Malory Le Morte d'Arthur (1485) ʤɡ̾ʱʸغʤ¿1491ǯ London ˴ʤޤǤˡCaxton 100ܤΰʪ˽Ф
ʾꡤΤȤʬ
1475ǯᡡѸΰʪƸ줿ǯ
1476ǯᡡEngland ˰꤬Ƹ줿ǯ
ѸαƺȤֻαƺϡȤǼͳݡȤʤɤݤȿ͵ΤǤ롥ʲΤ褦оɽ뤳Ȥ¿
| ꥫѸ | ꥹѸ |
|---|---|
| color, humor | colour, humour |
| center, liter | centre, litre |
| defense, offense | defence, offence |
| traveler, traveled | traveller, travelled |
| ameba, anesthetic | amoeba, anaesthetic |
On the whole, Americans, like the British, have been conservative in their treatment of spelling, and the notion that American spelling is radical and revolutionary seems indeed to be mainly a survival from eighteenth and early nineteenth century political feeling. (Vol. 1, 328)
Krapp, George Philip. English Language in America. 2 vols. New York: Century, 1925.
Wovreϥȥꥢȯߥ˥ƥȡؤμȤιֵΡȤΤޤȤȤȤľΥ祳ȤΤ褦ʥƥĤƤ롥ȥꥢ˥塼ɤ(?)Ƥ褦ǡѸˤ˴ؤΤĸĤä
Language Acquisition and Change --- History of English: Ѹˤ5ʬȤä
Language Change --- Timeline: ɽηDZѸˤäȰ˾
ʬperiodisationˤδϡˤ嵭ĤΡֱѸˡפϤȤ8ʬǤ롥Ѹ줬֥ƥ˻ޤ줿5ʹߤͤȡԤ7ʬԤ6ʬǤ롥ԤǤϡ16ʹߤϤ褽1ߤζʬȤʤäƤ롥¿쾯ʤʬŪǤʾ塤1ߤȤΤϡष狼䤹ʬ⤷ʤ
ΤޤȤȤ褯ФƤ롥Ȥʤ֤ؤפȻפ˰㤤ʤʤޤȤᥢ祳ʤΤǾŪǤꡤ褷ηŪǤϤʤ
ɼʥ祳ˤϡ̻ˤҤΤƱ餤ΥɬפǤϤʤֱѸˤΥ祳פˤϤĤȥ饤Ƥߤ
ŵŪʥꥫѸˤ Krapp ϡꥫѸȯꥫͤε˵Ȥ¯ФäڤΤƤƤ롥ꥫѸü߽ФװϺǽŪˤϤɤ˵ϤȤǧĤĤ⡤ΤȤȽǤʤΤ顤ʳηѾ ( inheritance )ʤꥹѸ줫ΰ仺ȤߤʤΤ˲ȤȤƸ٤ǤϤʤȤˤˤ֤ʤפɵ椹 causation εˤơǽŪʸͤߤ뤳ȤΤꤦ¤ʸŪڵäȤ⤢ꤽʷѾβΩƤƵҤ褦ȤʳŪ٤ƩŰƤ롥
Especially in speech covering short chronological periods, as is the case in comparing British and American speech, one may more hopefully look to inheritance than to ultimate causes in seeking to account for the traits which present themselves. Inheritance obviously will not explain everything, since what is inherited must ultimately have had a determining cause, must have had an origin; but if one cannot discover ultimate origins, the historia, at least, can content himself with transmissions. (Vol. 2, 22--23)
If one did not fear to affirm a universal positive, one might say that in every case the distinctive features of American pronunciation have been but survivals from older usages with were, and in some instances still are, to be found in some dialect or other of the speech of England. (Vol. 2, 28)
The student who would explain American speech as derived from British speech has an inexhaustible store of variations to draw upon, and it is only when the probabilities in all directions have been exhausted that one may turn to the theory of independent and original development of speech sounds in America. (Vol. 2, 29)
ΤȤ Krapp ϡꥫѸꥹѸαĹ˰֤ŤƤꡤꥫ ( the American language ) ǧʤΩǤ롥⤦ĤΥꥫѸˤθŵ The American Language Mencken Ȥ٤ۤʤ롥
Krapp, George Philip. English Language in America. 2 vols. New York: Century, 1925.
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Abridged ed. New York: Knopf, 1963. 194.
[2009-12-19-1]Ǹ褦ˡSweet Old English, Middle English, Modern English λʬϡߤ˻ޤDZѸˤ˶ƶڤܤƤ롥Sweet Ϥλʬ˺ʬȬʬΥС⾧Ƥ롥Ԥϡƻɽ̾뤤Ϻ̾źƤΤħǤ롥
| Period | Prototype | Range |
|---|---|---|
| Early Old English | Alfred | 700--900 |
| Late Old English | Ælfric | 900--1100 |
| Transition Old English | Laȝamon | 1100--1200 |
| Early Middle English | Ancrene Riwle | 1200--1300 |
| Late Middle English | Chaucer | 1300--1400 |
| Transition Middle English | Caxton | 1400--1500 |
| Early Modern English | Shakespeare | 1500--1650 |
| Late Modern English | no prototype | 1650-- |
Morris αѸˤϻʬ[2009-12-18-1]ϰ̤ˤϹޤʤäѸˤλʬˤĤƸ˶ƶϤڤܤΤϡSweet äSweet 1871ǯ Anglo-Saxon 夨 Old English ȤƾΤƳ
I use 'Old English' throughout this work to denote the unmixed, inflectional stage of the English language, commonly known by the barbarous and unmeaning title of 'Anglo-Saxon' (v, n. 1)
Old English ȤƾΤγΩˤäơOld English, Middle English, Modern English ȤʬưΤΤȤʤäSweet, Grammar 594) 줬ߤˤޤ "canonical" ʱѸˤλʬǤ롥ħϰʲǡǤ롥
Old English: "period of full endings" (e.g. mōna, sunne, sunu, stānas).
