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2009-12-31 Thu

#248. ֥󥺡פȡ֥ǥ [assimilation][dissimilation][language_change]

[2009-12-29-1]εǡϡ֥ǥפ֥󥺡פȤ˿줿٤ȤƤϡ֥ǥפΤۤŪ֥󥺡פѤ뤳ȤθѤȤơ(1) ֥󥺡פȱƧΤ椬Ĵ뤳ȡ(2) ΤǹŪͤ뤳ȡͤ롥ä (1) ϡơ֥󥺡פ֤Ѥ뤳ȤݥȤǤꡤƱ ( assimilation ) ƯƤȤ롥֥פ̵ͭȤˤ夫夫ζ̤դ褦ˤʤꡤɽλ ( production ) Ȥϡôʤࡥ
ɽγ ( perception ) Ȥϡ֥פ̵ͭΤߤ˰¸뺹ۤȤΤϿʤ֥פȯ夫äꡤϤλˤä줿ꤹ硤˰¸Ƥ뤬椨ˡ֥󥺡פȤζ̤Τˤʤʤ뤤ϡ֥󥺡פȤƸ򤵤ĤޤȤФ¦ϡ֥פ̵ͭռŪ椹Ƕ̤ĤΤ礭γФ¦ˤȤäƤϤषʹְ㤨Ȥꥹ礭γФδϡ֥󥺡פȲŪŪ˰פȤΤʤ֥ǥפȤäƤäʹְ㤨뿴ۤʤΤǤ롥ξ硤ưۤʤ֤ѤƺۤΤˤ۲ ( dissimilation ) ƯƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ɽڤ˻Ф褦ȤСǾβžξʤߤ˻̤ä֤ޤ롥Ǥϡ assimilation κѤͥȤʤ롥ɽγФΩ줫餹ȡޤ̤ä֤Фȡ̣ζ̤Ĥʤߥ˥˳롤Ȥä뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ŪγФΤˤϡɽϸߤˤǤۤʤäƤۤ褤Ǥϡ dissimilation κѤͥȤʤ롥쥳ߥ˥ˤƻФγФϾ˥ڥǤꡤ¾ͥ褵櫓ˤϤʤ
assimilation dissimilation ϸߤ˶ĥطˤꡤ˰򤷤äƤ롥ĤκѤ˰򤷤ƤȤȤϡѲˤĤƤ롥礤ݤȤȤŷ餬Τ褦˾岼ơʤʤŻߤʤΤƱͤˡѲˤƤĤϤ˺ѤƤ뤿ˡʤʤŻߤʤ줬ѲˤʤΤϡĤˤ assimilation dissimilation ʱι˰򶥤äƤ뤫Ǥ롥

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2009-12-30 Wed

#247. ֥󥺡פ female [etymology]

ε[2009-12-29-1]ǡwomen's /wɪmɪnz/ ܸȯȤƤϡ֥󥺡פˤʤäƤޤȤ˿줿ܸǤΤۤȯ֥󥺡פȱƧǤʤֻⱤƧ ( eye rhyme ) Ȥˤʤꡤष֥󥺡פȤ椬ŪȤ餤뤫⤷ʤ
֥󥺡פФơ֥󥺡פǤϡθ̤Ф꤫[2009-12-06-1], [2009-12-07-1]Dz⤷첻ѲˤʤɡŪ餹ȵ§𤷤ƤˤʤȤͤ櫓ǤꡤȳȤƱѸؤܸüԤˤϼʤΤ⤷ʤܸˤơ֥ߥ󥺡פǤϤʤ֥󥺡פѤƤ뤳Ȥϡ(1) ݻ(2) ŪʿݻȤĤδǤ褦˻פ롥
̣ȤˡĤδϡfemale ȤñθΤˤͭǤ롥male Ф female Ȥڥϡ(1) ȯǤֻǤⱤƧǤꡤ(2) -male ʬ˷Ūʿߤ뤿˵§ŪʰݤͿƤ롥
츻õ male female Ϥޤä̵طǤ롥male ϡƥ masculum ťե󥹸ˤƽ̤ޤꡤ14˱ѸäƤ֤Ǥ롥ͽۤȤꡤmasculine ȸ츻ŪʤĤʤ꤬롥female ϡƥ fēmellam ťե󥹸ˤƽ̤ޤꡤƱ14˱ѸäƤ֤Ǥ롥male female ǡ<l> ؾΰȤƷŪ˴Ϣ뤬촴 <m> ˤϸ츻ŪŪʤĤʤϤʤξڵˡѸؼѤ줿ˤ femel(e), femelle ʤɡmale Ȱۤʤ촴첻ֻʤƤ
male ϢۤŤȻפΤ;Ǥ롥14ȾȤᤤʳǡmale ȱƧ female 㤬ǧƤ롥θ츻Ū֤ʤƤǤ⡤̣Ūоȴطˤ male ȷ֤򤽤Ȥ͡λפ¤äΤ褦Ǥ롥
male Ф female ȤΩϡ֥󥺡פФ֥󥺡פȤΩȤޤäƱǤ롥֥󥺡פǤϤʤ֥ߥ󥺡פ֤ǤʤȼĥͤϡƱ female ǤϤʤ femele ֤ǤʤȼĥʤСƵȤȤˤʤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2017-01-29-1]

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2009-12-29 Tue

#246. ϡ֥󥺡פϡ [japanese_english][link][corpus]

֥ǥפͤŪǤϤʤѸǤ⡤men's wear Ф ladies' wear ȤΤŪǤ롥Ȥ˥ؤꥻιǡ֥ 3Dˡ 1,490ߡפʤʸ򸫤Ĥ
ΤˡѸǤ women's wear ȤɽϤʤǤϤʤष mens' wear Ȥ椬ֻ eye rhyme ȤƸŪ˼ȤϤ뤫⤷ʤ[2009-12-06-1], [2009-12-07-1]Ǹ褦ˡȯ /mɛnz/ /wɪmɪnz/ ȤǤϱƧޤʤ
ܸǤϡֻȯ⸫˱Ƨࡥ֥󥺡פФơ֥󥺡פȯܸ첽뤫Ǥ롥̵ɸ ( unmarked ) ֥ǥפǤϤʤͭɸ ( marked ) ֥󥺡פȤȤΤϡ˥κ̲ά
Ѹä뤬ladies' wear women's wear Τ褦ġʰʾˤ variants ꡤɤλ٤⤤θĤʥ֥ġ뤬롥ʸ [NativeChecker]ϡWebѤƤʱʸƥȤפȤѸΥͥƥ֥åƥפǡʱѸɽΥå˰Ϥȯ롥Ϥ줿ѸɽΥҥåȿˤäơ٤伫٤פΤǡΤ褦˳ѤǤ롥
ˤȡladies' wear ΥҥåȤ2,780,000women's wear ΥҥåȤ1,520,000äԤΤۤ褽ܶ᤯٤ؤ褦褽θդȤƳѤ

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2009-12-28 Mon

#245. 2000ǯαѸήԸ [lexicology][loan_word][ads][she]

10ǯ٤ǯȤȤǻפФΤǥ⡥American Dialect Society Ǥǯ American Speech ˤƱѸήԸޤȯɽƤ롥2000ǯˤϹڤʤȤ "1999 words of the year", "words of the decade", "words of the century", "words of the millennium" 쵤˸ɽ줿
ǯήԸޤΰǯμҲѲ򿶤֤ΤˤäƤĤǤΤƱͤˡ10ǯ100ǯ1000ǯȤѥǤΡήԸפܤߤ뤳ȤϡҲˤ򿶤֤ΤˤäƤĤǤ롥ʲϡޤ˥Υߥ͡Ȥ줿Ǥ롥޸ˤ * դƤ롥

Words of the Decade

e-
ethnic cleansing
* Web
Franken --- Genetically modified, as in Frankenfood
senior moment
way --- very

Words of the Century

teenager
* jazz
T-shirt
modern
DNA
media
acronym
teddy bear
World War
cool
melting pot

Words of the Millennium

science
freedom
news
justice
truth
nature
history
human
book
language
go
the
government
OK
* she

millennium ñ̤ˤʤȡΥߥ͡Ȥδʬ褦ʬʤ褦ʡǤ롥ûŪˤϡä go, the, Ƽޤ she ˤʤȤǤ롥⥲ޥϤĶܸǤꡤη֡ǽ夯ޤǤˤ٤λ֤ΤäǤ롥ΤˤäȤäƤ褤
ʤߤ "Words of the Millennium" ˥Υߥ͡Ȥ줿15Τְ㤤ʤѸȤΤ freedom, truth, book, go, the 5ΤߤǤꡤ¾ϼѸǤ롥ΤȤϡ1500ǯ;αѸθûˤħƤ褦˻פ롥

American Speech 75.3 (2000): 323--24 (in "Among the New Words").

