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1549ǯ˼äեӥϡ3ͤͭǽܿͿԤΤ褯ʬäƤΤϡ֥פǤ롥ӥϤΥΤĤƤǡμ硤ŵפұڤ뤳ȤǤӥϡ®۶ϤꥹȶˤĤƲΤƤʤܤǤ۶¿ǤäȤʤӥ䥢ϡ۶˺ݤƤˤƥꥹȶγǰѸܿͤ뤫ȤƬǺޤȤˤĤơʿ (46--47) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ˤƤ⡤ӥΤܤĤʤܸ䥢ⶵʹơܿͤ˥ꥹȶΤºݤΤȤϡޥꥢΤȤִѲסŷʥѥ饤ˤΤȤϡֶ˳ڡפƤͤϡפǤäǡΡפΤȤǤ롥ͣδǰܤˤϤʤΤǥϺäƤޤäơפΤΤ붵ե˥㡼ΤϡҤɤפȽƤ뤬ǡʩǤ̵±ˤޤͤ¸ߤĶۼԤȤ֤ŤǤ뤫顤ǽȤƤϤʤ˶ڤ̤äƤȤäƤ褤Ĥޤꥶӥ뤿ܿͤˡҤߤʤפȸƤӤ櫓Ǥ뤫顤ܿãϥꥹȶʩΰɤȻפäʤ줿ȤȤ
θ奶ӥϡˡפǤϤޤȤȤ˵Ťơŷƻפȸ褦ˤʤäŷƻפϡŷϤĤɤꡤ٤Ƥ̤͏ߡפȤ̣äƤΤǡܸĶŪ¸ߤѸȤƤԼǤϤʤ⤦ȤˤʤȡǤϥꥹȶǰʤȤơΤȤϤΤޤޡ֥ǥס֥ޥꥢפΤȤִѲפǤϤʤ̤ˡ֥ޥꥢפȸ褦ˤʤäޤǤθˤꡤĹǯ֡ʰϻǯƬˤޤǤϥǥΤȤŷƻפȸƤ֤ȤǧƤȤƤ롥
ǥȤϡŷƻפΤȤǤȤⶵʹС¿ܿͤϤޤʤäΤǤϤʤ餳ꥹȶ褷Ƥ鷺͡ǯۤɤǻͤοԤ뤳ȤǤΤʩˤơηϤȤ⤫̥٥Ǥϳƽɤζˤ뤳ȤϤޤʤäդνɤޤϱΤʤɤˤäƽ°νɤޤäƤ褦ʤΤäΤؤ뤳Ȥ⤢äΤ顤¯ͤνؤ⤢ꤨäƿΤäꥹȶ˵ͤ뤳ȤϡۤɿʽؤǤԼʤȤǤʤäȻפ롥
Ĥޤꡤ顤ŪʩѸˤäơꥹȶοͤסޥꥢִѲסѥ饤ֶ˳ڡפƤΤϡܸθηϤδ餤д¸Ѹ˿ƳȤȤǤꡤĤޤȤǵäƤ뤳Ȥϰ̣ (semantic_borrowing) Ǥ롥֥ǥס֥ޥꥢס֥ѥ饤פȤܿͤˤȤäƤޤ˰ۼǡ椨˥åǤѸȤƳ⡤ʹƤ¸ܸΤʤˤäȡʤäĤȡ˿ʸʤ뤤ϽŪˤޤۤ۶ʤǤϹԹääȻפ롥
⤷Ȥˡ6ʹߤ˥ͤδ֤˥ꥹȶ褦Ȥ붵դ⡤ǽ顤褦ˡƥ deus ʿˤľܱѸƳΤǤϤʤѸ God ѤơθäȡʤäĤȡ˥ꥹȶŪñ֤ΤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1]) ȡ#2663. ֥ץѡפȡ֤äĤѡ (1) ([2016-08-11-1]) Ȥ줿
ʿ ܤҳ١ҡӡ2018ǯ.
721ڡˤˡī㡼ɶιֺˤؤֱñθ츻ޤǮˤä꤬Ȥޤֺ¤Ѥ饤ɻ֤Ƥޤ
ϰʲ3Ǥ
ѸˤɤʤѸäȯŸ⤷
ñˤọֻ̇ѲΰŪʥѥˤĤƽҤ
츻ŵѸ켭ŵθ츻ɤ߲ˡޤ
츻Ȱ˸äƤ⡤ɤäϤ٤¤ޤ̤ȤơѸûˤȤŪƤȤϤʤޤޤŪˤʤʤ褦ñζ䤵ʤ褦˹ޤ
ʲ饤ɤΥڡȤ˥ĥäƤޤƥ饤ɤϡ֥ؤΥˤʤäƤޤ
1. ֺ¡ˤؤֱñθ츻
2. Q. αñȵθȤȤ߹碌Ƥ
3. ѸäεϤȼ˭٤
4. ֺܹ¤Τͤ餤
5. ܼ
6. 1.1 ȥ츻ʳءˤȤϡ
7. Every word has its own history.
8. 츻ؤŤ
9. ̱֡¯˸츻
10. ޤȤ (1.1)
11. 1.2 Ѹûˤγά
12. ² (The Indo-European Family)
13. Ѹûˤγά (##37,126,45)
14. αѸäˤߤˤΰ仺
15. ο
16. Ѹû (#1526)
17. 츻 (#756)
18. ޤȤ (1.2)
19. 1.3 ѲΰŪʥѥȯ
20. ѲΰŪʥѥֻ
21. ѲΰŪʥѥ̣ (##473,1953,2252)
22. Q. ʲϰ̣ѲФ椨˰̣ȤʤäƤʸǤñΤȤΰ̣Ǥޤ (#1954)
23. ޤȤ (1.3)
24. 2.1 츻ŵǸɤ߲
25. 2.2 츻ŵȯֻѲɤ߲
26. 2.3 츻ŵǰ̣ȯŸɤ߲
27. ޤȤ
28. ʸ
ε ([2018-07-28-1]) ˰³첻 (gvs) ꡥMinkova and Stockwell ϡGVS ȾΤƤ븽ݤ1ĤβǤϤʤ3ĤʬʤʣŪʥץȤߤƤ롥Minkova and Stockwell (34) ˤ GVS οޤϰʲ̤p. 60 οޤȤ䤹뤿˾Ѥäˡ

Minkova and Stockwell ϡ (Upper Half) ǼΤߤʰ̣ǤϢ (Chain Shifts) ǤꡤʤǼʬͻ (Mergers) βȤƶ̤Ƥ롥 ޤ¦κ٤Ǽ (Diaphones) ϳѼˤ۲Ѳɽ路ƤꡤGVS ȤΩ Center Drift Ȥ̤ѲȤƤȤ館Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤΤ Chain Shifts, Mergers, Center Drift ȤΩ3ʬ鹽Ƥꡤ褷1ĤβǤϤʤȼĥƤΤǤ롥
ơβǯޤޤǡChain Shifts 1550ǯޤǤˤϽäƤΤФơMergers 18ޤǷѵŪ˵äƤꡤCenter Drift ϸǤϰѼ³ƤȤ
Ѹ첻˾κǤ첻ܤäƤϡǯǤ⤳Τ褦˿ƤƤ롥ŪǶ¾ƤȤƤϡʲ⻲ȡ
#495. Ǥʤ첻ܡ ([2010-09-04-1])
#1404. Optimality Theory ߤ첻 ([2013-03-01-1])
#1405. ̤첻 ([2013-03-02-1])
#1422. 첻ܤϤ錄2첻ä ([2013-03-19-1])
#2081. ¸ˤ첻ܤʬϡ ([2015-01-07-1])
Minkova, Donka and Robert Stockwell. "Phonology: Segmental Histories." A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 29--42.