Middle English: "period of levelled endings" (e.g. mōne, sunne, sune, stōnes).
Modern English: "period of lost endings" (moon, sun, son, stones).
ơѸˤλʬϺƤ "triadomany" ؤȲΤǤ롥
Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 7--41. esp. Pages 14--16.
Sweet, Henry. King Alfred's West-Saxon Version of Gregory's Pastoral Care. EETS os 45. London: OUP, 1871.
Sweet, Henry. A New English Grammar, Logical and Historical. Vol. 1. Introduction, Phonology, and Accidence. Oxford: Clarendon, 1891.
19ȾˤϡѸˤοʬ٤ߤ줿ΤΰĤMorris (48--56) θʬʼ¼Ūˤϻʬ˰ƤǤ롥Ǥ Grimm "triadomany" μƤ롥Morris ϳƶʬ˸ƾΤƤΤǽդMorris Ƥܤ٤ϡŪʴˤʬߤȤǤ롥ʲϡMorris ζʬ Lass (15) ΤǤ롥
| Period | Range | Defining Characters |
|---|---|---|
| 1st Period | 450--1100 | "Synthetic" rather than analytic, gender, noun declension, infinitive in -an, past participle prefix ge-, etc. |
| 2nd Period | 1100--1250 | Final -a, -o, -u levelled in -e, article > þe, -es plurals begin to substitute for weak -en; "confusion" in gender leading to some merger, loss of infinitive -n. |
| 3rd Period | 1250--1350 | Still some article inflexions, increasing gender confusion, -en/-es often "indiscriminately" in noun plurals, loss of dual, present participle in -inge. |
| 4th Period | 1350--1460 | Ic(h) > I, dative and accusative pronouns merge in old dative (him/hine > him, etc.), loss of infinitive marker, rise of they, their, them |
| 5th Period (1) | 1460--1520 | None are given. |
| 5th Period (2) | 1520--Present | None are given. |
[2009-12-15-1], [2009-12-16-1]Ǹ褦ˡGrimm ˤäƥɥĸˤƤϤ줿ʬθ§ϡѸˤˤȵڤ뤳Ȥˤʤäˤ⡤ѸθŤʳؤƾΤ¸ߤƤ1617˸ŤѸФؿ줿Ȥ͡ϺǤűѸؤ Anglo-Saxon ֥פȸƤθƾΤϸǤȤɤʹ롥 Anglo-Saxon ȸڤˤϤޤ˸Ū˰ۤʤäƤꡤȤäƶαѸȤۤʤäƤʳαѸؤϰϤۣʸƾΤȤ Semi-Saxon Ѥ줿
1617衤Anglo-Saxon Semi-Saxon ȤʬθƾΤĹ餯ȤƤ1839ǯ Wright Middle English ȤѸƳWright Τ Middle English ϡ Middle English ȤƤθؤƤ褦Ǥ롥
The form of our language during the twelfth and the first half of the thirteenth century is generall termed Semi-Saxon; from that period to the time of the Reformation it has received from modern philologists the name of Middle English (Wright 107 cited in OED, s.v. English B. sb. 1a).
Anglo-Saxon, Semi-Saxon, Middle English ȤʬθƤ̾Ѥ줿19Ⱦˤ̤λʬƤ뤳ȤȤʤä
Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 7--41. esp. Page 14.
Wright, Thomas. Literature and language under the Anglo-Saxons. 1839.
ε[2009-12-15-1]ǡGrimm ˤλʬˤ "triadomany" äȤ˸ڤˤɥĸˤ Old High German, Middle High German, New High German ػʬΩˤϡñ˻Ĥλ夬˱ä줿ȤȰʾˡפʸѲ˴ؤޤߤäϡѲ ( directionality ) äƤꡤѲ®٤ϻ夬ʤˤĤ٤ʤäƤƤȤĥǤ롥Grimm ҤΰͤǤ Förstemann ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
die Veränderung der deutschen Sprache zwischen dem 9. und 13. Jarhundert durchschnittlich eine etwa dreimal so große Schnelligkeit besessen hat als zwischen dem 13. und 19. Jahrhundert, daß also das Sprachleben in jener Zeit etwa dreimal so stark war als in dieser. (84)
ʿѤ 9 -- 13 θѲ 13 -- 19 θѲ3®ԤϸθѲ3®ȤȤˤʤ롥ˤֻܡפƤꡤ"triadomany" ε̣ǻǤ롥⤽ѲΤɤ¦̤٤ƻܤʤΤѲ®٤ͲǤΤȵ䤬롥DzפʤΤϡGrimm ˤ Förstemann ˤ衤ѲȤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ѳ®٤θƤʾ塤ưƤȤȤˤϤǤ롥
ѲϤ˿ʤ ( unidirectional ) ΤʤΤˤϡѲ礭꤬ޤޤƤ롥
Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 7--41. esp. Page 13.