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2009-12-27 Sun

#244. ֻαƺΥꥹ [ame_bre][spelling]

[2009-12-23-1]ֻαƺ˿줿Ϥä˭٤󤲡˺ѤǽȤʤ褦˥ꥹȤηǤޤȤƤʲоɽϡDavies (84--90) The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Τ줾줫顤ƤǤŵŪ֤򤨤ȴΤǤ롥ˡܥޡΤΤϡ¾ֻŪ㤤٤ǤϤ뤬Ѥ줦뤳Ȥ򼨤

USUK
abridgmentabridgement
accoutermentaccoutrement
acknowledgmentacknowledgement
adapter +adaptor
agingageing
aluminumaluminium
amebaamoeba +
analyzeanalyse
anestheticanaesthetic
apologize +apologise
appallappal
appetizer +appetiser
arborarbour
ardorardour
armorarmour
armorerarmourer
armoryarmoury
artifactartefact
authorize +authorise
behaviorbehaviour
behoovebehove
calipercalliper
calisthenicscallisthenics
canceledcancelled +
candorcandour
capitalize +capitalise
catalogcatalogue
centercentre
chamomilecamomile
check (bank)cheque
checkerboardchequer-board
chilichilli
civilization +civilisation
civilize +civilise
clamorclamour
clangorclangour
clarinetistclarinettist
colorcolour
counselorcounsellor
cozycosy
curb (on a street)kerb
czartsar
defensedefence
demeanordemeanour
dependent (noun)dependant
dialingdialling
diarrheadiarrhoea
diskdisc
distilldistil
dolordolour
draftdraught
economize +economise
enamorenamour
endeavorendeavour
enrollenrol
enthrallenthral
equalize +equalise
favorfavour
favoritefavourite
favoritismfavouritism
fervorfervour
fiberfibre
flavorflavour
fulfillfulfil
furorfurore
gagegauge +
gemologygemmology
graygrey +
harborharbour
harmonize +harmonise
honorhonour
honorablehonourable
humorhumour
initialize +initialise
inquiry +enquiry
installmentinstalment
instillinstil
jailjail/gaol
jewelerjeweller
jewelryjewellery
judgmentjudgement
laborlabour
licenselicence
literlitre
maneuvermanoeuvre
marvelousmarvellous
memorize +memorise
misdemeanormisdemeanour
mobilize +mobilise
moldmould
moldingmoulding
mommum
mustachemoustache
naughtnought
neighborneighbour
neighborhoodneighbourhood
normalize +normalise
odorodour
organize +organise
pajamaspyjamas
paralyzeparalyse
parlorparlour
pasteurize +pasteurise
peddler +pedlar
percentper cent
persnicketypernickety
plowplough
polarize +polarise +
practice (verb)practise
pretensepretence
programprogramme
pulverize +pulverise
rancorrancour
realize +realise
recognize +recognise
rigorrigour
rumorrumour
savorsavour
savorysavoury
skepticsceptic
skillfulskilful
specterspectre
spilledspilt
splendorsplendour
story (of a building)storey
succorsuccour
sulfursulphur
symbolize +symbolise
sympathize +sympathise
theatertheatre +
tiretyre
travelertraveller
tumortumour
utilize +utilise
valorvalour
vaporvapour
vaporize +vaporise
vigorvigour
vise (tool)vice
willfulwilful
worshiperworshipper


Davies, Christopher. Divided by a Common Language: A Guide to British and American English. Mayflower, 1997. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007.

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2009-12-26 Sat

#243. phonaesthesia ߡ [sound_symbolism][phonaesthesia][phonetics][conjugation]

ε[2009-12-25-1]ǡ塦첻ֶᤤפ򡤸塦첻ֱ󤤡礭פ򼨺ȤѸ phonaesthesia ˤ
ǧβʳؤǤϡŪʡֱפȻŪʡֱפطƤ뤳ȤϹǧƤ롥塦첻 "here-me-now" 򡤸塦첻 "there-you-then" ħȤ֤α phonaesthesia ˤĤƤ⡤Smith Τ㤬ΤǾҲ𤷤
ȤΤ Prokosch ΰѤˤȤŤΤǤꡤʲ¹Ȥʤ뤬Smith ʸƷǤ롥

American nursery talk offers an amusing illustration. A little steam train tries to climb a hill and says cheerfully, 'I think I can, I think I can.' But the hill is too steep, the poor little engine slides back and says sadly, 'I thought I could, I thought I could.' The front vowels [ɪ æ] aptly characterize the active interest in the successful performance, the back vowels [ɔ ʊ] the melancholy retrospect to what might have been. (Prokosch 122 qtd in Smith 13)


Ե§Ѳư ( Ablaut or gradation ) ѻƤߤȡ߷Ȳ˸첻첻ȸ첻б򼨤Ƥ㤬ʤ餺 ( Smith 14 )äˡ첻ܰȯꤹȡη褯狼

߷
writewrote
bindbound
bearbore
treadtrod
shakeshook


phonaesthesia ϲỌ̇̄δطηˤʤ㳰õФǤ󤲤ʣ variants 礷ƤĶǡ variant Ф뤳Ȥˤʤä硤򺸱ѥ᡼ΰĤˤʤꤦȤȤϵǤΤǤϤʤ

Prokosch, Eduard. A Comprehensive Germanic Grammar. Philadelphia: Linguistic Society of America, 1939.
Smith, Jeremy J. "Phonaesthesia, Ablaut and the History of the English Demonstratives." Medieval English and its Heritage. Ed. Nikolaus Ritt, Herbert Schendl, Christiane Dalton-Puffer, and Dieter Kastovsky. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2006.

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2009-12-25 Fri

#242. phonaesthesia [sound_symbolism][onomatopoeia][phonaesthesia][phonetics]

Glasgow ؤβ Jeremy J. Smith ΤΰĤ sound symbolismsound symbolism ˤ onomatopoeia phonaesthesia ꡤԤˤĤƤ[2009-11-20-1]ǿ줿
衤켫Ȥϰ̣⤿ʤ벻䲻Ϣγǰ뤤Ϥ٤ι⤤ݡȷӤĤȤ롥ηӤĤΤȤ phonaesthesia ȸƤ֡ϸ줴Ȥ˰ۤʤ뤬֤Ƕ̤뤳Ȥ¿ѸǤϡ첻첻ϡֶᤤװݤ򡤸첻㤤첻ϡֱ󤤡礭װݤȷӤĤȤ¿㤨СΩϰʲΥڥˤߤ롥

meyou (sg.)
weyou (pl.)
herethere
thisthat
thesethose


羮ΩˤĤƤϡPinker (162--63) ȤȤ

When the tongue is high and at the front of the mouth, it makes a small resonant cavity there that amplifies some higher frequencies, and the resulting vowels like ee and i (as in bit) remind people of little things. When the tongue is low and to the back, it makes a large resonant cavity that amplifies some lower frequencies, and the resulting vowels like a in father and o in core and in cot remind people of large things. Thus mice are teeny and squeak, but elephants are humongous and roar. Audio speakers have small tweeters for the high sounds and large woofers for the low ones.



Pinker Steven. The Language Instinct. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. Harper Perennial Modern Classics. 2007.