3ϡѲ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ47--70ǡ
첻 (gvs) Ѹ첻˾塤ȾΤΤϡϢŪʿܤǤȤꤵƤΤΡ첻շΤɤϤޤäˤĤưոʬƤ뤿Ǥ롥徺2첻βɤϤޤꡤˤɤΤʬʤСpush chain drag chain ˤǯǤϡ첻ܡפ1ĤϢŪʿܤȤߤʤȤϤǤʣѲνΤˤʤȤΩԤ⾯ʤʤ (58--59) ϡ첻ܤγȳϻˤĤơˤƧޤƼΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
GVS ѲƱ˵ä櫓ǤϤʤʤѲ (eː iː, oː uː, iː əɪ, uː əʊ) ϲʤѲ٤ʤ1400ǯ˻Ϥޤ1550ǯޤǤˤϴλƤȹͤ롥ʤѲˤĤƤϡ줫ǯ٤ƳϤ졤1700ǯ溢ޤѲβ³ƤȤ롥ʤΤ첻첻ȶ첻ξ徺Τ줫˵äˤĤƤϡոʬ졤Jespersen (1909) ϡޤ첻첻ϤǤη٤ʲζ첻夲줿ȼĥ夲Ϣ (drag-chain theory) Ȥ¾ȥꥢ Karl Luick (1865--1935) Ϥ (1914--1940) ˤơJespersen Ȥϵդˡ첻ξ徺˵ꡤ/iː/, /uː/ ΰ֤ޤǹ줿ᡤ/iː/, /uː/ Ͽ첻Ȥͻ뤿ᡤФ˲夲첻Ȥ夲Ϣ (push-chain theory) ȾΤ롥夲Ϣ˴ؤơ첻֤κDzʡʤ첻ϢŪ夲ĥԤʤ餺뤬GVS ˴ؤ¤ϡҤξʤȲʤλŪ줫ߤơDzʤϢܤϤޤäȹͤΤ̵Ǥ롥ޤGVS γϻˤĤƤոʬƤꡤǯǤ13ˤޤ̤餻뤳ȤǤʤѲϤۤƱ˻ϤޤäȤԤ⤤ (Stenbrenden 2010, 2016 ʤɡˡ
GVS ϡʤȲʤ˴ؤ뾯ʤȤ2Ĥΰۤʤ벻ѲʤäƤȹͤ褵Ǥ롥˾ʤβ˲ʤβϤ졤֤äƤߤΤȤƲեȤ褦˸Ȥ櫓ʤˤĤư夲ʤΤ夲ʤΤȤˤ夬ĤƤʤ
εǡƶϤΤ Minkova and Stockwell ǯ GVS βƤߤ
3ϡѲ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ47--70ǡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1909.
Luick, Karl. Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache. 2 vols. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1914--40.
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. The Chronology and Regional Spread of Long-Vowel Changes in English, c. 1150--1500. Diss. U of Oslo, Oslo, 2010.
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
ѲˤϡźθǤ褯륿פΤΤȡǤʤΤȤ롥㤨 [p] ϡˡ§ (grimms_law) ǤƤ뤷 ([p] [f]ˡܸǤⵯäȤ뤬[p] [ɸ]ˡոϤޤѻʤȤäƤ褤Τ褦ʰ̣ǡѲˤоꡤŪФ (phonetic bias) ȤƤФ롥ŪФϡФγФδ4ĤװˤäȹͤƤ롥 (48--50) Ҳ𤷤褦
(1) Ĵ (motor planning): ȯäΩäƹԤǾǤĴư补ºݤȯäˤĴȤϰۤʤ벻ȡְָ㤤 (speech error) ѲθȤʤꤦ롥
(2) ϳŪ (aerodynamic constraint): ƻεήͿĴפκˤäȤСĺҲĴͭϺ첻ĴˤưפǤͥĺ̵ȤѲ䤹ȤäȤ롥ޤĴˤ϶ʬνʬʶɬפȤ뤬줬Ϥ錄겻 (glide) ˤʤ䤹ȤиűѸ (Old English: OE) lagu [lɑɣʊ] 'law' 첻֤ͥ [ɣ]] 錄겻Ѹ (Middle English: ME) laue [lɑwə] ȤʤäΤϤˤ롥
(3) Ĵư (gestural mechanics): ĴﴱߺѤˤäƵΤǡĤΥפ˲̶ʬ롥
(3a) Ĵưʣ (gestural overlap): Ȥ hand grenade ˤ [-nd] ʬĺˤĴϸ³ [ɡ] ΤˤĴ֤뤳Ȥˤꡤظ˱ƤޤİԤˤ [hæŋ ɡɹəneɪd] Τ褦ʹƤޤޤOE ME ˤƵä߿첻˸³ [x] > [f] Ѳ뤬 (cough, laugh, rough)[x] [f] ؤѲӾˡ߿ [xw] ʳäȤΤƤ롥βϱ߿첻 [x] ȤĴưʣˤ굯äΤȤ롥
(3b) Ĵưͻ (gestural blend): ĤĴﴱƱĤĴԤȤȤ keep [k] cot ʤɤ [k] Ȱۤʤꡤ³첻αƶǡȤʤ롥
(4) γлβϲ (perceptual parsing): ѲγоˤäƤ롥İԤˤγлİκƱˤꡤʹ㤤̡줬̲ƲѲ˻뤳Ȥ롥ʹ㤤ξŪоŪ˵ꤦʤĤޤꡤA B ʹ㤨СƱͤ B A ʹ㤨뤳ȤƱ٤˵ˤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤȤСѸû첻д첻ˤγм¸ǡ첻곫٤ι첻ʹ㤨¿εդλϤۤȤɤʤȤΤƤ롥Ѹ (Present-day English: PDE) γƼѼ˸ [θ] [f] ؤִʤȤСthink [θɪŋk] > [fɪŋk]ˤγвϾκüȯΤȹͤ롥
(4) Τ褦ˡѲˤƤʹ꤬פ餸礬¿ꡤǤϤ䤬뤵褦ˤʤäƤˤĤƤϡ#2140. ѲΥ饤ե ([2015-03-07-1])#2150. Ѳˤʹ ([2015-03-17-1])#2586. Ѳˤäʹ䤪Ӵط ([2016-05-26-1]) Ȥ줿
3ϡѲ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ47--70ǡ
(48) ϡѲ (phonological change) θȤ礭2̤Ƥ롥
(1) ŪưŤˤ (endogenous or internal motivations): ȤƲŪŪװ
(2) 쳰ŪưŤˤ (exogenous or external motivations): ¾졦¾ȤܿҲŪʸŪʤɤμҲŪװ
䤹ʬǤ롥 (2) θ쳰Ūװڻ뤵Ƥ¤ŦƤ¿βѲϡΤ (1) θŪװˤäƥޡȤƤ⤽ɤ餫Ȥ (1) ϡäѲ WHY ǤϤʤHOW εҤˤȤɤޤ뤳Ȥ¿βѲλξǵΤϤʤȤֻư (actuation problem) ˤǤꡤWHY ˤϤɤƤ (2) 餶ʤ
ѲѲη̤ȤƲηϤɤΤ褦˱ƶȤʬहСʲ3ʬpp. 47--48ˡ
(1) ͻ (merger): ʣβǤΩ1ĤβǤ˹Τ롥
(2) ʬ (split): ñβǤʣβǤʬ뤳ȡ⤷ʬ̤β¾βǤͻ礷ǤѤʤˤϡ켡ʬ (primary split) ȸƤ֡ʬη̡ʲǤˤϡʬ (secondary split) ȸƤ֡
(3) (shift): ʬѲ̡ηϤȤʤäˡ경٤̤ʬϢŪ˲Ѳ뤳ȡ
դΤϡ(1) (2) ϲηϤ˱ƶͿѲǤ뤬(3) ǤѲDzηϤΤΤѤ餺ƲǤΤΤʤǺʬ̤ۤˤʤȤȤػҼꥲȤС(1) (2) ǤϰػҤμѤꡤ(3) ǤϰػҤɤŪʰ֤ѤȤȤˤʤ롥
3ϡѲ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ47--70ǡ
ɸϡ#3020. οҤȤƤӸ (1) ([2017-08-03-1])#3021. οҤȤƤӸ (2) ([2017-08-04-1]) ȴϢƤꡥ19ˤѸʸؤѸˤȤʬȯãϡȯŸͻӤǿʤǤȤ¤ŦƤ (43) ƱݤΤȤΤ褦Ƥ롥
19衼åѤΥʥʥꥺΤ濴ŪäΤ Oxford English Dictionary (OED) Ի James Murray (1837--1915), The English Dialect Dictionary (1896--1905) Խ Joseph Wright Ǥä19ϱѸμءʸءʸˡβǤꡤMurray OED Խ֤λ (The Age of Empire (1875--1914)) ΰפΤǤ롥OED ϡ1888ǯ A New English Dictionary (NED) Ȥ1Ǥ1928ǯ˴뤷θä11Ȥơ1933ǯ˴̸ά