Förstemann, Ernst. "Über die numerischen Lautverhältnisse im Deutschen." Germania: Neues Jahrbuch der Berlinischen Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache und Alterthumskunde 7 (1846): 83--90.
[2009-10-02-1]εǥꥫѸˤλʬҲ𤷤Ȥˡָ˲Ȥޤᡤ˲ȤϻʬΤʤ褦ǡפꡤʬϡָοʲռ19Υ˥ŪȯۡפǤȽҤ٤ʥꥹ˱ѸˤⴷŪ Old English, Middle English, Modern English ( Present-day English ޤ ˤȻʬ뤷ʬطʤˤϲꤽǤ롥Lass "triadism" ֻʬפ뤤 "triadomany" ֻʬ¡פȸƤǤͤɤΤ褦˸λʬεǤͤƤߤε Lass ʸ˱äΡȤκۤˤʤȻפΤǡǤäƤ
"triadomany" γϤϡޥӸؤ Jacob Grimm ˵롥ˡ§grimms_lawˤͭ̾ʤΥɥĤΥޥԤϡGesetz der Trilogie ֻˡ§פοԤǤꡤɥĸˤ Althochdeutsch "Old High German" , Mittelhochdeutsch "Middle High German", Neuhochdeutsch "New High German" ȻʬιͤѸޤ¾ΥޥˤŬѤ줿
Grimm (274) ϡˤλʬΤߤʤ餺줽ΤΤˡֻȡפƤȹͤ
| ñ | п | ʣ | |
| ; | ; | ; | ; |
| ǽư | ư | ư | |
| ̤ | |||
| ???? | a-stem | i-stem | u-stem |
εϰǤޤƤ롥[2009-06-08-1]ǿ줿褦ˡ10ǯۤȯȤΤǤϤʤȸƤ뤬ʤɤΤ褦ȯˤĤƤϲ¬ΰФʤ¬Ͽʹ֤Ϥεڤ֤˹Τǡε˴ؤƤϡ˴¿⤬ƤСΤޤͤ⡤ȢΤ Noah 줬ǽθǤäȤ⡤
쵯ϤäȤ͡椭ĤƤΰĤǤ뤬⤽ʳŪ˾ԲǽǤ뤳Ȥ餹٤ƤεӤǤȤơ1866ǯեθ춨ϰڤθ쵯ζػߤ1893ǯˤϡꥫؼԤ William Dwight Whitney ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
No theme in linguistic science is more often and more voluminously treated than this . . . nor any . . . with less profitable result in proportion to the labour expended; the greater part of what is said and written upon it is mere windy talk, the assertion of subjective views which commend themselves to no mind save the one that produces them, and which are apt to be offered with a confidence. This has given the whole question a bad repute among sober-minded philologists. (279)
Τ褦ˡ쵯ϸؤʬǤϥ֡Ȥ褦ˤʤäǯƤӵ褷ƤƤ롥Aitchison ιͻˤСˤĤͳȤĤϡŪǼषƤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡΩɤʳؼԤǤ顤ꡤ˸ͿȤζ˿øΩ뤳Ȥ褦Ȥ뷹äˤ뽡ѤޤȤȤˡȿָפ⸺ƤƤꡤʲ˴ŤҥȤȸε夲䤹ʤäƤΤȤ
⤦Ĥͳϡ¾ưʪȤӤˤҥȤθ椬ŸƤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥19ˤΤʤäؤκǿθ˴Ťʸ쵯ϺϤޤĤĤȤȤsee [2009-10-04-1]ˡ
٤Ͼ嵭ΤΤؤζʽǼ夲뤳Ȥ¿쵯ˤĤƤϡThe Origin of Languageˤ褯ޤȤƤ롥
Aitchison, Jean. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 1996. 4--7.
Whitney, W. D. Oriental and Linguistic Studies. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893.
Ѹ variety ѥΰĤ medium פ뤳Ȥϡ[2009-12-10-1]εǽҤ٤ʹ֤θμפΤȤƤϡäȤ ( speech or spoken language ) ȽȤ ( writing or written language ) बꤦ롥ԤİФˡԤϻФʤΤħȤ롥Фʤ⤦ĤΤȤơ[2009-07-16-1]ǿ줿ּø ( sign language ) 뤬ϵ鳰
衤äȤФȽȤФΤ֤ƤΥ֥Dz٤夲ƤȯֻЪΥ⡤äȤФȽȤФΩ¸ߤǤꡤȤȿ뤳Ȥ餢뤳ȤڤƤ롥ޤİа¸а¸Ȥ̤ϡʪŪŪΤʶ̤Ǥꡤ֤ϼΤȤΤ褦˻פ롥
쥳ߥ˥ȼδ֤δطᤤȤ֥ץȡפδ餹ȡäȤФȽȤФζɬΤǤʤȤ˵Ť㤨СֱθϸƬǤʤ뤬ȤФɤŨֱȤС ( Sprache der Distanz ) Ǥ롥դˡåȤʸ̤Ƥʤ뤬äȤФɤŨֶᤤȤС ( Sprache der Nähe ) Ǥ롥Koch and Oesterreicher medium concept ݤ碌ʲΤ褦ʥǥʰʲοޤϡĻβѤ䤬˲ѤΤǤ롥

ΥǥϡʱѸ˸ؤˡ˼ͿƤ롥θ褦ȤĤߤˤƺɤϡäȤФξڵľܤ뤳ȤȤǤ롥쥳νиäȤФˤϡߤˤޤǻĤäƤȤФλ꤬ˤƴŪäȤФȤˡĤƤʤKoch and Oesterreicher Υǥ餫ʤ褦ˡȤФǤäȤι⤤ variety ¸ߤ롥Τ褦ʽȤ variety ˰͵뤳ȤǡäȤФ᤹ܶ뤳ȤǽǤϤʤäȤФȽȤФΩϡ褤ƤۤŪʤΤǤϤʤȹͤ롥
ԡ˸βǽ --- ᴤ뤫ĤƤθŪסط38612桤2009ǯ68--75ǡ
Koch, Peter and Wulf Oesterreicher. "Sprache der Nähe -- Sprache der Distanz: Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit im Spannungsfeld von Sprachtheorie und Sprachgeschichte." Romanistisches Jahrbuch 36 (1985): 15--43.