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2009-12-24 Thu

#241. Caxton αѸ1475ǯ [caxton][printing]

ε[2009-12-22-1]ǼꤢĤαѸˤޤȤ᥵ȤεҤǡCaxton ΰƳ˴ؤǯ椬Ǥ1475ǯ¾Ǥ1476ǯȤʤäƤϡˤĤƥȡ
Ѹ˾Τߤʤ餺󥰥ʸ˾̾Ĥ William Caxton ϡ1422ǯ England Kent [2009-09-02-1]Ǥ⿨줿ȤꡤϸߤΥ٥륮 Brugge 30ǯʾںߤFlanders Holland ޤӤξͤ¤ȤĹ餯ƶϤؤäƤ
δ֤ʸؤؤδؿ򿼤ᡤ1469ǯ1471ǯˤ Raoul Le Fèvre Recueil des histoires de Troye 礦ɤλ Cologne ǰѤؤǤꡤBrugge ȰΩ1475ǯ˱ The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye ˾αѸΰʪǤ롥
1476ǯˤϡ⤦ĤΥե󥹸줫αǤ The Game and Playe of the Chesse Brugge ǽǤǯ England ꡤWestminster ˰ΩEngland ΰǤ롥
Caxton ϸˡChaucer Canterbury Tales (1478? and 1484?), John Gower Confessio amantis (1483), Sir Thomas Malory Le Morte d'Arthur (1485) ʤɡ̾ʱʸغʤ¿1491ǯ London ˴ʤޤǤˡCaxton 100ܤΰʪ˽Ф
ʾꡤΤȤʬ

1475ǯᡡѸΰʪƸ줿ǯ
1476ǯᡡEngland ˰꤬Ƹ줿ǯ

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2009-12-23 Wed

#240. ֻαƺ礭 [ame_bre][spelling][webster][l]

ѸαƺȤֻαƺϡȤǼͳݡȤʤɤݤȿ͵ΤǤ롥ʲΤ褦оɽ뤳Ȥ¿

ꥫѸꥹѸ
color, humorcolour, humour
center, litercentre, litre
defense, offensedefence, offence
traveler, traveledtraveller, travelled
ameba, anestheticamoeba, anaesthetic


ơԻ Noah Webster (1758-1843) 礤˽ФƥꥫѸֻפä򤹤Τ֤Ǥ롥
ɽֻαƺΰ򼨤˲᤮ʤȤϤΤΡŪûɽηǤޤȤȤȤϡ⤽⺹ʤȤξڵǤ롥षŪˤ⤪ΥƤꡤʬ줷400ǯ᤯κзήƤˤ⤫餺ʤȤȤ϶äǤ롥
ƺϤȤĴ줬ºݤˤϺ϶ϾǤȤϡ[2009-12-21-1]ǿ줿 Krapp ˸Ǥ롥Krapp ϥꥫѸˤ򥤥ꥹѸˤΩƵҤ뤳Ȥ褷Ȥʤ٤ӤƤȤäƤ롥ֻκˤĤƤ֤ߤפȤոΤ褦Ǥ롥

On the whole, Americans, like the British, have been conservative in their treatment of spelling, and the notion that American spelling is radical and revolutionary seems indeed to be mainly a survival from eighteenth and early nineteenth century political feeling. (Vol. 1, 328)


Krapp, George Philip. English Language in America. 2 vols. New York: Century, 1925.

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2009-12-22 Tue

#239. ȥꥢȯѸˤΥ祳 [link][periodisation]

Wovreϥȥꥢȯߥ˥ƥȡؤμȤιֵΡȤΤޤȤ᥵ȤȤľΥ祳ȤΤ褦ʥƥĤƤ롥ȥꥢ˥塼ɤ(?)Ƥ褦ǡѸˤ˴ؤΤĸĤä

Language Acquisition and Change --- History of English: Ѹˤ5ʬȤä
Language Change --- Timeline: ɽηDZѸˤ򤶤äȰ˾

ʬperiodisationˤδϡˤ嵭ĤΡֱѸˡפϤȤ8ʬǤ롥Ѹ줬֥ƥ˻ޤ줿5ʹߤͤȡԤ7ʬԤ6ʬǤ롥ԤǤϡ16ʹߤϤ褽1ߤζʬȤʤäƤ롥¿쾯ʤʬŪǤʾ塤1ߤȤΤϡष狼䤹ʬ⤷ʤ
ΤޤȤ᤿Ȥ褯ФƤ롥Ȥʤ֤ؤפȻפ˰㤤ʤʤޤȤᥢ祳ʤΤǾŪǤꡤ褷ηŪǤϤʤ
ɼʥ祳ˤϡ̻ˤ򵭽ҤΤƱ餤Υ󥹤ɬפǤϤʤֱѸˤΥ祳פˤϤĤȥ饤Ƥߤ

Referrer (Inside): [2009-12-24-1]

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2009-12-21 Mon

#238. Ѹˤˤ causation ɵ [ame][historiography][causation]

ŵŪʥꥫѸˤ Krapp ϡꥫѸȯꥫͤε˵Ȥ¯ФäڤΤƤƤ롥ꥫѸü߽ФװϺǽŪˤϤɤ˵ϤȤǧĤĤ⡤ΤȤȽǤʤΤ顤ʳηѾ ( inheritance )ʤꥹѸ줫ΰ仺ȤߤʤΤ˲ȤȤƸ٤ǤϤʤȤˤˤ֤ʤפɵ椹 causation εˤơǽŪʸͤߤ뤳Ȥ񤷤Τꤦ¤ʸŪڵ򤫤äȤ⤢ꤽʷѾβΩƤƵҤ褦ȤʳŪ٤ƩŰƤ롥

Especially in speech covering short chronological periods, as is the case in comparing British and American speech, one may more hopefully look to inheritance than to ultimate causes in seeking to account for the traits which present themselves. Inheritance obviously will not explain everything, since what is inherited must ultimately have had a determining cause, must have had an origin; but if one cannot discover ultimate origins, the historia, at least, can content himself with transmissions. (Vol. 2, 22--23)


If one did not fear to affirm a universal positive, one might say that in every case the distinctive features of American pronunciation have been but survivals from older usages with were, and in some instances still are, to be found in some dialect or other of the speech of England. (Vol. 2, 28)


The student who would explain American speech as derived from British speech has an inexhaustible store of variations to draw upon, and it is only when the probabilities in all directions have been exhausted that one may turn to the theory of independent and original development of speech sounds in America. (Vol. 2, 29)


ΤȤ Krapp ϡꥫѸ򥤥ꥹѸαĹ˰֤ŤƤꡤꥫ ( the American language ) ǧʤΩǤ롥⤦ĤΥꥫѸˤθŵ The American Language Mencken Ȥ٤ۤʤ롥

Krapp, George Philip. English Language in America. 2 vols. New York: Century, 1925.
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Abridged ed. New York: Knopf, 1963. 194.

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2009-12-20 Sun

#237. Ѹˤλʬ (6) [periodisation]

[2009-12-19-1]Ǹ褦ˡSweet Old English, Middle English, Modern English λʬϡߤ˻ޤDZѸˤ˶ƶڤܤƤ롥Sweet Ϥλʬ򤵤˺ʬȬʬΥС⾧Ƥ롥Ԥϡƻɽ̾뤤Ϻ̾źƤΤħǤ롥

Period Prototype Range
Early Old English Alfred 700--900
Late Old English Ælfric 900--1100
Transition Old English Laȝamon 1100--1200
Early Middle English Ancrene Riwle 1200--1300
Late Middle English Chaucer 1300--1400
Transition Middle English Caxton 1400--1500
Early Modern English Shakespeare 1500--1650
Late Modern English no prototype 1650--


ȬʬħϡOld English κǸMiddle English κǸȤơ"Transition" ȤꤷƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡѲϢ³ΤǤꡤʳθΤ˰ĤλʬؤȤळȤܼŪԲǽǤȤ Sweet ǧ򼨺Ƥ롥
ȤϤȬʬȤλʬäˤƤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥꡤ¾ "triadomany" ˱äƤȤߤʤƺ٤ʤ̥٥ Early, Late, Transition Ȥ˻ʬ䤷Ƥ뤳Ȥϡष "triadomany" 򶯲ƤȤ뤫⤷ʤ

Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 7--41. esp. Page 16.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-06-13-1] [2011-04-19-1]

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2009-12-19 Sat

#236. Ѹˤλʬ (5) [periodisation]

Morris αѸˤϻʬ[2009-12-18-1]ϰ̤ˤϹޤʤäѸˤλʬˤĤƸ˶ƶϤڤܤΤϡSweet äSweet 1871ǯ Anglo-SaxonOld English ȤƾΤƳ

I use 'Old English' throughout this work to denote the unmixed, inflectional stage of the English language, commonly known by the barbarous and unmeaning title of 'Anglo-Saxon' (v, n. 1)


Old English ȤƾΤγΩˤäơOld English, Middle English, Modern English ȤʬưΤΤȤʤäSweet, Grammar 594) 줬ߤˤޤ "canonical" ʱѸˤλʬǤ롥ħϰʲǡǤ롥

Old English: "period of full endings" (e.g. mōna, sunne, sunu, stānas).
Middle English: "period of levelled endings" (e.g. mōne, sunne, sune, stōnes).
Modern English: "period of lost endings" (moon, sun, son, stones).