γĥȸʳؤȯŸ¹ԤƤ롥Furnivall (1825--1910) Ѹƥȶ (The Early English Text Society: EETS) ΩΤ1864ǯꥹΩ1873ǯΤȤǤäAnglo-Saxon Old English ȸƤѤΤ⡤Τ褦ʹȤȸβ뷹̵طǤϤʤ⤷ʤ
OED EDD ԻϡŪˤϷ褷ƹȥץȤǤϤʤĿŪʻȤˤʤäΤΡäƤʤ줿ȤǤϡ¾ιȥץȤ˶ᤤʤäƤȤȤǤ롥
ߡ䤿ϱѸˤޤѳؤθˤơ OED ʤβǡˤβäˤꡤ"Old English" ȤƾΤΤ褦˻ȤäƤ뤬ΥġѸ줬ΩƤطʤˡˤؤäƤ뤳ȤõƤʤФʤʤ
2ϡѸ˳ѡ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ22--46ǡ
#3373. ּáס ([2018-07-22-1])#3374. ּáס ([2018-07-23-1]) ˰³ϼؤγǰ˸ؤ˱ѤƤߤ륷3ơϡ߽Ťˡ§פ⤸äơָ߽Ťˡ§פͤƤߤ
߽Ťˡ§ (law of superposition) Ȥϡɴʻŵ2ǡ٤ˤС̤Ǥ롥
W. ߥˤäƻϤ줿ذ̳ؤĤδˡ§ΰĤǡ⤷ϢδФ¾δФξ˽ŤʤäƤꡤ¤Ū˵žʤɤƤʤˤϡˤΤФȤ̣Ǥ롥ŤʤĤؤζŪ岼طŪطɤߤȤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ƾQŪ䤹Ǥ롥Ǥϡ㴳ΤҤͤäʤä˱ѤƤߤ褦äˤĤƶŪ岼طȤΤϥʥʤΤǡʸŪ岼طʥեޥƥιˤɤؤƤߤ롥
⤷Ϣθä¾θäξ˽ŤʤäƤꡤ¤Ū˵žʤɤƤʤˤϡˤΤäȤ̣Ǥ롥Ťʤ2ĤθؤʸŪ岼طŪطɤߤȤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ε ([2018-07-23-1]) Ǥ⾯줿Ѹä3ع¤ǰƬˤƹͤƤߤ褦̤˱Ѹäϥԥߥåɾ3ع¤ʤƤȤ졤졤եѸ졤ƥꥷѸ줬줾첼ءءؤ롥ƱֿҤͤפ̣Ǥ ask -- question -- interrogate Τ褦ʸΡʥեޥƥˤ٤ˤä3ʳζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ʤɤȡˡ
Τ褦ʸŪ岼طλ¤ϼȤơǤϡξ岼طϤϤƻŪطΤȤ˰ܤ¡ask ȤƸűѸʰˤ̤ˤĤեѸ question ϽФ15ȾƥѸ interrogate Ϥ٤15ȾȤʤäƤ롥ġñθ̩ʽǯ̤ȤơեѸȾѸˡƥꥷѸȾ϶ѸήȤƤСʸŪ岼طȻŪطϤ褽פȹͤ롥
ѸθóؤˤϤ٤ޤŬѤǤΤΡָ߽Ťˡ§פŪѤ뤫ɤϤ褯狼ʤλ˲äääۤʸŪʾؤ뷹롤ȤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤɬ⼫ʤȤǤϤʤ
Ȥꤢͼ¸ȤȤǡָཾˡ§פƤߤ
ε#3373. ּáס ([2018-07-22-1]) ˰³ϼؤγǰ˸ؤ˱ѤǤ뤫ɤ⤦1ĤλǹͤƤߤ롥ؤǯ˻뼨ಽФȤ̤ˡ경 (facies fossile) ȤβФ롥ϻǤϤʤĶ˻βФΤȤǡ㤨ХФϡĤƤϤȤƩǤäȤ롥Ǥϡ˱ѤơּáפʤΤˤĤƸ뤳ȤϤǤ
פĤΤϡѸä䤽¾ΰκܤȤǤ롥#2625. ťΥɸ줫μѸ ([2016-07-04-1]) Ǹ褦ˡťΥɸ줫μѸˤϡȸޤۤŪܶʸä¿ζä٤¤ˤĤơѸˤǤϰ̤˼Τ褦ʤ롥űѸüԤȸťΥɸüԤϡƱޥ̱²Ȥ转⤪褽Ƥꡤߤθ⤢٤Ǥʸ٥⤪褽ƱǤꡤҲŪʴط⤪Ǥä餳å٥θäߤθήΤȡĤޤꡤΤ褦ŪʼѸ¸ߤϡξԤΤο̩ǻʸܿäȤ롥
⤦1ĤΡּáפȤʤꤦϡ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) Ǥߤ褦ʱѸȥեѸȤκ˴ؤΤǤ롥ưʪɽ魯 calf, deer, fowl, sheep, swine, ox ʤɤФơɽ魯ñ veal, venison, poultry, mutton, pork, beef ʤɤμѸǤ롥ŪʲˤСθŪΩϡ̱饢ͤȾήΥޥͤȤҲŪΩȿǤ롥Τ褦ʸáʸäΤΤȤϸʬۡˤϡѸμδĶΤȤƼŪǤȤΤǤϤʤ
ŪˤСѸä3ع¤ŵȤó (lexical_stratification) ¸ߤ⡤ĤƤθܿҲΤʤˤǼŪǤ롥ºݤΤȤû˸ˤơּáפȤȯۤϡѸ줳Ȥ鷺Ȥ⡤Τ褦˼Ƥ褦ˤפ롥
ǿ줿ưʪ3ع¤ˤĤƤϡʲε⻲Ȥ줿
#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1])
#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1])
#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1])
#1603. ưʪȤɽñפǽ˻Ŧ͡ ([2013-09-16-1])
#1604. ưʪȤɽñפ˻Ŧͤ ([2013-09-17-1])
#1966. ʡʤäƤѸΰʪ˥塼 ([2014-09-14-1])
#1967. ˴ؤեѸ ([2014-09-15-1])
#2352. ưʪȤɽñפο (2) ([2015-10-05-1])
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2072. Ѹäλع¤ ([2014-12-29-1])
#2279. Ѹäεžع¤ ([2015-07-24-1])
#2643. Ѹäλع¤οá ([2016-07-22-1])
#387. trisociation triset ([2010-05-19-1])
#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1])
ʪؤϼؤǤϡಽ (index fossil) ȸƤФΤ롥㤨лβФĤСޤؤǤ뤳Ȥ狼뤷ʥȤǤ塤ӮǤпʤɤȹͤƤ褤¸֤ûŪʬۤ͡ʼѴ䤫¿ФŪħ狼䤹ΤФ롥
#3162. Ű ([2017-12-23-1]) оݤȤʤΡŪʹͻоݤȤʤΤǤС伨Ȥͤ褽ѤΤǤϤʤȻפˤѤƤߤ뤳ȤˤޤפĤΤϡλ˻벻ѲؤǤ롥벻ħȿǤƤ뤫ݤˤꡤθ줬˸줿ΤǯʤΤʤΤȽ륱ʤʤ
㤨Сskill, skin, skirt ʤ첻֤ <sk> = /sk/ ѸñϡűѸʹߤ˸ťΥɸ줫Ѥ줿Ǥǽ礭ѸǤ첻֤Ǥϡ/sk/ ϸ /ʃ/ = <sh> ȤʤΤ§äǤ롥Ĥޤꡤshine, ship, shirt ϡ餯űѸǤŪ˿ꤵcf. #1511. űѸ sc θ ([2013-06-16-1])#2944. ship, skiff, skip(per) ([2017-05-19-1])ˡ
첻 (gvs) θ̵̤ͭ⡤Ʊ褦̤design, divine, polite ʤɤ2첻Ȥʤ餯15ˤ˼Ѥ줿ȹͤ뤬Ʊե줫μѸǤ machine, police, unique ʤɤĹ첻Ȥܸ˱ѸäƤŪ˿Ǥcf. #2523. 첻ܤϡȯֻЪΥκθ (3) ([2016-03-24-1])ˡ
Фξۤɤ٤ϴԤǤʤΤΡ嵭θ췲ǯ˥ҥȤͿƤּáפȸƤ֤ȤǤΤǤϤʤ
#1264. ˸ؤθ³ȡιؤƻ ([2012-10-12-1])#2865. Ĥ䤹ڵä䤹ڵؤΥҥȡ ([2017-03-01-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ˸ؤˤϻθ³ȤȤ⤷꤬롥̤Ȥ˾ۤɤΤΤĤäƤƤʤΤ¤Ǥ롥 (29) ϡ˸ء٤ΤʤΡָűѸαŪŪפȤˤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
˸ؤǤϸ¸ǽפǤ뤳ȤϤޤǤʤθоݤȤΤǤСʸϿ˲äơüԤθľѡʤʤɤθ쿴ŪޤƼ¤˭٤ʻȤΤǤ뤬˸ؤǤϤϴñˤʤʤŤλȤȤ¿ʬʤΤǡμθ³Τ褦˻פ뤬ºݤϡʾ˸ΤǧʤФʤʤä˰ŤиŤۤɸΤꡤѸˤǤϡäOEθ³ˤĤƤϤ褯ǧǡʤƤʤƤϤʤʤ
Ūˤɤ줯餤Τָ뤿ˡűѸѸλˤĤƻϤƤս⤷Ƥ
űѸμܤ˴ޤޤ300ǡʸ2000Ǥ롥ʬŪˤϥˤ˲Ǥ롥̤ϥΥޥʹߤ200ǯ֤˽줿Ѹλ⾯ʤ(29)
Ȥ850ǯλǻĤäƤΤϡ4ĤΥƥȤ35ۤɤˡΧʸļʤɤûŪʸȾǤ롥(29)
űѸ9䤬ȥǽ줿Ǥ롥(31)
ɮ (authorial holograph) ѸǤ Ayenbite of Inwit 1340ǯˡ Hoccleve (1370?--1450?) νʪ15Ρեε²μˤʽ Paston Letters 䤽¾ƱνʽۤɤǤ롥(34)