ѸˤȯֻδطƤ뤳Ȥϡܥ֥ǤƻƻͤȤꤢƤǤ <o> /ɪ/ Υޥå̯Ǥ뤫[2009-05-13-1], [2009-12-06-1], [2009-12-07-1]Ǹä
ΥޥåθͣȤ women /wɪmɪn/ ¤ϡͣפǤϤʤ¿μ recognize /ˈrɛkəgˌnaɪz/ ȯȤ뤬 /ˈrɛkɪgˌnaɪz/ ȯƤ뼭ex. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionaryˡ첻첻첻Ǥ뤿ᡤ³ /k/ Ĵˤʤꡤ³첻ˤαƶͿȤȤˤʤΤ
recognize ˤ <o> /ɪ/ Υޥåϡ(1) ȯѰۤΰĤˤʤȡ(2) 岻ˤߤˤʤȤ顤women ΥΤˤϵڤФʤϤꡤΰ۾ʥޥåͣθԤ women ȤäƤ٤
ε[2009-12-10-1]˰³ѸѼΥǥ겼롥
[2009-12-10-1]ǼǥˤСѸüԤˤѤѼ ( variety ) ϡ"the common core" ϻĤΥѥͤǵҤǤ롥դˤС"the common core of English" ϻĤΥѥͤݤ碌ȡĤѼ郎ޤ롥
Τ褦ޤäѼˤƤ⡤ޤѼϸ줦롥㤨СƱüԤƱĶʸ̮ạ̇̄ŪŪʺޤ᤺ˡİʾɽȤƤľ礬롥Quirk et al. (30) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
He stayed a week or He stayed for a week
Two fishes or two fish
Had I know or If I had known
¾ŪǤ롤ʤɤȤȤŪˤϤ뤫⤷ʤۤΤʺǤϤʤξ硤ϻĤΥѥˤä줿Ѽˡߥʥ٥ǤѼ郎Ǥ뤳 ( varieties within a variety ) 롥ΥߥѼι¤ϡʲΤ褦˥ǥ벽Ƥ롥

ĤѼ㤨СꥹɸѸǡѸˤιֵƬŪեޥʸոʤäƤαѸѼꤷ褦ѸˤѸѤˤϡ褽경ƤѸ줬¿Τǡ"relatively uniform" ʥߥѼѤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ֵѸǿʤ櫓ǤϤʤä˥եޥʸոǿʤƤˤϡäޤ뤳Ȥ⤢ĴȤɬפȤˡvery, indeed, not a little, really ʤɤŪ¿ͤ ( "relatively diverse" ) ɽȤƹͤ뤬ϹֵԸĿͤΤäƤȤϡֵԤޤ춦ƱΤǹͭƤ ( "variation in community's usage" ) ȹͤ٤ֵԸĿͤθʤȤ very, very, very, very, very to a gigantic extent ȤäѤζĴȤƤäƤ ( "variation in individual's usage" ) ΤѤ뤫ϴ˸ĿŪǤ롥
variety νߤͤͤȡɡĿ ( idiolect ) ˹Ԥ夤Ƥޤ褦
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972. 30--32.