ơѸˤλʬϺƤ "triadomany" ؤȲ󵢤ΤǤ롥

Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 7--41. esp. Pages 14--16.
Sweet, Henry. King Alfred's West-Saxon Version of Gregory's Pastoral Care. EETS os 45. London: OUP, 1871.
Sweet, Henry. A New English Grammar, Logical and Historical. Vol. 1. Introduction, Phonology, and Accidence. Oxford: Clarendon, 1891.

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2009-12-18 Fri

#235. Ѹˤλʬ (4) [periodisation]

19ȾˤϡѸˤοʬ٤ߤ줿ΤΰĤMorris (48--56) θ޶ʬʼ¼Ūˤϻʬ˰ƤǤ롥Ǥ Grimm "triadomany" μƤ롥Morris ϳƶʬ˸ƾΤ򤢤ƤΤ򤱡ǽդMorris Ƥܤ٤ϡŪʴˤʬߤȤǤ롥ʲϡMorris ζʬ Lass (15) 󤷤ΤǤ롥

Period Range Defining Characters
1st Period 450--1100 "Synthetic" rather than analytic, gender, noun declension, infinitive in -an, past participle prefix ge-, etc.
2nd Period 1100--1250 Final -a, -o, -u levelled in -e, article > þe, -es plurals begin to substitute for weak -en; "confusion" in gender leading to some merger, loss of infinitive -n.
3rd Period 1250--1350 Still some article inflexions, increasing gender confusion, -en/-es often "indiscriminately" in noun plurals, loss of dual, present participle in -inge.
4th Period 1350--1460 Ic(h) > I, dative and accusative pronouns merge in old dative (him/hine > him, etc.), loss of infinitive marker, rise of they, their, them
5th Period (1) 1460--1520 None are given.
5th Period (2) 1520--Present None are given.


3ʬ⤭٤ʶʬɬפȤȤϡѲϢ³ΤǤ뤳Ȥ궯ǧ椨ޤ"Defining Characters" ˼ƤŪϷ褷ηŪǤϤʤΤΡҴŪʴΩƤ褦Ȥɾ٤

Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 7--41. esp. Page 15.
Morris, Richard. Historical Outlines of English Accidence. London: Macmillan, 1882.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-08-01-1] [2009-12-19-1]

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2009-12-17 Thu

#234. Ѹˤλʬ (3) [periodisation]

[2009-12-15-1], [2009-12-16-1]Ǹ褦ˡGrimm ˤäƥɥĸˤƤϤ줿ʬθ§ϡѸˤˤȵڤ뤳Ȥˤʤäˤ⡤ѸθŤʳؤƾΤ¸ߤƤ1617˸ŤѸФؿ줿Ȥ͡ϺǤűѸؤ Anglo-Saxon ֥󥰥פȸƤθƾΤϸǤȤɤʹ롥 Anglo-Saxon ȸڤˤϤޤ˸Ū˰ۤʤäƤꡤȤäƶαѸȤۤʤäƤʳαѸؤϰϤۣʸƾΤȤ Semi-Saxon Ѥ줿
1617衤Anglo-Saxon Semi-Saxon ȤʬθƾΤĹ餯ȤƤ1839ǯ Wright Middle English ȤѸ򿷤ƳWright Τ Middle English ϡ Middle English Ȥ򤵤ƤθؤƤ褦Ǥ롥

The form of our language during the twelfth and the first half of the thirteenth century is generall termed Semi-Saxon; from that period to the time of the Reformation it has received from modern philologists the name of Middle English (Wright 107 cited in OED, s.v. English B. sb. 1a).


Anglo-Saxon, Semi-Saxon, Middle English ȤʬθƤ̾Ѥ줿᤯19Ⱦˤ̤λʬƤ뤳ȤȤʤä

Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 7--41. esp. Page 14.
Wright, Thomas. Literature and language under the Anglo-Saxons. 1839.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-07-1]

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2009-12-16 Wed

#233. Ѹˤλʬ (2) [periodisation][germanic][unidirectionality][speed_of_change]

ε[2009-12-15-1]ǡGrimm ˤλʬˤ "triadomany" äȤ˸ڤˤɥĸˤ Old High German, Middle High German, New High German ػʬΩˤϡñ˻Ĥλ夬˱ä󤵤줿ȤȰʾˡפʸѲ˴ؤޤߤäϡѲ ( directionality ) äƤꡤѲ®٤ϻ夬ʤˤĤ٤ʤäƤƤȤĥǤ롥Grimm ҤΰͤǤ Förstemann ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

die Veränderung der deutschen Sprache zwischen dem 9. und 13. Jarhundert durchschnittlich eine etwa dreimal so große Schnelligkeit besessen hat als zwischen dem 13. und 19. Jahrhundert, daß also das Sprachleben in jener Zeit etwa dreimal so stark war als in dieser. (84)


ʿѤ 9 -- 13 θѲ 13 -- 19 θѲ3®ԤϸθѲ3®ȤȤˤʤ롥ˤֻܡפƤꡤ"triadomany" ε̣ǻǤ롥⤽ѲΤɤ¦̤٤ƻܤʤΤѲ®٤ͲǤΤȵ䤬롥DzפʤΤϡGrimm ˤ Förstemann ˤ衤ѲȤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ѳ®٤θƤʾ塤ưƤȤȤˤϤǤ롥
ѲϤ˿ʤ ( unidirectional ) ΤʤΤˤϡѲ礭꤬ޤޤƤ롥

Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 7--41. esp. Page 13.
Förstemann, Ernst. "Über die numerischen Lautverhältnisse im Deutschen." Germania: Neues Jahrbuch der Berlinischen Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache und Alterthumskunde 7 (1846): 83--90.

Referrer (Inside): [2009-12-17-1]

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2009-12-15 Tue

#232. Ѹˤλʬ (1) [periodisation][germanic]

[2009-10-02-1]εǥꥫѸˤλʬҲ𤷤Ȥˡָ˲Ȥޤᡤ˲ȤϻʬΤʤ褦ǡפꡤʬϡָοʲ򶯤ռ19Υ˥ŪȯۡפǤȽҤ٤ʥꥹ˱ѸˤⴷŪ Old English, Middle English, Modern English ( Present-day English ޤ ˤȻʬ뤷ʬطʤˤϲꤽǤ롥Lass "triadism" ֻʬפ뤤 "triadomany" ֻʬ¡פȸƤǤͤɤΤ褦˸λʬεǤͤƤߤε Lass ʸ˱äΡȤκۤˤʤȻפΤǡǤäƤ
"triadomany" γϤϡޥӸؤ Jacob Grimm ˵롥ˡ§grimms_lawˤͭ̾ʤΥɥĤΥޥԤϡGesetz der Trilogie ֻˡ§פοԤǤꡤɥĸˤ Althochdeutsch "Old High German" , Mittelhochdeutsch "Middle High German", Neuhochdeutsch "New High German" ȻʬιͤѸޤ¾ΥޥˤŬѤ줿
Grimm (274) ϡˤλʬΤߤʤ餺줽ΤΤˡֻȡפƤȹͤ

ñпʣ
;;;;
ǽưưư
̤
????a-stemi-stemu-stem


ˤϵ֤롥[2009-10-26-1]Ǹ褦ˡޥˤϷṲ̄Ϥʤޤޥ饹ȤƤϡ¾ˤ ō-stem Ƽ consonant-stem ⤢äԤϼפʥ饹ǤˡǤ⡤Grimm ϡֻפϤ򶯤ƤΤǤ롥

Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 7--41. esp. Page 12.
Grimm, Jacob. Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. Leipzig: Hirzel, 1848.