Ѹˤˤ礭ʸ (philology) ʸɾ (textual criticism) Υץʬǽ뤵ʤǤ롥
Ϣơ#1264. ˸ؤθ³ȡιؤƻ ([2012-10-12-1])#2865. Ĥ䤹ڵä䤹ڵؤΥҥȡ ([2017-03-01-1])#1051. Ѹ˸оݤȤʤ (1) ([2012-03-13-1])#1052. Ѹ˸оݤȤʤ (2) ([2012-03-14-1]) ⻲ȡ
2ϡѸ˳ѡ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ22--46ǡ
ѸλϤޤ16ˤϡθαѸˤ˱ƶͿμҲѲ#1407. Ѹ3Ĥ ([2013-03-04-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȤꡤBaugh and Cable ʡ156ˤϰʲ5Ƥ롥
1. the printing press
2. the rapid spread of popular education
3. the increased communication and means of communication
4. the growth of specialized knowledge
5. the emergence of various forms of self-consciousness about language
װϡФŤʤäơѸʸˡȸä˴ŪʤʱƶڤܤȤˤʤäBaugh and Cable ʡ157, pp. 200--01) ˤСαƶϤϵŪǤ⤢ꡤƱݼŪǤ⤢äȤɤȤȤСäˤĤƤϵŪǤꡤʸˡˤĤƤݼŪǤäȤȤ
A radical force is defined as anything that promotes change in language; conservative forces tend to preserve the existing status. Now it is obvious that the printing press, the reading habit, the advances of learning and science, and all forms of communication are favorable to the spread of ideas and stimulating to the growth of the vocabulary, while these same agencies, together with social consciousness . . . work actively toward the promotion and maintenance of a standard, especially in grammar and usage. . . . We shall accordingly be prepared to find that in modern times, changes in grammar have been relatively slight and changes in vocabulary extensive. This is just the reverse of what was true in the Middle English period. Then the changes in grammar were revolutionary, but, apart from the special effects of the Norman Conquest, those in vocabulary were not so great.
ʤۤɡŪʼҲϡ줿ǤäФƤϡषä¥ΤĤǤʸˡФƤϵŪʰϤä˺ѤʡֶŪʡפָŪʡפɤؤƤ⤽ΤޤƤϤޤꤽʤΤǡ䤿ˤʬ䤹ˡ
ΰѤǤ⤷ΤϡǸ˶ѸѸ椷ƤȤѸǤϡ嵭Τ褦ʽ郎ʤäˡषä˴ؤݼŪǤꡤʸˡ˴ؤƵŪäȽҤ٤Ƥ롥֥Υޥˤե̤ʱƶƤϡפȤȤԤѸθûȤƤϡ˥ե줫̤μѸ줬פ⤫ӡ褷ơݼŪפȤϤʤϤϤޤüʻǤȤƤ֤ƤСΤ˾嵭δѻϤ褽äƤ褦˻פ롥Baugh and Cable ϡŪŪ˵ҡʬϤɾ뤬Ȥɤ˺Τ褦ΰ̲ߤ륱⤢ꡤɤǤȯ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
frequent ˤʡӤӤΡˤϡʸ̤ˤѤѸθȯΤϰճȿ϶äƤ1596ǯΤȤΤäθϡƥư frequentāre ʵͤˤƻ frequēns ʺ߹äˤե fréquent Фơ15ȾФ˱ѸäƤθϡեä֤Ӥ˭٤ʡפǤꡤֺ߹ä¿ͿΡפθǤ19ޤǻȤ줿ֺ߹ä¿ͿΡפȤƤϡDiscourse concerninge the Spanish Fleet Invadinge Englande (1590) 18ˤơ"There was generally made throughout the whole realm a most frequent assembly of all sorts of people." ȸ롥
θ塤frequent ϡ֤դ줿פۤɤŪʴްդȯãShakespeare ǤϤ "addicted" ־ャŪÿŮƤ ۤɤθǻȤƤ롥The Winter's Tale (1611) Ȥơ"I have missingly noted he is of late much retired from court, and is less frequent to his princely exercises than formerly he hath appeared".
ˤθ塤ŪʴްդΩѤ־ャŪʡסˤʡפθȯãϾҤΤ褦16Ǥ롥1604ǯ Ѹ˾αѸ켭 A Table Alphabeticall Ǥ "often, done many times: ordinarie, much haunted, or goe too" ȤꡤǤ˿夷Ƥ褦Ǥ롥
1755ǯ Johnson μǤ⡤ʲΤ褦ˡֺ߹ä¿ͿΡפȤŤޤϿƤʤȤϤäƤ⡤ȤƵƤ frequent and full 17 Milton ΤΤǤϤäˡ
1. Often done; often seen; often occurring.
2. Used often to practise any thing.
3. Full of concourse
ñˤ⡤̣ѲˤǤΤǤ롥"Chaque mot a son histoire." (= "Every word has its own history.")
island ˤȤСѸˤǤ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ȤδطǤ褯˵롥ܥ֥Ǥ#580. island --- ʤֻȯ ([2010-11-28-1]) ӡ#3227. ֺ¡֥ڥǤɤѸˡפ4doubt <b>--- ѸΥڥס ([2018-02-26-1]) Υ饤ɤ6ڡǼ夲Ƥ<s> Ϥθ츻δ㤤˴ŤΤǤꡤष츻Ūֻ (unetymological spelling) ȸƤ֤٤Ǥ롥
island ˴ؤơ⤦1ĤޤΤƤʤŪʸäȤҲ𤷤Ԥ봧ʤɤθȤδ֤ˤʬ (metanalysis) ηneiland Τ褦ʸǤ롥Ĥޤꡤan eilond a neilond ʤɤȡָäơڤʬ줿̤ȤǤ롥ѸǤϡMED īlōnd (n.) ˤҤ褦ˡatten "at the" ˸³륱ʤɤǤ㤬ä褦䤬ϤǸĤΤϡThe Bestiary Ǥ롥Cathegrande ʷߡˤ1Ĥ neilond ˤǤ뤫Τ褦ȽҤ٤륷Ǥ롥
a1300(a1250) Bestiary (Arun 292) 387: Cethegrande is a fis..ðat tu wuldest seien get, gef ðu it soge wan it flet, ðat it were a neilond.