Quirk et al. ϡѤƤѸοѼ ( varieties ) ˺Ū "the common core" ȹͤƤ롥ơġαѸüԤѤθѤƤѼϡݲ줿 "the common core" äȤơƼѹɲäܤ줿ΤǤȤ롥Ѽ ( varieties ) ʬहݤΥѥȤƤϡʲοޤ̤ꡤϻĤ variety classes ǧƤ롥

(1) Region ϰѼؤ, American English, British English, South African English, Australian English, Indian English, Jamaican English ʤɡ̤ ( dialect ) ȸƤФ복ǰȽŤʤ롥
(2) Education and social setting ϶ˤѼä˼ҲŪʸҤȹǧƤɸѸ ( Standard English ) ȸƤФѼ˴ؤ롥礭 standard substandard Ѽʬ롥
(3) Subject matter ϼˤѼǤ롥register ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥㤨СˡΧ˴ؤѸŪʸäɽ¿ޤѼǤ뤷Υ쥷ԤαѸ̿ʸ¿ѤäѼȹͤ롥ʳʸαѸϼư֤¿αѸϸʸäʸˡޤȤ褦ˡħäѼ郎̵¸ߤ롥
(4) Medium ϸưΤˤѼؤ¾塤äդդζ̤Ȥʤ롥
(5) Attitude üԤФ٤䥳ߥ˥Ū˱ƷޤѼǤ롥style ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ǫФäƤٹ礤¯ø褽褽ʤɡƼο֤бѼ郎롥绨Ĥˡrigid -- formal -- normal -- informal -- familiar Ϣ³ΤȤɽǤѼǤ롥
(6) Interference ϡ˳ȤƱѸԤθŪħˤִġפ줿ѸѤ˴طѼǤ롥㤨СܸüԤäѸϡȯʸˡʤɤǸߤ˻̤äƤ뤳Ȥ¿ξ硤ܸδĤѸѼˤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
οޤǡ(1) (5) ν¤ǤΤˤŪʰ̣Ϥʤ variety class ¾ variety class Ȥ褦ˤϢǤ롥(1) ꥫѸΡ(2) ɸѼǡ(3) ݡĤˤĤơ(4) äդǡ(5) ŪǫˡȤȤϲǽ(1) åȥɱѸΡ(2) ܤѸǡ(3) Ҷγܤ(4) (5) ƤߤʸΤǡɽȤȤϲǽǤ롥
ǡ(1) (5) ν¤ǤΤϴ̵̣ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ̤ˤ variety class ̤ˤ variety class ȤʤäƤ륱뤫Ǥ롥㤨С(2) Standard English ȤѼϡ(1) ϰѼˤäƸꤵ롥ǹǧƤ Standard English ϸǤ¸ߤޤǥꥫѸ Standard English ȤꥹѸ Standard English Ȥ褦ˡϰѼȤƤ롥̾(1) (2) ѼϸĿͥ٥ǸꤷƤ
ޤ(3) ˵ˡΧѸϡˡΧѸȤƽˡ(2) ζܤѸɸѸȤˤĤƤʤȻϤޤʤ(4) νդ⡤(2) ζܤѸɸѸ줬ȤʤäƤ롥ξ̤ѤѸϡ(5) ˴ϢƷФäƤ뤳ȤԤ뤬 (4) μˤѼħȤߤʤ٤⤷ʤ(3), (4), (5) ϸĿͤΤʤǤˤäɤưѼǤ롥
(6) ϡ줫αѸФŪĤȤǡбѸγ¦äϤǤꡤ¾ variety classes ȤϰۼǤ뤿ᡤޤǤγ˰֤ŤƤ롥
̵¤ι꤬ȹͤѸˡ⤽ the common core ꤹ뤳ȤǤΤȤȿ⤢뤬ѸѼΥǥȤƻͤˤʤǥǤ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972. 13--30.
ҲؤǤϡ줬ҲŪ¸ߤǤꡤФŪ¸ߤǤ⤢뤳ȤȤƤ롥äˡȤƤαѸ줬ȤΤʤŪǤޤäޤʤȤȤϤʤΤǤϤʤȤפ롥㤨С[2009-11-30-1], [2009-12-05-1]ǤߤѸüԤƱߥǥǤСInner Circle °Τֵϡ ( norma ) 濴ˤꡤ¦ Circles °͡ѤѸ˱ƶͿȤϡ켫ΤŪ ( political ) ޤߤäƤ롥
ҲؤǤʤߤΡָפȡפζ̤˴ؤ⡤줬Ū¸ߤǤ뤳ȤƤ롥ܤǴŪΩΩȤСο̱ϼʬθܸδפǤϤʤִפȾΤ뤫⤷ʤΩȰʸǸŪˤϲѲƤʤˤ⤫餺Ǥ롥
ޤɤʤɤ¿ҲˤƤϡ¾θ٤ŪΩΩˤ뤫ȤͳǡѸ줬⥳ߥ˥ŪѤƤ롥ξ硤ѸŪΩȸʤƤΤ顤Ū ( unpolitical ) ̤ƤȤǤ뤬⤽ʣʸŪȤƱѸ줬ФƤ櫓Ǥꡤλ֤ȴطʤȤϸʤ"political" Ūפˤ "unpolitical" Ūפˤ衤 politics פδޤߤ뤳ȤȤƻǤ롥
Τ褦ˡҲؤǤϡ줬ܼŪ鼫ͳǤϤʤȤ㤬¿롥ǤϤʤȻפҲؤؽԤϡָŪפȤơޤ櫓Ǥ롥ȤKachru μʸϤ˽Ф路ƶäȤƤαѸ˴ؤʤҲؤǰŪǤʤϤΤʤΤʤˡ"apolitical" Ȥƻ줬ФƤΤơμϡֱѸפʤΤǤ롥ĹѤ롥
As an aside, one might add here that all the countries where English is a primary language are functional democracies. The outer circle and the expanding circle do not show any such political preferences. The present diffusion of English seems to tolerate any political system, and the language itself has become rather apolitical. In South Asia, for example, it is used as a tool for propaganda by politically diverse groups: the Marxist Communists, the China-oriented Communists, and what are labelled as the Muslim fundamentalists and the Hindu rightists as well as various factions of the Congress party. Such varied groups seem to oppose the Western systems of education and Western values. In the present world, the use of English certainly has fewer political, cultural, and religious connotations than does the use of any other language of wider communication. (14)
"unpolitical" ŪפǤϤʤ "apolitical" ̵ŪȤ̵طΡפǤȤݥȤȤʤ롥"unpolitical" ϥޥʥ "political" ŪפǤȤ̣ǡɤΤȤ "political" ƱɶξˤѸǤ롥ռƤ뤫餳"political" "unpolitical" Ȥ̤פʤΤǤ롥Ȥ"apolitical" ϡ⤽ȤɶγˤꡤФ̵ط̵ؿǤ뤳ȤɽѸǤ롥ʤۤɡѸ줬س礷Ƥ椯ˤƤϡƹϰΤɤǤ뤫ȤꥫȤιݴطɤǤ뤫ʤɤȤȤϡȤϸʤޤǤ⤽ۤɴͿŪǤϤʤ
ָŪפȤҲؤǾƬˤϡȤƤαѸ줬 "apolitical" ǤꤦȤȯۤϿä
Kachru, B. B. "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle." English in the World. Ed. R. Quirk and H. G. Widdowson. Cambridge: CUP, 1985. 11--30.