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2009-12-14 Mon

#231. 쵯ζػߤ [origin_of_language]

εϰǤޤƤ롥[2009-06-08-1]ǿ줿褦ˡ10ǯۤȯȤΤǤϤʤȸƤ뤬ʤɤΤ褦ȯˤĤƤϲ¬ΰФʤ¬Ͽʹ֤Ϥεڤ֤˹Τǡε˴ؤƤϡ˴¿⤬󾧤Ƥ󤲤СΤޤͤ򤷤⡤ȢΤ Noah 줬ǽθǤäȤ⡤
쵯ϤäȤ⶯͡椭ĤƤΰĤǤ뤬⤽ʳŪ˾ԲǽǤ뤳Ȥ餹٤ƤεӤǤȤơ1866ǯե󥹤θ춨ϰڤθ쵯ζػߤ1893ǯˤϡꥫ͸ؼԤ William Dwight Whitney ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

No theme in linguistic science is more often and more voluminously treated than this . . . nor any . . . with less profitable result in proportion to the labour expended; the greater part of what is said and written upon it is mere windy talk, the assertion of subjective views which commend themselves to no mind save the one that produces them, and which are apt to be offered with a confidence. This has given the whole question a bad repute among sober-minded philologists. (279)


Τ褦ˡ쵯ϸؤʬǤϥ֡Ȥ褦ˤʤäǯƤӵ褷ƤƤ롥Aitchison ιͻˤСˤĤͳȤĤϡŪǼषƤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡΩɤʳؼԤǤ顤ꡤ˸ͿȤζ˿øΩ뤳Ȥ򤱤褦Ȥ뷹äˤ뽡ѤޤȤȤˡȿָ᤿פ⸺ƤƤꡤʲ˴ŤҥȤȸε夲䤹ʤäƤΤȤ
⤦Ĥͳϡ¾ưʪȤӤˤҥȤθ椬ŸƤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥19ˤΤʤäؤκǿθ˴Ťʸ쵯ϺϤޤĤĤȤȤsee [2009-10-04-1]ˡ
٤Ͼ嵭ΤΤؤζʽǼ夲뤳Ȥ¿쵯ˤĤƤϡThe Origin of Languageˤ褯ޤȤƤ롥

Aitchison, Jean. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 1996. 4--7.
Whitney, W. D. Oriental and Linguistic Studies. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1893.

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2009-12-13 Sun

#230. äȤФȽ񤭤ȤФΩŪ [writing][register][medium]

Ѹ variety ѥ᡼ΰĤ medium פ뤳Ȥϡ[2009-12-10-1]εǽҤ٤ʹ֤θμפΤȤƤϡäȤ ( speech or spoken language ) Ƚ񤭤Ȥ ( writing or written language ) बꤦ롥ԤİФˡԤϻФʤΤħȤ롥Фʤ⤦ĤΤȤơ[2009-07-16-1]ǿ줿ּø ( sign language ) 뤬ϵ鳰
衤äȤФȽ񤭤ȤФΤ֤ƤΥ֥Dz٤夲ƤȯֻЪΥ⡤äȤФȽ񤭤ȤФΩ¸ߤǤꡤȤȿ뤳Ȥ餢뤳ȤڤƤ롥ޤİа¸а¸Ȥ̤ϡʪŪŪΤʶ̤Ǥꡤ֤ϼΤȤΤ褦˻פ롥
쥳ߥ˥ȼδ֤δطᤤ󤤤Ȥ֥󥻥ץȡפδ餹ȡäȤФȽ񤭤ȤФζɬΤǤʤȤ˵Ť㤨СֱθϸƬǤʤ뤬񤭤ȤФɤŨֱ󤤤ȤС ( Sprache der Distanz ) Ǥ롥դˡåȤʸ̤Ƥʤ뤬äȤФɤŨֶᤤȤС ( Sprache der Nähe ) Ǥ롥Koch and Oesterreicher medium concept ݤ碌ʲΤ褦ʥǥ󾧤ʰʲοޤϡĻβѤ䤬˲ѤΤǤ롥

Koch and Oesterreicher's Medium Model

ΥǥϡʱѸ˸ؤˡ˼ͿƤ롥θ褦ȤĤߤˤƺɤϡäȤФξڵľܤ뤳Ȥ񤷤ȤǤ롥쥳νиäȤФˤϡߤˤޤǻĤäƤ񤭤ȤФλ꤬ˤƴŪäȤФȤˡĤƤʤKoch and Oesterreicher Υǥ餫ʤ褦ˡ񤭤ȤФǤäȤι⤤ variety ¸ߤ롥Τ褦ʽ񤭤Ȥ variety ˰͵򤹤뤳ȤǡäȤФ᤹ܶ뤳ȤǽǤϤʤäȤФȽ񤭤ȤФΩϡ褤ƤۤŪʤΤǤϤʤȹͤ롥

ԡ˸βǽ --- ᴤ뤫ĤƤθŪסط38612桤2009ǯ68--75ǡ
Koch, Peter and Wulf Oesterreicher. "Sprache der Nähe -- Sprache der Distanz: Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit im Spannungsfeld von Sprachtheorie und Sprachgeschichte." Romanistisches Jahrbuch 36 (1985): 15--43.

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2009-12-12 Sat

#229. recognize women [pronunciation][spelling][phonetics]

ѸˤȯֻδطƤ뤳Ȥϡܥ֥ǤƻƻͤȤꤢƤǤ <o> /ɪ/ Υޥå󥰤̯Ǥ뤫[2009-05-13-1], [2009-12-06-1], [2009-12-07-1]Ǹä
Υޥå󥰤θͣȤ women /wɪmɪn/ 󤲤¤ϡͣפǤϤʤ¿μ recognize /ˈrɛkəgˌnaɪz/ ȯȤ뤬 /ˈrɛkɪgˌnaɪz/ ȯ󤲤Ƥ뼭񤬤ex. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionaryˡ첻첻첻Ǥ뤿ᡤ³ /k/ Ĵˤʤꡤ³첻ˤαƶͿȤȤˤʤΤ
recognize ˤ <o> /ɪ/ Υޥå󥰤ϡ(1) ȯѰۤΰĤˤʤȡ(2) 岻ˤߤˤʤȤ顤women ΥΤˤϵڤФʤϤꡤΰ۾ʥޥå󥰤ͣθԤ women ȤäƤ٤

Referrer (Inside): [2010-11-13-1]

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2009-12-11 Fri

#228. ѸѼΥǥ (2) [variety][idiolect][elf][model_of_englishes]

ε[2009-12-10-1]˰³ѸѼΥǥ򷡤겼롥
[2009-12-10-1]ǼǥˤСѸüԤˤѤѼ ( variety ) ϡ"the common core" ϻĤΥѥ᡼ͤǵҤǤ롥դˤС"the common core of English" ϻĤΥѥ᡼ͤݤ碌ȡĤѼ郎ޤ롥
Τ褦ޤäѼˤƤ⡤ޤѼϸ줦롥㤨СƱüԤƱĶʸ̮ạ̇̄ŪŪʺޤ᤺ˡİʾɽȤƤľ礬롥Quirk et al. (30) ϼΤ褦󤲤Ƥ롥

He stayed a week or He stayed for a week
Two fishes or two fish
Had I know or If I had known


¾ŪǤ롤ʤɤȤȤŪˤϤ뤫⤷ʤۤΤʺǤϤʤξ硤ϻĤΥѥ᡼ˤä줿Ѽˡߥʥ٥ǤѼ郎Ǥ뤳 ( varieties within a variety ) 򼨺롥ΥߥѼι¤ϡʲΤ褦˥ǥ벽Ƥ롥