ޤ⤫ǤϤʤȤ⡤Ϥؤơ̾ΤʤǤθѤ봷ä褦ǡѸ̾Ȥ Neiland ⸫뤳Ȥ顤ʬŪˤ n ƬˤİʬϷ⡤٤ή̤ƤΤ⤷ʤΤȤϡ1θ츻Ǥ īeg- ēa Ϥֿ塤פΰ̣ķǤǤȤФƤȤ롥ơϿ츻Ū <s> <island> Ω뤿Ǥ⤢Τ
֥ƥϡ (Latinate) ѸȤϡȤƥƥȥեȤѸؤˤᤷơ¾Υޥ줫μѸޤळȤ⤢СꥷƥͳƱѸ˼ޤ뤳Ȥ¿äȤ顤ꥷѸľܼѤ줿ΤˤޤǸ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ѹ˾塤ƥϤθüѤ줿ȷϩϡʲΤ褦˿ǤСp. 113 οޤȤˡ
Greek
Latin Old and Middle French Modern French
?Germanicrehistoric OEld English ?Middle English?Modern English?
йҲؤǡּҲؤڤפȤ (1) ࡤ(2) (3) Ѳ3Ƥ롥¤ʬ䤹й (45) ΤޤȤʸϤѤȡ
(1) ġĸդϡäʹꡤãˡ˹ä¿ͤʼब롥
(2) ġĸդϡä꤬¿ͤʼΤʤ֤ΤǤ롥
(3) Ѳġĸդϡ¿ͤʼΤʤ¿ä꤬Ť̡ͤҲŪѲ롥
ѸǤС(1) variation, (2) selection, (3) change ȤäȤϳΤ variationist ɸ֤ҲؤǤϤ뤬Ʊ˸ѲˤǤ⤢롥
Ѳ (language_change) äơޤ (1) variation variants ¸ߤƤʤФʤʤcf. #1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1])#1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1])#2574. ־ѰۤꡤѲäƤס ([2016-05-14-1])ˡ
ˡüԡʽġˤ variants Τʤ餤줫Ӽ (2) selection β롥
ơѡʤɸƤ͡βФƿΰ̣Ǥ (3) change 뤳ȤˤʤΤcf. #1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) ȡ#2139. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ (2) ([2015-03-06-1])ˡ
3Ĥϡ#2012. ѲȤ٤̸§7 ([2014-10-30-1]) Ǽ夲 Weinreich et al. ηǤ§Ȥ⤪˽Ťʤ롥
й ܸϡֶפ롡Ҳ١ʸҡҸʸҿӡ2013ǯ.
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
ɸϡ#2883. HiSoPra* ˻ä (1) ([2017-03-19-1])#2884. HiSoPra* ˻ä (2) ([2017-03-20-1])#3203. ʸؤ˸ϲۤʤ뤫 ([2018-02-02-1]) ʤɤǼ夲ƤˤĤơġڡԡˤǶ˸ˡ٤νϤǵƤΤǡƤߤԼԤϡǯ˸ȯŸܸˡʸءˤΩ줫顤Τ褦ɾƤ (20--21)
ޤǤθߤ֤ʬ褦ˡ˸פϱѸ츦濴ǿʤƤȬǯιݸĤˤƤΥѥͥǤϡŪˤäȤХǡ¸ߤʤ˾ۤ뤫礭ˤʤäȤϡܸ˸ǤϡоQȤäƤ褤Ǥ롥ۤ (1966) ˤϡָˤεˤŪϡȯŸɵˤפֲθˤޤκϡʬϤʸˤ뵭ϿǤפᡤָˤθԤϡޤʸؤ̤Τ餯ϿԤǤ٤ǤפŪ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ʤʸŪˤäơ˸줿줬ԤǤ뤫ޤɵ椷˴ФָפŤʤˤԤळȤܻؤ줿ΤǤꡤ줬ܸˡʹˡˤβƻǤä
ϡ#2884. HiSoPra* ˻ä (2) ([2017-03-20-1]) ǰѤ֤ȤäˤäƤȯȴƱΤǤ롥ǰդäƤȤ롥ΰѤǤʤƤΤϡܸˤǤϤȤäˤäƤפȤݤμĥ¤ϡֱѸˤǤȤäˤäƤפΤǤ롥ŪŪʱѸؤΩ줫ߤС褦䤯ǶˤʤäơŪˤäȤХǡ¸ߤʤ˾ۤ뤫礭ˤʤäפΤѸˡѸʸؤʬǤϡռϾˡ֤оQȤäƤ褤פä
Ȥäơ˸ʸؤñʤƤľǤȼĥ櫓ǤϤʤԼԤΰʲΤ褦ʼˡ (23)
ܸ˸ˡ§äƿʤƤ椬ȿɡ˸פȤʬپ˺ܤ뤳Ȥ´ʤʤƤΤ褷˸פˡŪ˼뤳Ȥǡ踫ᤴƤݤ˸Ƥ뤳ȤǤ뤤ԽʬǤäݤŬڤͿ뤳ȤǤȴСޤ褤Ǥ
ԡ ŵҡ ˡԡˡ˸ˡ١ҤĤ˼2018ǯ
ƣ ͺ ͺָ˸סܸˡʿҡ1966ǯ
[2017-05-05-1]εǡܸ˾ǽΥϽ켭ؿջྶ٤夲Ƥ˿褦 (209--10) ܸˡ٤ΤʤǡμˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ؿջྶ١ʵˤϺǽι켭ȤΤǡͻ?Ȭǯδ֤äΩޤหФ첻β̾ǥϽ˻ͼʬˤ줾ŷݡϵʪưʪѡΡͻʪ̡ѡҡᡦ̾ʬΤǤ롥ɤߤ˽äƴɽ뤿ʤɡŪʼʸݤѤŪԻ줿Τȹͤ롥ɴʸहΤ¿ǡŪѤ̸줬ƤǤ켭ˤդ路κۤʤƤ롥
̣Τϡʤ12ȾФȤߥǡؿջྶ٤˽ФΤȤ䤤ˤĤơ (210--11) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
ˤʤäơΤ褦ʹ켭и礭װˡȤƤΡ֤ϲΡפȾˤΩڤƤȤ롥֤ϲΡפϲ̾ʣ夷ΤǤ뤫顤β̾ˤäƸʬह뤳ȤǽȤʤ롥äơ֤ϲΡפμҲŪˤäơ褦䤯δǸֲ켭פΩ郎äΤǤ롥
βˤʬϸ첻ΤߤǡʹߤˤϺѤʤäषΰյʬʤȤиܾ̾١ˤʻѤ뤳ȤǡθޤȤƤ롥Τˡ˴кΤ褦˰䤹ȴ뤫⤷ʤɽŵȤƤλˡͤȡƱ褦ʰ̣ĸ줬ޤȤޤäƼƤǤ⤢롥ƬβȰյʬȤϡ夫ήǡŪȤƺѤ줿ΤǤꡤ椨˶Ρѽפ˻ޤǹ켭μή
Τˡ֤ϲΡפΩΩƤʤСϽμȤȯۤʤ櫓顤ΥߥȰ̴طˤǼ
DZѸˤ˻פڤȡӤǤƤ⤷ḽͤˤȤäƥϽˤˤ襢ե٥åȽˤ衤ȯۤϼȯۤνиϡŪˤϰƳΤǤ롥ѸǤ⡤ե٥åȽȤűѸΤƤΤΡ줬ܳŪŬѤ줿Τ15ˤʤäƤΤȤǤcf. #1451. Ѹ˾Υȴե٥åȼ ([2013-04-17-1])ˡƱͤˡե٥åȽ˴ŤǽαѸ켭줿Τ⡤1604ǯȰƳ٤cf. #603. ǽαѱѼ A Table Alphabeticall (1) ([2010-12-21-1])ˡ⡤ɼԤˤȤäƤޤե٥åȽϼǤϤʤä뤷ˤϸ̩˥ե٥åȽ礬줿ΤϸƬʸΤߤǤꡤ2ʸܰʹߤǤɬƤʤäȤؿջྶ٤ˤ褯⤢äʡ#604. ǽαѱѼ A Table Alphabeticall (2) ([2010-12-22-1]) (6) ȡˡޤA Table Alphabeticall ؿջྶ٤פϿƤμäǶ̤Ƥ롥⤢̣ǡָŪ̱Ū켭פäΤǤ롥
ʤߤˡϽǤϤʤι켭1484ǯΡزο١ȼˤǤꡤؿջྶ٤3ʾ٤Ƥ롥϶Ǥ·١١ëˤѤ줿ŪˤʤΤʸɧΡظ (1889--91ǯ˰ʹߤΤȤǤ롥
顡ܸˡ١˼Ҥӡ2017ǯ
ɸ2Ĥθؤʬϡ椵뤳Ȥ¿ξʬޤǻŻ븦Ԥ⤤뤬ǥեȤοȤ֤Ϥ줫ǤȤ¿20μήؤǤꡤΤñˡָءפȤС̣Ǥؤ21Ǥ⡤ҲؤּҲפά櫓ˤϤʤȤ³Ƥꡤޤޤؤϥ㡼Ǥ롥
礭ĬήȤȤǤС20Ⱦ21ˤƼҲŪȯۤ˶ޤäƤƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥θػŪطʤȤƤϡ#1081. ҲؤȯŸطʤȼҲؤʬ ([2012-04-12-1]) #2884. HiSoPra* ˻ä (2) ([2017-03-20-1]) Ȥ줿
ơؤȼҲؤȤǤϡŪ˲ɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤй (34) ϡξԤΰ㤤ʲΤ褦Ū˼Ƥ롥
| ؿν | դκ߽ | ʬϤо | ʬϤδ | ʬϤˡ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| դ | ƬΤʤˤ | դǽ | ¤ȵ§ | ŪŪ | |
| Ҳ | դθ | ҲΤʤˤ | դλ | ǼŪŪ |
ε#3362. International Phonetic Association (IPA) ([2018-07-11-1]) ˰³ζؽѰ仺 International Phonetic Alphabet ʹݲɸʸ; IPAˤˤĤơ#822. IPA άˡ ([2011-07-28-1])#251. IPAΥ㡼ȡ ([2010-01-03-1]) Ǥפ˿줿 McArthur (523--24) αѸؼŵ
INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET, short form IPA. An alphabet developed by the International Phonetic Association to provide suitable symbols for the sounds of any language. The symbols are based on the Roman alphabet, with further symbols created by inverting or reversing roman letters or taken from the Greek alphabet. Such symbols are designed to harmonize as far as possible with standard Roman symbols, so as to fit as unobtrusively as possible into a line of print. The main characters are supplemented when necessary by diacritics. The first version of the alphabet was developed in the late 19c by A. E. Ellis, Paul Passy, Henry Sweet, and Daniel Jones from a concept proposed by Otto Jespersen. It has been revised from time to time, most recently in 1989 (see accompanying charts). The IPA is sufficiently rich to label the phonemes of any language and to handle the contrasts between them, but its wide range of exotic symbols and diacritics makes it difficult and expensive for printers and publishers to work with. As a result, modifications are sometimes made for convenience and economy, for example in ELT learners' dictionaries. Phoneme symbols are used in phonemic transcription, either to provide a principled method of transliterating non-Roman alphabets (such as Russian, Arabic, Chinese), or to provide an alphabet for a previously unwritten language. The large number of diacritics makes it possible to mark minute shades of sound as required for a narrow phonetic transcription. The alphabet has not had the success that its designers hoped for, in such areas as the teaching of languages (especially English) and spelling reform. It is less used in North America than elsewhere, but is widely used as a pronunciation aid for EFL and ESL, especially by British publishers and increasingly in British dictionaries of English. The pronunciation in the 2nd edition of the OED (1989) replaces an earlier respelling system with IPA symbols.