ܤˤֱѸ˸פϡɽ⤺äȹΰʤäƤ롥ȤƸʤСܻ˸椬ñܤβ˵ä¤٤ǯɽŻǤʤΤƱȤǤ롥ֱѸ˸פϹǤΤΰǤ뤷ǯθءʸء˳ؤʤɤȯŸĴƾ˿ʲƤΰǤ⤢롥äơֱѸ˸פδϢʬϹǤ롥
ǡϢʬΤʤǤä˶̩ʴطͭƤΤ˹ʤäơֱѸ˸פޥåԥƤߤȤϤäƤ⡤ (27) ޤȤƤֱѸ˸פδطޤƸޤǤǤ롥

ä˶̩ʴϢʬȤȤǤСѸȯŸ˴ؤäƤϰˡˡʸˤҲؤ⤳οޤ˲äȤǤ롥
ס֡ұѸ˸Ӥγǰס ¾ԡˡرѸʸظ --- δǰʸ ---١Ʋ1990ǯ19--30ǡ
ε[2009-12-06-1]Ǥϡñ <woman> /wʊmən/ Ū餫ˤ䤤ϡʣȯֻäʤ <women> ֤ꡤ/wɪmɪn/ ȯΤ
űѸ wīfmann ʣ wīfmenn ämann -- menn ưפͽ֤ۤǤ롥ʣǤñξƱͤ˰ϢβѲ/f/ /m/ αƶ /m/ ؤƱĹ첻 /i:/ /ɪ/ ؤûȤϡñΥȥѥǤ롥Ȥ/ɪ/ /w/ αƶ /ʊ/ ؤȱ߿ѲϵʤäñξȰۤʤäƤΤǤ롥
ϡ -mann -menn ˤ϶줺ñʣζ̤ۣˤʤ뤿ᡤ첻첻Ω뤳Ȥˤäƶ̤ݤȤȤ̤ǤϤʤȹͤ롥ñ /ʊ Фʣ /ɪ/ ǤȤԤħϡ켫Ȥˤڤӡ/mɪn/ ȯ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤ
ֻϡȯȤΩơñֻĴȯŸη̡<o> ֤ä /ɪ/ ȯȤʴطߤˤäƤ롥
ʾ塤εȹ碌 woman women ȯֻäҤΰϢβѲֻȯãΤ褦Ưɤϡ¤ΤȤǤ롥Ѹ濴ȤƳ͡ȯֻʤƤѸ˺֤夤ȤΤ¤ѸˤˤפϡȤñ㲽Ƥʤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǡŤ
woman ʣ <women> ֤ /wɪmɪn/ ȯ롥<o> ֻ /ɪ/ βбȤΤϡѸ칭ȤɤǤꡤBernard Shaw <ghoti> "fish" ʤֻȯۤɤǤ([2009-05-13-1]) <o> /ɪ/ ʥޥåϤˤΤ
ˤϡޤñ <woman> /wʊmən/ ͤʤФʤʤθθűѸη wīfmann Ǥ롥ϡwīf "wife" + mann "man" ʣǤ롥űѸ wīf ϡֺʡפΤۤˡֽװ̤̣ʥɥĸ Weib ֽפӡˡmann ϸѸƱͤˡˡפΤۤˡֿ͡פ̣äơʣ wīfmann ϡֽǤ͡פʤֽפ̣
űѸʹߡwīfmann ϤĤβѲФ뤳ȤȤʤä/f/ ľ /m/ ˤäĴͼƱ /m/ ؤѲǡĹ첻 /i:/ /ɪ/ ûޤƬ /w/ ³ /ɪ/ ˱ƶڤܤ/ɪ/ /ʊ/ ؤȱ߿ΰϢβѲˤäơŪȯ /wʊmən/ ޤ줿
ȯǤֻ <o> ϤޤƤʤѲη̤Ȥȯȯ̤֤С<wuman> ȤʤϤäºݤˡŪˤ <wumman> ʤɤֻڤ롥
ȤѸˡ<m>, <n>, <v>, <w> Τ褦˽ ( minim ) ǹʸζ٤ <u> ֤Ȥ褦ˤʤä<u> Ȥǹ뤿ᡤʸɤȽ̤Ĥʤʤ붲줬äǤ롥ǡΤ褦ʴĶˤ <u> Υեֻޤͤ <o> ѤȤȯã
̾ȯϼȯãΤֻϿͰŪ˺ѤΤǤ롥ơwoman ϡȯ /wʊmən/ Ȥ夷ֻ <woman> Ȥ夹뤳ȤȤʤä
Ǥϡʣ women ȯֻϡε³
[2009-11-30-1]εǡѸüؤ Inner Circle, Outer Circle (Expanded Circle), Expanding Circle ؤȻʬ븫Ҳ𤷤θƾΤ Kachru ϡѸε ( norm ) Ȥ顤ƱƱߥǥ⤦ȤθƾΤͿƤ롥줾졤norm-providing, norm-developing, norm-dependent Ǥ롥

Kachru 1985ǯʸ˴Ť2009ǯθߤˤ⤪褽ѤѸΥǥʲˡߤλΥȤäĤġƶʬ⤹롥
(1) norm-providing Inner Circle бѸصϤƤŪˤߤʤƤѼȤƤĽĤǤ롥°ѼεϤȤƤǧ٤ϤޤޤǤ롥㤨СꥹѸȥꥫѸ¿αѸüԤǧɽŪʵѼȥꥢѸ˥塼ɱѸϤɤ١⳰鵬ϤȤǧƤ
(2) norm-developing Outer Circle б롥Inner Circle 뵬Ϥ餷褦Ȥ¦̤ȡæ褦Ȥ¦̤碌롥ζʬ˳ɽϰȤƥɤ䥷ݡ뤬뤬塤ϰοϤΤˤʤǽ([2009-10-07-1])