Varieties within a Variety

ĤѼ㤨СꥹɸѸǡѸˤιֵƬŪեޥʸոʤäƤαѸѼꤷ褦ѸˤѸѤˤϡ褽경ƤѸ줬¿Τǡ"relatively uniform" ʥߥѼѤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ֵѸǿʤ櫓ǤϤʤä˥եޥʸոǿʤƤˤϡäޤ뤳Ȥ⤢ĴȤɬפȤˡvery, indeed, not a little, really ʤɤŪ¿ͤ ( "relatively diverse" ) ɽȤƹͤ뤬ϹֵԸĿͤΤäƤȤϡֵԤޤ᤿춦ƱΤǹͭƤ ( "variation in community's usage" ) ȹͤ٤ֵԸĿͤθʤȤ very, very, very, very, very to a gigantic extent ȤäѤζĴȤƤäƤ ( "variation in individual's usage" ) ΤѤ뤫ϴ˸ĿŪǤ롥
variety νߤͤͤȡɡĿ͸ ( idiolect ) ˹Ԥ夤Ƥޤ褦

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972. 30--32.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-01-15-1] [2010-06-16-1]

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2009-12-10 Thu

#227. ѸѼΥǥ [variety][register][elf][model_of_englishes]

Quirk et al. ϡѤƤѸοѼ ( varieties ) ˺Ū "the common core" ȹͤƤ롥ơġαѸüԤѤθѤƤѼϡݲ줿 "the common core" äȤơƼѹɲäܤ줿ΤǤȤ롥Ѽ ( varieties ) ʬहݤΥѥ᡼ȤƤϡʲοޤ̤ꡤϻĤ variety classes ǧƤ롥

Variety Classes of English

(1) Region ϰѼؤ, American English, British English, South African English, Australian English, Indian English, Jamaican English ʤɡ̤ ( dialect ) ȸƤФ복ǰȽŤʤ롥
(2) Education and social setting ϶ˤѼä˼ҲŪʸҤȹǧƤɸѸ ( Standard English ) ȸƤФѼ˴ؤ롥礭 standard substandard Ѽʬ롥
(3) Subject matter ϼˤѼǤ롥register ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥㤨СˡΧ˴ؤѸŪʸäɽ¿ޤѼǤ뤷Υ쥷ԤαѸ̿ʸ¿ѤäѼȹͤ롥ʳʸαѸϼư֤¿αѸϸʸäʸˡޤȤ褦ˡħäѼ郎̵¸ߤ롥
(4) Medium ϸưΤˤѼؤ¾塤äդ񤭸դζ̤Ȥʤ롥
(5) Attitude üԤФ٤䥳ߥ˥Ū˱ƷޤѼǤ롥style ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ǫФäƤٹ礤¯ø褽褽ʤɡƼο֤бѼ郎롥绨Ĥˡrigid -- formal -- normal -- informal -- familiar Ϣ³ΤȤɽǤѼǤ롥
(6) Interference ϡ˳ȤƱѸԤθŪħˤִġפ줿ѸѤ˴طѼǤ롥㤨СܸüԤäѸϡȯʸˡʤɤǸߤ˻̤äƤ뤳Ȥ¿ξ硤ܸδĤѸѼˤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥

οޤǡ(1) (5) ν¤ǤΤˤŪʰ̣Ϥʤ variety class ¾ variety class Ȥ褦ˤϢǤ롥(1) ꥫѸΡ(2) ɸѼǡ(3) ݡĤˤĤơ(4) äդǡ(5) ŪǫˡȤȤϲǽ(1) åȥɱѸΡ(2) ܤѸǡ(3) Ҷγܤ(4) 񤭡(5) ƤߤʸΤǡɽȤȤϲǽǤ롥
ǡ(1) (5) ν¤ǤΤϴ̵̣ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ̤ˤ variety class ̤ˤ variety class ȤʤäƤ륱뤫Ǥ롥㤨С(2) Standard English ȤѼϡ(1) ϰѼˤäƸꤵ롥ǹǧƤ Standard English ϸǤ¸ߤޤǥꥫѸ Standard English ȤꥹѸ Standard English Ȥ褦ˡϰѼȤƤ롥̾(1) (2) ѼϸĿͥ٥ǸꤷƤ
ޤ(3) ˵󤲤ˡΧѸϡˡΧѸȤƽˡ(2) ζܤѸɸѸȤˤĤƤʤȻϤޤʤ(4) ν񤭸դ⡤(2) ζܤѸɸѸ줬ȤʤäƤ롥򼰤ξ̤ѤѸϡ(5) ˴ϢƷФäƤ뤳ȤԤ뤬 (4) μˤѼħȤߤʤ٤⤷ʤ(3), (4), (5) ϸĿͤΤʤǤˤäɤưѼǤ롥
(6) ϡ줫αѸФŪĤȤǡбѸγ¦äϤǤꡤ¾ variety classes ȤϰۼǤ뤿ᡤޤǤγ˰֤ŤƤ롥

̵¤ι꤬ȹͤѸˡ⤽ the common core ꤹ뤳ȤǤΤȤȿ⤢뤬ѸѼΥǥȤƻͤˤʤǥǤ롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972. 13--30.

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2009-12-09 Wed

#226. Ѹ "apolitical" ʸ줫 [politics][sociolinguistics][elf]

ҲؤǤϡ줬ҲŪ¸ߤǤꡤФŪ¸ߤǤ⤢뤳ȤȤƤ롥äˡȤƤαѸ줬ȤΤʤŪǤޤäޤʤȤȤϤʤΤǤϤʤȤפ롥㤨С[2009-11-30-1], [2009-12-05-1]ǤߤѸüԤƱߥǥǤСInner Circle °Τֵϡ ( norma ) 濴ˤꡤ¦ Circles °͡ѤѸ˱ƶͿȤϡ켫ΤŪ ( political ) ޤߤäƤ롥
ҲؤǤʤߤΡָפȡפζ̤˴ؤ⡤줬Ū¸ߤǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤Ƥ롥ܤǴŪΩΩȤСο̱ϼʬθܸδפǤϤʤִפȾΤ뤫⤷ʤΩȰʸǸŪˤϲѲƤʤˤ⤫餺Ǥ롥
ޤɤʤɤ¿ҲˤƤϡ¾θ٤ŪΩΩˤ뤫ȤͳǡѸ줬⥳ߥ˥ŪѤƤ롥ξ硤ѸŪΩȸʤƤΤ顤Ū ( unpolitical ) ̤ƤȤǤ뤬⤽ʣʸŪȤƱѸ줬ФƤ櫓Ǥꡤλ֤ȴطʤȤϸʤ"political" Ūפˤ "unpolitical" Ūפˤ衤 politics פδޤߤ뤳ȤȤƻǤ롥
Τ褦ˡҲؤǤϡ줬ܼŪ鼫ͳǤϤʤȤ򼨤㤬¿󤲤롥ǤϤʤȻפҲؤؽԤϡָŪפȤơ򤿤ޤ櫓Ǥ롥ȤKachru μʸϤ˽Ф路ƶäȤƤαѸ˴ؤʤҲؤǰŪǤʤϤΤʤΤʤˡ"apolitical" Ȥƻ줬ФƤΤơμϡֱѸפʤΤǤ롥ĹѤ롥

As an aside, one might add here that all the countries where English is a primary language are functional democracies. The outer circle and the expanding circle do not show any such political preferences. The present diffusion of English seems to tolerate any political system, and the language itself has become rather apolitical. In South Asia, for example, it is used as a tool for propaganda by politically diverse groups: the Marxist Communists, the China-oriented Communists, and what are labelled as the Muslim fundamentalists and the Hindu rightists as well as various factions of the Congress party. Such varied groups seem to oppose the Western systems of education and Western values. In the present world, the use of English certainly has fewer political, cultural, and religious connotations than does the use of any other language of wider communication. (14)


"unpolitical" ŪפǤϤʤ "apolitical" ̵ŪȤ̵طΡפǤȤݥȤȤʤ롥"unpolitical" ϥޥʥ "political" ŪפǤȤ̣ǡɤΤȤ "political" ƱɶξˤѸǤ롥ռƤ뤫餳"political" "unpolitical" Ȥ̤פʤΤǤ롥Ȥ"apolitical" ϡ⤽ȤɶγˤꡤФ̵ط̵ؿǤ뤳ȤɽѸǤ롥ʤۤɡѸ줬س礷Ƥ椯ˤƤϡƹϰΤɤǤ뤫ȤꥫȤιݴطɤǤ뤫ʤɤȤȤϡȤϸʤޤǤ⤽ۤɴͿŪǤϤʤ
ָŪפȤҲؤǾƬˤϡȤƤαѸ줬 "apolitical" ǤꤦȤȯۤϿä

Kachru, B. B. "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle." English in the World. Ed. R. Quirk and H. G. Widdowson. Cambridge: CUP, 1985. 11--30.