19̾Ω벻ؼԡؼԤˤäƺ줿 IPA ϡθ塤ܤˤ⤿餵졤Ѹ춵νפʰüôȤˤʤäءʤɤγؽŪʸ̮ǤΩθǤƤˤƥ㡼ǤϤʤäߤܤαѸ춵ˤƤ IPA ˴ŤȯפϤĤƤۤɰŪ˶Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ褦
⤽⡤ȯɽȤäƤ⡤ˤ͡Ω줬롥ɽȲɽȤǤϸ첻Фޤǰۤʤ뤷̩ܤ˴Ϣ narrow transcription broad transcription ζ̤ (cf. #669. ȯɽȱѸˡ ([2011-02-25-1]))
IPA ɽƤ130ǯۤɤФĤ첻ɽϡءȸ춵μȤʣ߹礤Τʤǡưפ˲褹ΤǤϤʤȤϡ̯ʵоݤǤ롥
ʤΰǤ IPA κǿǤ1989ǯȤʤäƤ뤬 McArthur ԤμŵνǤ1992ǯΤᡥߤǤɤǤ2015ǯǿǤ롥 *
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
International Phonetic Association ʹݲضˤȤȿȡ줬߽ФؽѰ仺Ǥ International Phonetic Alphabet ʹݲɸʸˤˤĤơ#822. IPA άˡ ([2011-07-28-1]) #251. IPAΥ㡼ȡ ([2010-01-03-1]) ʤɤǼ夲ƤʶʸȤ IPA άΤաˡ
ȿˤĤơ2ĤαѸؼŵѤƤޤCrystal (251) 顥
International Phonetic Association (IPA) An organization founded in 1886 by a group of European phoneticians (Paul Passy (1859--1940) and others) to promote the study of phonetics. In 1889 it published the International Phonetic Alphabet (also IPA) which, in modified and expanded form, is today the most widely used system for transcribing the sounds of a language . . . .
ˡMcArthur (525--26) 餵˾ܺ٤褦
INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSOCIATION, short form IPA. An association that seeks to promote the science of phonetics and its practical applications. It was founded in 1886 in France under the English name The Phonetic Teachers' Association, by a group of language teachers who used phonetic theory and transcription in their work. The journal Dhi Fonètik Titcer started in France in the same year, edited by Paul Passy and printed in English in a phonetic script; its name was changed in 1889 to Le Maître phonétique. At first, the Association was concerned mainly with phonetics applied to teaching English, but interest expanded with the membership to the phonetic study of all languages. It acquired its present name in 1897. Although the Association played an important part in the European movement for the reform of language teaching in the late 19c, it is now best known for its regularly revised alphabet. In addition to such occasional publications as Differences between Spoken and Written Language (Daniel Jones, 1948) and The Principles of the International Phonetic Association (Daniel Jones, 1949), which includes ample transcription of large number of languages, the Association publishes The Journal of the IPA, which evolved from Le Maître phonétique.
ȤƤϱѸ춵ǰƬΩ줿衼åѤȿǤ뤳ȡθȤƤϡݲɸʸβڤؤƤȤפǤ롥
θۡڡ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
récord ̾ˤ recórd ưˤΤ褦ˡ̾ưݤ2ˤƶ֤̾ưפȤʤ븽 (diatone) ˤĤơ#803. ̾ư̻Ū ([2011-07-09-1])#804. ̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ̾ưפñ16Ⱦ鸽ˤƽƤϢ夲ƤѸŪʥեȤȤįƤߤȤ⤷ (cf. [2018-07-07-1], [2018-07-08-1], [2018-07-09-1]) ѸϳάȤƤϸűѸ줫鸽Ѹˤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ȥեȤƤȲǤ뤬̾ưפϤŪĬήФ뾮ʵήȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫
record ǹͤƤȡѸǤ̾ recórdư recórd(en) Ǥꡤ֤2ǰפƤưθ -en ϾüäƤ̵ͭˤ餺̾졦ưȤ recórd Ȥ̤ˤѤθ촴äƤΤǡξδطϻ¾ʻž (conversion) ȤֲˤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǺѤƤϡword-based morphology ȤäƤ褤
Ȥ16Ⱦʹߤ̾ˤƶưˡޤǶͭƤ1Ĥθ촴̾촴 récord ư촴 recórd 2Ĥʬ뤳ȤˤʤäʸβϤ줾 /ˈrɛkəd/, /rɪˈkɔːd/ˡޤѤθ촴˴Ť stem-based morphology ǽƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ѸˤϡŪĬήȤƤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ȲǤ뤬ˤγʳƤġѲη̤ȤơʬŪ word-based morphology stem-based morphology εήΤ⤢ꤦȤȤָűѸ stem-based morphology λ塤Ѹ word-based morphology λפΤ褦˥ƥꥫʬहΤǤϤʤߤ٤ȤƤȤ館ΤǤ롥
2֤ε ([2018-07-07-1], [2018-07-08-1]) ˰³root-based morphology ʰĸˢ stem-based morphology ʥޥĸˢ word-based morphology ʸűѸʹߡˤȤѸ礭ĬήˤĤơ
űѸϤŪեȤˤ stem-based morphology word-based morphology ؤȰܤѤȤǽʳȤ뤬ޤʤ stem-based morphology ǻ˻ĤäƤLass (191) ϸűѸθˡμब˭٤ʤȤˤĤơKastovsky ѤĤļΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
One of the most striking features of the OE lexicon is the extensive involvement in WF, not only of transparent affixation, compounding, and conversion, but of other devices of varying ages: ancient ones like ablaut, and newer ones like i-umlaut. This results in what Kastovsky (1992: 294) calls 'large morphologically related word-families'; considerable portions of the lexicon 'cohere' in a rather special way, characteristic of older IE and to some extent more archaic modern languages like German, but quite alien to Modern English.