(3) norm-dependent Expanding Circle б롥Inner Circle 뵬ϤˤäѤ齾üؤǤ롥㤨Сζʬ°ܤˤѸ춵ͤС˥ꥫѸʤ뤤ϥꥹѸˤϤȤƤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥ܤˤϼ Japanese English ȤϤФٹ͢Ф褦ȤտޤϤʤ
Ѹ̤ͤȤ(2) ambiguous Ω֤̣ĹǤ롥Ū˱ߤ濴ȯƤֵϸפǼĤĤ⡤Ǥϼ鿷ʡֵϸפ¦αߤ˸ȯƤΤ顥
Kachru, B. B. "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle." English in the World. Ed. R. Quirk and H. G. Widdowson. Cambridge: CUP, 1985. 11--30.
ε[2009-12-03-1]Ǥ supper 夲եư줬̾ȤƱѸäƤаޤҤ٤Ʊ褦Ĥꥹȥåפ supper Ọ̇̄ŪˤϢ dinner 夲
dinner ϥե dîner μѤǡѸǤνФ1300ǯǤ롥ե dîner ϡȤפȤưǤꡤη֤Ǥ̾ŪˡˤפȤ̣̾Ȥʤ롥Ѹؤϡη֤Ọ̇̄ǼѤ줿ե줫 -(e)r dine Ʊ˱ѸäƤϡȤפȤưǤ롥̤ˡեưϤΤ褦 -(e)r DZѸäƤƤꡤdine ϤŵǤ롥
ʤߤ˥եǤϡͼפ dîner뿩īפ déjeuner ȤԤϤΤޤޤη֤Ọ̇̄DZѸˤ18äƤꡤϤ뿩īȤפȤưͳ褹롥ơϷ֤㤨̤Ʊ츻ͤŸ ( doublet ) δطˤ롥츻ϥƥ *disjējūnāre ȤƺƷƤꡤɽƬ dis- ȡֶäݤΡפ̣ jējūnus ʤǤ롥ϡֶʢǿפǤꡤѸ breakfast Ϥ ( loan translation or calque ) ǤϤʤȤƤ롥
soup supper ϸ츻Ūˤ˴طƤ롤ʹȶä⤷ʤ֤٤ȡ⤢ʤȤƤΤǤϤʤ
θϱĸ̤ꡤseep ֤߽Фסsip ֤סsop ֿסsoak ֿסsuck ֵۤסsup ֤פʤɡϢΡֱΤοСפɽط롥soup supper ϥե줫ѸäѸǤνϤ줾1653ǯ1250ǯǤꡤֺ롥եǤϸŤ sope soper ̾ưδطǤꡤ츻ŪŪʴطϰäեפΤǤͼϥפ̤äȤ졤Υͥˤ֥ספͼפؤỌ̇̄ȯŸȤ
եǤϡ-(e)r ưɽϼθФˤʤꡤưɽ֤ǤƱˡѸ̾ŪˡǤ狼Ȥꡤư̾첽Ưġäơťե soper ϡ֥פळȡͼȤ뤳ȡפʤͼפ̣ȤƸСto eat ֿ٤뤳ȡפȤ̾Ūˡ줬 to դܸ˼Ѥ졤֥ȥȡפȤơֿפ̣褦ˤʤäФ褤
Τ褦ˡ-(e)r ĥեư줬̾ȤƱѸ˼Ѥ줿¾ȤƤϡcesser, detainer, dinner, merger, misnomer, remainder, surrender ʤɤ롥
ε[2009-12-01-1]ʣˤĤƿ줿űѸ줫ѸˤƤϡ̾ʣȤ -s ʳ -n ⤽ʤͥǤꡤ¿̾ʣ -n ȼäƤꡤѸˤޤ -n ʣݤ³̾ɽ꤬ eye Ǥ롥ɸѸǤ eyes ȵ§Ū -s 뤬ǤǤСޤ eyen ʤɤη֤ʤƤ롥
ˡѸǻȤ줿 eye ʣ֤ΰ֤Ǥ¤¿褦ȤȤäOEDMED, ¾űѸѸ¿ΥƥȤ齦Ф֤ȤޤȤ̡ʤȤ172̤֤꤬Ѹ˾ǤʤƤȤȽ鷺˥եåȤ¤٤ꥹȤthrough ([2009-06-20-1]) ƱͤԴѤǤ롥
æȜan, æȜen, aies, ain, aine, ayes, eaȜæn, eaȜan, eaȜen, eaȜnen, eaȜum, eagen, echnen, een, eene, ees, eeyen, eeyn, eeyne, eȜan, eȜe, eȜen, eȜene, eȜenen, eȜhe, eȜhen, eȜhne, eȜne, eȜo, eȜu, egan, egen, egena, egȜen, egghnen, eghen, eghene, eghien, eghn, eghne, eghnes, eghun, eghyn, eghyne, egthen, egum, egyn, ehene, ehȜan, ehȜen, ehne, ehnen, ehtyn, eien, eiene, eies, eiȜe, eiȜen, eiȜene, eiȜes, eiȜne, eiȜyen, eighen, eighne