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2009-12-08 Tue

#225. ֱѸ˸פȤϡ [hel]

ܤˤֱѸ˸פϡɽ⤺äȹΰʤäƤ롥ȤƸʤСܻ˸椬ñܤβ˵ä¤٤ǯɽŻǤʤΤƱȤǤ롥ֱѸ˸פϹǤΤΰǤ뤷ǯθءʸء˳ؤʤɤȯŸĴ򤽤ƾ˿ʲƤΰǤ⤢롥äơֱѸ˸פδϢʬϹǤ롥
ǡϢʬΤʤǤä˶̩ʴطͭƤΤ˹ʤäơֱѸ˸פޥåԥ󥰤ƤߤȤϤäƤ⡤ (27) ޤȤƤֱѸ˸פδطޤƸޤǤǤ롥

Oizumi's View of English Language History



ä˶̩ʴϢʬȤȤǤСѸȯŸ˴ؤäƤϰˡˡʸˤҲؤ⤳οޤ˲äȤǤ롥

ס֡ұѸ˸Ӥγǰס ¾ԡˡرѸʸظ --- δǰʸ ---١Ʋ1990ǯ19--30ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-02-28-1] [2010-05-09-1]

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2009-12-07 Mon

#224. women ȯֻ (2) [pronunciation][spelling][phonetics][etymology]

ε[2009-12-06-1]Ǥϡñ <woman> /wʊmən/ Ū餫ˤ䤤ϡʣȯֻäʤ <women> ֤ꡤ/wɪmɪn/ ȯΤ
űѸ wīfmann ʣ wīfmenn ämann -- menn ưפͽ֤ۤǤ롥ʣǤñξƱͤ˰ϢβѲ/f/ /m/ αƶ /m/ ؤƱĹ첻 /i:/ /ɪ/ ؤûȤϡñΥȥѥǤ롥Ȥ/ɪ/ /w/ αƶ /ʊ/ ؤȱ߿ѲϵʤäñξȰۤʤäƤΤǤ롥
ϡ -mann -menn ˤ϶줺ñʣζ̤ۣˤʤ뤿ᡤ첻첻Ω뤳Ȥˤäƶ̤ݤȤȤ̤ǤϤʤȹͤ롥ñ /ʊ Фʣ /ɪ/ ǤȤԤħϡ᤽켫Ȥˤڤӡ/mɪn/ ȯ褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤ
ֻϡȯȤΩơñֻĴ򤽤ȯŸη̡<o> ֤ä /ɪ/ ȯȤʴطߤˤäƤ롥
ʾ塤εȹ碌 woman women ȯֻäҤΰϢβѲֻȯãΤ褦Ưɤϡ¤ΤȤǤ롥Ѹ濴ȤƳ͡ȯֻʤƤѸ˺֤夤ȤΤ¤ѸˤˤפϡȤñ㲽Ƥʤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǡŤ򤷤

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2009-12-06 Sun

#223. woman ȯֻ [pronunciation][spelling][phonetics][assimilation][etymology]

woman ʣ <women> ֤ /wɪmɪn/ ȯ롥<o> ֻ /ɪ/ βбȤΤϡѸ칭ȤɤǤꡤBernard Shaw 򤷤 <ghoti> "fish" ʤֻȯۤɤǤ([2009-05-13-1]) <o> /ɪ/ ʥޥå󥰤ϤˤΤ
򤯤ˤϡޤñ <woman> /wʊmən/ ͤʤФʤʤθθűѸη wīfmann Ǥ롥ϡwīf "wife" + mann "man" ʣǤ롥űѸ wīf ϡֺʡפΤۤˡֽװ̤̣ʥɥĸ Weib ֽפӡˡmann ϸѸƱͤˡˡפΤۤˡֿ͡פ̣äơʣ wīfmann ϡֽǤ͡פʤֽפ̣
űѸʹߡwīfmann ϤĤβѲФ뤳ȤȤʤä/f/ ľ /m/ ˤäĴͼƱ /m/ ؤѲǡĹ첻 /i:/ /ɪ/ ûޤƬ /w/ ³ /ɪ/ ˱ƶڤܤ/ɪ/ /ʊ/ ؤȱ߿ΰϢβѲˤäơŪȯ /wʊmən/ ޤ줿
ȯǤֻ <o> ϤޤƤʤѲη̤Ȥȯȯ̤֤С<wuman> ȤʤϤäºݤˡŪˤ <wumman> ʤɤֻڤ롥
ȤѸˡ<m>, <n>, <v>, <w> Τ褦˽ ( minim ) ǹʸζ٤ <u> ֤Ȥ򤱤褦ˤʤä<u> Ȥǹ뤿ᡤʸɤȽ̤Ĥʤʤ붲줬äǤ롥ǡΤ褦ʴĶˤ <u> Υե󥹸ֻޤͤ <o> ѤȤȯã
̾ȯϼȯãΤֻϿͰŪ˺ѤΤǤ롥ơwoman ϡȯ /wʊmən/ Ȥ夷ֻ <woman> Ȥ夹뤳ȤȤʤä
Ǥϡʣ women ȯֻϡε³

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2009-12-05 Sat

#222. ѸüԤƱߥǥ (2) [elf][model_of_englishes]

[2009-11-30-1]εǡѸüؤ Inner Circle, Outer Circle (Expanded Circle), Expanding Circle ؤȻʬ븫Ҳ𤷤θƾΤ󾧤 Kachru ϡѸε ( norm ) Ȥ顤ƱƱߥǥ⤦ȤθƾΤͿƤ롥줾졤norm-providing, norm-developing, norm-dependent Ǥ롥

Circle Model of English Speakers from a Normative Viewpoint

Kachru 1985ǯʸ˴Ť2009ǯθߤˤ⤪褽ѤѸΥǥʲˡߤλΥȤäĤġƶʬ⤹롥

(1) norm-providing Inner Circle бѸصϤ󶡤ƤŪˤߤʤƤѼȤƤĽĤǤ롥°ѼεϤȤƤǧ٤ϤޤޤǤ롥㤨СꥹѸȥꥫѸ¿αѸüԤǧɽŪʵѼȥꥢѸ˥塼ɱѸϤɤ١⳰鵬ϤȤǧƤ
(2) norm-developing Outer Circle б롥Inner Circle 󶡤뵬Ϥ餷褦Ȥ¦̤ȡæ褦Ȥ¦̤碌롥ζʬ˳ɽϰȤƥɤ䥷󥬥ݡ뤬󤲤뤬塤ϰοϤ󶡤Τˤʤǽ([2009-10-07-1])
(3) norm-dependent Expanding Circle б롥Inner Circle 󶡤뵬ϤˤäѤ齾üؤǤ롥㤨Сζʬ°ܤˤѸ춵ͤС˥ꥫѸʤ뤤ϥꥹѸˤϤȤƤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥ܤˤϼ Japanese English ȤϤФٹ͢Ф褦ȤտޤϤʤ

Ѹ̤ͤȤ(2) ambiguous Ω֤̣ĹǤ롥Ū˱ߤ濴ȯƤֵϸפǼĤĤ⡤Ǥϼ鿷ʡֵϸפ¦αߤ˸ȯƤΤ顥

Kachru, B. B. "Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle." English in the World. Ed. R. Quirk and H. G. Widdowson. Cambridge: CUP, 1985. 11--30.