1Ȥơĸθ캬 *bhVr- "carry, bear" űѸñˤɤΤ褦ȿǤƤ뤫ͤƤߤ褦 (Lass 191--92) ΰ캬ˤ ablaut Ȥơ*bher- (e-grade), *bhor- (o-grade), *bhe:r- (lengthened e-grade), *bhr̥- (zero-grade) 4Ĥβä
ޤe-grade *bher- ˴ؤƤϡ*bher- > *er- > ber- ȷФơűѸ ber-an , ber-ende ʸʬ, ber-end "bearer"ber-end-nes "fertility" ˻äƤ롥
ˡo-grade *bhor- ˤĤƤϡ*bhor > *¦r- > bær- ФƸűѸ bær 1ˤ˽夷ۤ bær- (breaking) βФ bear-we "barrow, basket", bear-m "lap, bosom" ˻äΤ⤢롥
³ lengthened e-grade *bhe:r- ˤĤƤϡ*bhe:r- > *e:r- > bǣr ФƸűѸ bǣr-on 2, bǣr "bier", bǣr-e "manner, behaviour" ʤɤ뤷
Ǹ zero-grade *bhr̥- ϡ*ur- ؤѲ塤a-umlaut ˤ bor- *bur- Ϥ줿ԤϸűѸ bor-en ʲʬ, bor-a "carrier" ԤϤ i-umlaut ФƸűѸ byrðenn "burden", byr-ele "cup-bearer" ʤg߽Ф줿
űѸǤ /bVr-/ ȤŪʸ촴 (root) 첻ʣθ촴 (stems) ȤʤꡤŪʶŸƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤؤ "stem-based morphology" 뤤 "variable-stem morphology" ȸƤ֤ȤǤ (Lass 192)
űѸˤ⡤ʻ衤ʤ word-based morphology 뤤 invariable-stem morphology ͽǤǤʬŪ˸ФƤȤˤդƤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
ε ([2018-07-07-1]) ˰³ƤꡥKastovsky ƤθˤСѸˤϳάŪ root-based morphology ʰĸˢ stem-based morphology ʥޥĸˢ word-based morphology ʸűѸʹߡˤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
űѸʤɲϴˤƤϿΥפ¸Ƥ뤿ˡ줫1ĤˤäϤȤ櫓ǤϤʤޤǥǡȤƤȤ館٤ѸǤ鶯Ѳưθ촴ؤ stem-based morphology ѸŵŪ sane : sanity, serene : serenity, Japán : Jàpanése ʤɤθ촴ؤƱͤǤ (cf. #3341. ƥեѸϱѸζѥĸصꤵ ([2018-06-20-1]))
Kastovsky (129) ꡤŪեȤĬή˴ؤǻ̩ʸѤ褦
Modern English morphology is the result of a long-range typological restructuring, triggered by phonological changes in connection with the emergence of the Germanic language family, leading to an erosion of unstressed final syllables. As a result, the originally root-based morphology became stem-based and finally word-based. Also morphology was originally characterized by pervasive phonologically conditioned morphophonemic alternations, which gradually became morphologically conditioned, because of phonological changes. This was replaced by a simplified system with base invariancy and phonologically conditioned alternations of inflectional endings as a default case characterizing the regular inflection of nouns, verbs and adjectives. The irregular patterns continue properties of the original system and can be interpreted as stem-based with morphologically conditioned alternations of the base form. This is also true of many non-native word-formation patterns, which have been borrowed from stem-based languages such as French, Latin or Greek and have re-introduced base alternation into English derivational morphology.
¤˻̻ŪӸŪȶŪŪȤ碌פȤǤ⤤٤ѤδäƤΤ
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.
#3340. ޥˤưζѲȸƬȤߴط ([2018-06-19-1]) ȡ#3341. ƥեѸϱѸζѥĸصꤵ ([2018-06-20-1]) ǰѡȤ Kastovsky ͤǤϡĸ줫饲ޥĸФƸѸ˻ޤǤΡʳǡ˱Ѹˤˤơ (morphology) ŪѲƤȤĥƤ롥̾ˤŪѲȤС礫ʬϤء (synthesis_to_analysis) ΥեȤפ⤫֤ȤϴϢĤĤΩĬήȤ root-based morphology stem-based morphology word-based morphology ȤŪѲȤ줾ˤĤ Kastovsky (131)
a) word-based morphology: The base form can function as a word (free from) in an utterance without the addition of additional morphological (inflectional or derivational) material, e.g. ModE cat(-s), cheat(-ed), beat(-ing), sleep(-er).
b) stem-based morphology: The base form does not occur as an independent word, but requires additional inflectional and/or derivational morphological material in order to function as a word. It is a bound form (= stem), cf. OE luf- (-ian, -ast, -od-e, etc.), luf-estr-(-e) 'female lover', Grmc. *dag-(-az) 'day, NOM SG', ModE scient-(-ist) vs. science, dramat-(-ic) vs. drama, ast-ro-naut, tele-pathy; thus luf-, luf-estr-, *dag-, dramat-, ast-, -naut, tele-, -pathy are stems.
c) root-based morphology: Here the input to morphological processes is even more abstract and requires additional morphological material to become a stem, to which the genuinely inflectional endings can be added in order to produce a word.
ΤΤ褦ǰƬˡKastovsky (132) root-based morphology ʰĸˢ stem-based morphology ʥޥĸˢ word-based morphology ʸűѸʹߡˤȤˤ䤫ĬήŦƤ롥
The ultimate starting point of English was a root-based morphology (indo-European), which became stem-based in the transition to Germanic. In the transition from Germanic to Old English, inflection became partly word-based, and this eventually became the dominant typological trait of Modern English.
ºݤˤϸűѸǤϤޤ stem-based morphology ǻǡword-based morphology ε̣¿ߤ褦ˤʤäƤʳˤʤ礭ήȤƤȤ館ΤǤ word-based morphology ǽʳȤߤʤȤǤѸˤŤߤ¿ʻǤ롥
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.
Ѹܸθä˶̤Ƹ뻰ع¤˴ؤơ#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) ĥä¿εȤƤܸäλع¤ˤĤơ#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1]) εǤĤй (59) դ
| ¸ | ||
|---|---|---|
| ˼ | å | |
| ʪ | ʥ | |
| ǥХ | ||
| 㤤ʪ | åԥ | |
| ι | ι | ȥ٥롿ȥå |
| ա | ӡ |
| о | Ĺ | û | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ¸ | ȶ | ʹự狼äոˡƤפ | ŪƤɽΤ |
| Ū | ܤǸự狼ʽոˡ̩ʰ̣ɽ | ʹȤ˰̣狼ˤ | |
| κǿγǰꤳ | ܤǸȤ˰̣狼ˤ |
#2772. ɸಽȵϲλߤϡâʸˡȯν (1) ([2016-11-28-1])#2773. ɸಽȵϲλߤϡâʸˡȯν (2) ([2016-11-29-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸˤˤɸಽϲήΤʤȯåȤˤ줿ΤϺǤ٤ä18ȾȯǤϤΤäܳŪȯ "codification" ߤ줿ΤϤ1塤IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet; ݲɸʸˤ߽Ф줿19ȾΤȤäơή2021ؤ³Ƥ롥Nevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (307--08) βѤ褦
It is only relatively recently that the norms of standard British (or rather English) English pronunciation were first systematically codified. Attempts were made to that effect in pronunciation dictionaries in the late eighteenth century by Walker (1791) and, in particular, Sheridan (1780). However, a more detailed codification did not become possible until the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into existence and began to be used by Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones and their fellow phoneticians in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Jones' works ran into a large number of editions, An Outline of English Phonetics, first published in its entirely in 1918, into as many as nine. His English Pronouncing Dictionary came out in 1917 and underwent a series of revisions first by Jones himself, and later by A. C. Gimson and Susan Ramsaran (14th edition, 1977). Its sixteenth edition, prepared by Peter Roach and James Hartman, came out in 2003. The most comprehensive recent work in the field is John Wells' Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (1990), which shows both RP and General American pronunciations.