, eihen, eiine, ein, eine, eithen, en, ene, ene-, enghne, enn, enyn, eon, ewine, exyn, eye, eyeȜe, eyen, eyen-, eyene, eyes, eyeyn, eyȜe, eyȜen, eyȜene, eyȜin, eyȜne, eyȜnen, eyȜyn, eyghen, eyghne, eygnyn, eyhe, eyhen, eyhene, eyhne, eyien, eyiȜen, eyin, eyn, eyne, eynen, eynes, eynin, eynon, eynyn, eynys, eyon, eys, eyyn, ȜeȜen, Ȝen, Ȝene, Ȝien, he, heen, heȜe, heȜhen, hegehen, heghne, heie, heien, heiene, hene, heyghen, heyne, heynen, heynyn, hiȜen, hyes, hynon, ieen, ieghen, ien, ies, iȜe, iȜen, iȜene, ighen, in, ine, iyen, iyes, jes, jyn, nyen, nynon, nyon, uyn, yeen, yees, yeȜe, yeȜen, yeghen, yen, yene, yes, yeyn, yȜe, yȜen, yȜes, ygne, yhen, yien, yne, yon, yyn, yyne, yys
172̤ʬС첻ѰۤϤꤢꤦ뤬-e, -en, -ne, -es, -nen, -nes 6ȤΤǸĤʣ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ǽ <n> Ūˤʣɸ˽ʬθ夵 <n> <s> ȤʣղäƤΤǡšפȤ櫓Ǥ롥
ܤϡʸˤơ
Hotta, Ryuichi. "A Historical Study on 'eyes' in English from a Panchronic Point of View." Studies in Medieval English Language and Literature 20 (2005): 75--100.
[2009-09-20-1]ǡchildren 礤ˤ ʣ ( double plural ) ˸ڤűѸǤϡθʣʤΤˤϼʡгʤʣˤ cildru ä䤬 r ޤ֤ñδ ( base ) Ǥʬ ( metanalysis ) 졤 -en Ȥʣˤ꿷ʣ줿ȤΤʣ children 줿Ǥ롥
children Τ褦ʣϡŪˤϷ빽롥ɸˡޤƸѸ˻ĤäƤΤȤƤϡbodices, breeches, datas, invoices, truces; brethren, kine ʤɤ롥 /s/ /n/ ʣȤղäƤ뤬ŪˤϤθʤǤǤʣȤƵǽƤ
brethren ˤĤƤϡbrother ŪʡƱ˦פȤ̣ѤʣǤꡤ̾ brothers ȼͳѰۤʤ櫓ǤϤʤޤbrethren Ȥ ( analogy ) Ȼפ뤬ꥫѸǤϽŪʸ̮ sister(e)n ȤȤ
datas ϡ볰ʣ ( foreign plural ) Ǥ롥ƥ䥮ꥷʤɤͳ褹ѸˤϡѸǤζޤݤäޤޱѸäƤΤ⾯ʤʤƥ줫褿 data Ϥ켫Τ datum Ȥñ֤Фʣ֤ȤΥƥζޤΤʤѸüԤˤȤäƤƩʷֵ§Ǥ롥ǡǤ data ΤñǤȲᤵ褦ˤʤäƤƤꡤ§Ūʣ datas ޤƤƤ롥
ʣϤšפȤΤϡѸˤǤϤ褯ꤢǤ롥Ų might ([2009-07-03-1][2009-06-25-1])ӵ lesser ([2009-11-08-1], [2009-11-22-1]) ʤɤǤ롥դ٤ϡξ⡤̻ŪˤϡšפǤȤߤʤ뤬ŪʴФȤƤϡְšפȤƤȤ館Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥̻ȶʬȤѤȤȡѲϳؤˤʬβ̤礭Ȥ롥
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