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2009-12-04 Fri

#221. dinner [etymology][french][infinitive][doublet][loan_translation]

ε[2009-12-03-1]Ǥ supper 夲ե󥹸ư줬̾ȤƱѸäƤаޤҤ٤Ʊ褦򤤤Ĥꥹȥåפ supper Ọ̇̄ŪˤϢ dinner
dinner ϥե󥹸 dîner μѤǡѸǤνФ1300ǯǤ롥ե󥹸 dîner ϡȤפȤưǤꡤη֤Ǥ̾ŪˡˤפȤ̣̾Ȥʤ롥Ѹؤϡη֤Ọ̇̄ǼѤ줿ե󥹸줫 -(e)r dine Ʊ˱ѸäƤϡȤפȤưǤ롥̤ˡե󥹸ưϤΤ褦 -(e)r DZѸäƤƤꡤdine ϤŵǤ롥
ʤߤ˥ե󥹸Ǥϡͼפ dîner뿩īפ déjeuner ȤԤϤΤޤޤη֤Ọ̇̄DZѸˤ18äƤꡤϤ뿩īȤפȤưͳ褹롥ơϷ֤㤨̤Ʊ츻ͤŸ ( doublet ) δطˤ롥츻ϥƥ *disjējūnāre ȤƺƷƤꡤɽƬ dis- ȡֶäݤΡפ̣ jējūnus ʤǤ롥ϡֶʢǿ򤯡פǤꡤѸ breakfast Ϥ ( loan translation or calque ) ǤϤʤȤƤ롥

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2009-12-03 Thu

#220. supper [etymology][french][infinitive]

soup supper ϸ츻Ūˤ˴طƤ롤ʹȶä⤷ʤ֤٤ȡ⤢ʤȤƤΤǤϤʤ
θϱ󤯰ĸ̤ꡤseep ֤߽Фסsip ֤סsop ֿסsoak ֿסsuck ֵۤסsup ֤פʤɡϢΡֱΤοСפɽط롥soup supper ϥե󥹸줫ѸäѸǤνϤ줾1653ǯ1250ǯǤꡤֺ롥ե󥹸ǤϸŤ sope soper ̾ưδطǤꡤ츻ŪŪʴطϰäե󥹤פΤǤͼϥפ̤äȤ졤Υͥˤ֥ספͼפؤỌ̇̄ȯŸȤ
ե󥹸Ǥϡ-(e)r ưɽϼθФˤʤꡤưɽ֤ǤƱˡѸ̾ŪˡǤ狼Ȥꡤư̾첽Ưġäơťե󥹸 soper ϡ֥פळȡͼȤ뤳ȡפʤͼפ̣ȤƸСto eat ֿ٤뤳ȡפȤ̾Ūˡ줬 to դܸ˼Ѥ졤֥ȥȡפȤơֿפ̣褦ˤʤäФ褤
Τ褦ˡ-(e)r ĥե󥹸ư줬̾ȤƱѸ˼Ѥ줿¾ȤƤϡcesser, detainer, dinner, merger, misnomer, remainder, surrender ʤɤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2020-04-10-1] [2009-12-04-1]

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2009-12-02 Wed

#219. eyes ɽ172ֻ̤ [spelling][double_plural]

ε[2009-12-01-1]ʣˤĤƿ줿űѸ줫ѸˤƤϡ̾ʣȤ -s ʳ -n ⤽ʤͥǤꡤ¿̾ʣ -n ȼäƤ򤯤ꡤѸˤޤ -n ʣݤ³̾ɽ꤬ eye Ǥ롥ɸѸǤ eyes ȵ§Ū -s 뤬ǤǤСޤ eyen ʤɤη֤ʤƤ롥
ˡѸǻȤ줿 eye ʣ֤ΰ֤Ǥ¤¿褦ȤȤäOEDMED, ¾űѸѸ¿ΥƥȤ齦Ф֤ȤޤȤ᤿̡ʤȤ172̤֤꤬Ѹ˾ǤʤƤȤȽ鷺˥եåȤ¤٤ꥹȤthrough ([2009-06-20-1]) ƱͤԴѤǤ롥

æȜan, æȜen, aies, ain, aine, ayes, eaȜæn, eaȜan, eaȜen, eaȜnen, eaȜum, eagen, echnen, een, eene, ees, eeyen, eeyn, eeyne, eȜan, eȜe, eȜen, eȜene, eȜenen, eȜhe, eȜhen, eȜhne, eȜne, eȜo, eȜu, egan, egen, egena, egȜen, egghnen, eghen, eghene, eghien, eghn, eghne, eghnes, eghun, eghyn, eghyne, egthen, egum, egyn, ehene, ehȜan, ehȜen, ehne, ehnen, ehtyn, eien, eiene, eies, eiȜe, eiȜen, eiȜene, eiȜes, eiȜne, eiȜyen, eighen, eighne, eihen, eiine, ein, eine, eithen, en, ene, ene-, enghne, enn, enyn, eon, ewine, exyn, eye, eyeȜe, eyen, eyen-, eyene, eyes, eyeyn, eyȜe, eyȜen, eyȜene, eyȜin, eyȜne, eyȜnen, eyȜyn, eyghen, eyghne, eygnyn, eyhe, eyhen, eyhene, eyhne, eyien, eyiȜen, eyin, eyn, eyne, eynen, eynes, eynin, eynon, eynyn, eynys, eyon, eys, eyyn, ȜeȜen, Ȝen, Ȝene, Ȝien, he, heen, heȜe, heȜhen, hegehen, heghne, heie, heien, heiene, hene, heyghen, heyne, heynen, heynyn, hiȜen, hyes, hynon, ieen, ieghen, ien, ies, iȜe, iȜen, iȜene, ighen, in, ine, iyen, iyes, jes, jyn, nyen, nynon, nyon, uyn, yeen, yees, yeȜe, yeȜen, yeghen, yen, yene, yes, yeyn, yȜe, yȜen, yȜes, ygne, yhen, yien, yne, yon, yyn, yyne, yys


172̤򥿥ʬС첻ѰۤϤꤢꤦ뤬-e, -en, -ne, -es, -nen, -nes 6ȤΤǸĤʣ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ǽ <n> Ūˤʣɸ˽ʬθ夵 <n> <s> ȤʣղäƤΤǡšפȤ櫓Ǥ롥
ܤϡʸˤơ

Hotta, Ryuichi. "A Historical Study on 'eyes' in English from a Panchronic Point of View." Studies in Medieval English Language and Literature 20 (2005): 75--100.

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2009-12-01 Tue

#218. ʣ [oe][double_plural][metanalysis]

[2009-09-20-1]ǡchildren 礤ˤ ʣ ( double plural ) ˸ڤűѸǤϡθʣʤΤˤϼʡгʤʣˤ cildru ä䤬 r ޤ֤ñδ ( base ) Ǥʬ ( metanalysis ) 졤 -en Ȥʣˤ꿷ʣ줿ȤΤʣ children 줿Ǥ롥
children Τ褦ʣϡŪˤϷ빽롥ɸˡޤƸѸ˻ĤäƤΤȤƤϡbodices, breeches, datas, invoices, truces; brethren, kine ʤɤ롥 /s/ /n/ ʣȤղäƤ뤬ŪˤϤθʤǤǤʣȤƵǽƤ
brethren ˤĤƤϡbrother ŪʡƱ˦פȤ̣ѤʣǤꡤ̾ brothers ȼͳѰۤʤ櫓ǤϤʤޤbrethren Ȥ ( analogy ) Ȼפ뤬ꥫѸǤϽŪʸ̮ sister(e)n ȤȤ
datas ϡ볰ʣ ( foreign plural ) Ǥ롥ƥ䥮ꥷʤɤͳ褹ѸˤϡѸǤζޤݤäޤޱѸäƤΤ⾯ʤʤƥ줫褿 data Ϥ켫Τ datum Ȥñ֤Фʣ֤ȤΥƥζޤΤʤѸüԤˤȤäƤƩʷֵ§Ǥ롥ǡ򺣤Ǥ data ΤñǤȲᤵ褦ˤʤäƤƤꡤ§Ūʣ datas ޤƤƤ롥
ʣϤšפȤΤϡѸˤǤϤ褯ꤢǤ롥Ų might ([2009-07-03-1][2009-06-25-1]lesser ([2009-11-08-1], [2009-11-22-1]) ʤɤǤ롥դ٤ϡξ⡤̻ŪˤϡšפǤȤߤʤ뤬ŪʴФȤƤϡְšפȤƤȤ館Ƥ뤳ȤǤ롥̻ȶʬȤѤȤȡѲϳؤˤʬβ̤礭Ȥ롥

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