ѤǤϡȯεϲȤʤä18ȾǤȤ櫓ƶϤäΤȤ Walker Ƥ뤬ˤĤƤϡ#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) ȡWalker θȤ Longman Pronunciation Dictionary ̾Ƥ뤬ȯܥ֥ǤȯˤȤ˲٤ȤʤäˤʤäƤ
ȯɸಽϲȤϤäƤ⡤դȷӤĤ䤹ֻʸˡȰۤʤꡤȯäդΰ°ΤʤΤǡɸಽϲ˾ȤƤñΤǤϤʤޤܻؤ٤ŪʥåȤǤ롥
Nevalainen, Terttu and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. "Standardisation." Chapter 5 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 271--311.
ѲϸŪŪޤװȤ߹碌ˤäȤ "multiple causation" θ§ˤĤơʲεޤƽǼĥƤ
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])
#3271. Ѳ multiple causation ƹ͡ ([2018-04-11-1])
Ѳ路 Aitchison ƱΩǤꡤεǤϢսѡȤƤ⤦1 Aitchison (202) ꥨåȤ⤤٤ʸϤ
Change is likely to be triggered by social factors, such as fashion, foreign influence and social need. However, these factors cannot take effect unless the language is 'ready' for a particular change. They simply make use of inherent tendencies which reside in the physical and mental make-up of human beings. Causality needs therefore to be explored on a number of different levels. The immediate trigger must be looked at alongside the underlying propensities of the language concerned, and of human languages in general.
A language never allows disruptive changes to destroy the system. In response to disruptions, therapeutic changes are likely to intervene and restore the broken patterns --- though in certain circumstances therapeutic changes can themselves cause further disruptions by setting off a change of changes which may last for centuries.
Above all, anyone who attempts to study the causes of language change must be aware of the multiplicity of factors involved. It is essential to realize that language is both a social and a mental phenomenon in which sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic factors are likely to be inextricably entwined. 'Nothing is simple' might be a useful motto for historical linguists to hang in their studies . . . .
ѺǸˤ褦ˡȤϼҲŪӿŪʡήɤؤȲƤ褤ˤװ̩ܤ߹äҲŪĿŪʸݤǤ롥ؤϡξܤۤʤФʤʤ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
Aitchison (238--39) ϡѲ "Progress or Decay" Τ줫ȤǤΤʤǡɸȤФƤ롥
[E]ven if all agreed that a perfectly regular language was the 'best', there is no evidence that languages are progressing towards this ultimate goal. Instead, there is a continuous pull between the disruption and the restoration of patterns. In this perpetual ebb and flow, it would be a mistake to regard pattern neatening and regularization as a step forwards. Such an occurrence may be no more progressive than the tidying up of a cluttered office. Reorganization simply restores the room to a workable state. Similarly, it would be misleading to assume that pattern disruption was necessarily a backward step. Structural dislocation may be the result of extending the language in some useful way.
We must conclude therefore that language is ebbing and flowing like the tide, but neither progressing nor decaying, as far as we can tell. Disruptive and therapeutic tendencies vie with one another, with neither one totally winning or losing, resulting in a perpetual stalemate. As the famous Russian linguist Roman Jakobson said over fifty years ago: 'The spirit of equilibrium and the simultaneous tendency towards its rupture constitute the indispensable properties of that whole that is language.'
ȤƤϡѲϿǤǤʤ֤餫äեפκȤˤʤȤեϥեλȤɤݤĤΤ˹뤬κȼΤǤȤǤȤȤϰ̣ʤʤŻƤСե餫äƤΤɬǤ롥Ū˵ǽŪʾ֤ز뤳ȤϽפǤ롥⡤֤ȤȤ˺ƤƤơޤ롥η֤ˤʤǤǤʤʱΥ
Ѳ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1])#2525. ָѲ롤ס ([2016-03-26-1])#2544. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ (3) ([2016-04-14-1]) ǽҤ٤ѤˤᤤѲϤΥեȤʤΤǤ롥
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
ִ50ǯ꤬ǥǼ夲Ƥ롥628ִäīʹǥꡤĤεؤΥĥ1830ǯ˽ƾؤäƤꥫͥܥ졼λ¹μ̿ߤ롥
䳤硤ұۤʸϤ礦ִԣǯ
֤ޤϥɥޡ仺οʱ̿
褬嫤־ִԤβΡá
˴̴פˡɤ夤̱Ϻ
θˡüǤꡤ#2559. αѸ ([2016-04-29-1]) ȡ#2596. ־ȤСפ ([2016-06-05-1]) ˤƤޤʬäƤʤȤ¿Τ캮ǻ̩Ĺ®ƤˤĤȤָΰפȸƤФƤʥp. 155ˡ
ʲ71īʹī˷ǺܤƤ־ǯɽפѤƤˡߡ̤ۤڤޤ礦
| 1830ǯ | ˲ƤʿνͰܽ |
| 76ǯ | ܤͭ |
| 82ǯ | Ʒ̱餬 |
| 95ǯ | ο4ͤˡʺ1944ǯ7711͡ |
| 1941ǯ | ʿȯ |
| 45ǯ | 2Ƴʼ⤬βΦԤƹ¦6821͡¦21Ķ8 |
| 46ǯ | Ʒ̱129ͤ |
| 52ǯ | ե¾ȯ硦졦ƹ |
| 65ǯ | ܿ͵̱軲 |
| 68ǯ | 626ִԡܿͤεϤޤ |
| 72ǯ | 4֤ |
| 76ǯ | 5硦֤ |
| 79ǯ | 4褬¼ |
| 83ǯ | 6ڴ֤á¨äǽ |
| 88ǯ | λԾ߰Ƥɽ |
| 96ǯ | ԾͽϤǴʪĤꡤԾƤű |
| 2005ǯ | Ķ®ײ褬ܺ |
| 2011ǯ | 6仺Ͽ7֥ߤϾǥİ®ǡ̿ǽ |
#3300. ʤ wolf ʣ wolves ʤΤ (3) ([2018-05-10-1]) ǡ/f/ ǽ̾Ĥʣ -f -ves Τ뤫뤤ξԤμɤˤĤƴñˤޤȤ
Mondorf ˤѸη˴ؤʸϤɤǤơλδ֤ˡԵ§פ scarves, hooves ĥֵ§פ scarfs, hoofs Ū˸ƤƤȤҤ˽вää scarves ϡ18ˤ20%ۤɤΨä2080%ޤ礭ʤhooves 180%191ΨФơ20ˤ30%ޤǿͤФƤ褦
촴ѷñ -s դȤֵ§ŪפȸΤǤС̾ǵäƤ뤳ȤϡԵ§פȤʤ뤬촴 -f -v Ȥ -es Ȥѥϡ־§פȤƳΤ¸ߤȤ⤤롥ĤޤꡤθݤϸˤäƤϡԵ§פȤ־§פȤ⡤ˤäƤϡֵ§פȤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Τ褦ʻϡʬϼԤ̻ΤδȤ뤫ˤäƤ̯ʱƶΤǡ갷
ѲϤΤ褦ʲη֤ǤϤ롥1Ĥ絬§˼ǿʤǤ뤫Ȼפ䡤Ťʣξ§ΩƤ롥ȤȤäƸηϤ̵ˤʤ뤫ȤФʤ餺षߤʬۤ졤̤߽Ф롤絬§Ⱦ§δطˤĤƤϡ#1596. ʬˤβ ([2013-09-09-1]) Ȥ줿
Mondorf, Britta. "Late Modern English: Morphology." Chapter 53 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 843--69.
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