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#3706. ̱²ȿͼ ([2019-06-20-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̱²ȸδطϳΤ˿ñʤΤǤϤʤ̱²ꤹΤ˸줬פ̤Ȥ¿Τϻ¤ŪǤϤʤȤкε ([2019-09-29-1]) ˤեꥫˤƤϡָηϡפŪ˼夤ΤǤϤʤȤ⤤롥ܡĤεʹƤߤ褦 (695--96)
եꥫǤ̱²ꤹװȤơϤۤɽפǤʤä褦Ǥ롥ϡ̱²ꤹĤװǤϤ뤬¾ˤ⽡Ϲʸɽݡʹѡ롤Ͻͭ֡ˡ²١֤ʤɸʳμҲŪкŪʸŪŪװ礭ƤȻפ롥С̱²ŪǥƥƥФǡŪװʱƶϤΤ϶ʹߤħǤꡤϱط֤ζ붦̤طĤޤкѡҲʸŪװߤ˺ѤơषʾϱطȯŸθưϤȤʤä
顤եꥫͤ¿ѤμҲŪפޤ줿ϡο¿ʬۤħ줴ȤüԤŪʤ֤ܿζʤɤ˵롥⡤ƸμҲŪǽ̡ǡ餬ʬŪŪʬŪ˶礷Ƥ뤫Ǥ롥ƸȵǽȶߺѤեꥫθҲΥʥߥ߽Ф֤¿Ѥ¥ʤƤΤ
ָήˤꡤĤ礭ޤȤޤȤϡषڤʬƤȤΤեꥫθħȤȤطʤˡָηϡפŪʼ夵ȤŦϡߤ٤ࡥʹּҲˤȤä̱²ȸϢ٤ϡ䤿QŪ˴ƤʾˡˤäƤˤäƤ⡤ޤޤʤΤ⤷ʤ
ΰѤǤϡʹߤϡָηϡפʤäƤȤƤ롥̱²ʤ̹ȤȸϢ٤ȤβˤꡤեꥫˤϤʡָηϡפ⤿餵줿ȤȤʤΤ
ԡˡؿեꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ
ˤȡθȾեꥫѤƤȤ#401. ¿κǤ⤤ϰ ([2010-06-02-1]) Ǽ褦ˡեꥫˤϸ¿ι⤤¿¿졦¾̱²ϰǤ뤳Ȥ˲äơʹߡθƤȤ⤢ꡤեꥫθϤʣǤʴϢơ#2472. եꥫαѸ ([2016-02-02-1])#3290. եꥫθѸ ([2018-04-30-1]) ʤɤȡˡ
ˤ̤ƥեꥫ¿ƤȤ˴ؤơǯ줿ؿեꥫˡ٤1ϤˡΤ褦ߤĤ뤳ȤǤ (34--35)
եꥫǻѤƤʬǺǤݥԥ顼ʤΤϡꥫθؼԥСʬǤ롥ϥեꥫθɥեʥ롦ϥ顤եȤͤĤθ²ʬषΤäȤϰϤʬۤƤΤϥɥե²ʤХġϽϤ˴ޤޤˤǤ롥ηθˤϡҥ졤졤롼졤иʤɡϥΥեꥫμΩäϤƤޤޤƤ롥
ʬव줿ޤä̷θ줬եꥫǤϥ⥶ϰҲƤ롥ξؤơָŪ١פȷƤؼԤ⤤ۤ٤ȤȡĶ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤Ʊ콸ߤ˥ߥ˥ǽ롼פܤƤꡤޤäΩ줬ΥƤꤹ뤫ưȾʹߤο̱ϻۤοŸȡͻӤǿƩƤäꥹȶƻưϡ衼åϤˤ붭䡤̱ʬμʤȤơȤ¸ߤƤپ˿Ƥä
եꥫҲλ𤫤ߤȡκپĤϤϤäꤷƤ롥ϥեꥫͤԤäƤǤΰܽΤǤ롥ϡ²濴ˤơϤư֤ܽƤȤˤ̱ȤʤȤˤ¾Ĥ⤷ʤ顤եꥫϤư³ΤǤ롥η̡ޤޤʾ콸ĤĤʬΩߤ˰ۤʤ콸ĤήǺƤӸѲĤġΤȤƤϰͥåȥĤꤢƤä
ǤϡեꥫθŪ¿ŪʼװϡǤΰܽפˤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ǤΰܽפĤΡָήפ¥٤Ϥ줬ΡѲפ͡ʸҲΡʬΩפȤ¥ʤȤʬʤǤϤʤָήפषβ첽ˤĤʤȤĥ⤢뤳Ȥ顤äȾܤ⤬ߤȤǤ롥
Ҳˤ͡ΰưư (mobility) 졦κۤʿ˹ȤˤĤƤϡ#591. ꥫѸ줬ͤǤͳ ([2010-12-09-1])#2784. ʤꥫǤϱѸ줬ͣμ礿ȤʤäΤ ([2016-12-10-1])#3054. ¤ˤҲήưȽοʿ ([2017-09-06-1]) Ȥ줿
ԡˡؿեꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ
2ΤȤˤʤޤ1012ڡˤ15:15?18:30ˡī㡼ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻4ޥ̱²ưꤹֱԤʤޤؿΤϡꤪߤ3Ȥˤäȯʵλ֤ĤȤǤޤΤǡڤߤˤƤޤμݤϰʲ̤Ǥ
449ǯޥ̱²ưΰĤȤơޥ췲°륢͡͡塼ȿ֥ͤƥ褷ޤ줳ѸǤꡤλäƱѸˤܳŪ˻ưޤɤۤϡޥŪʥʸ֤ޤʸ٤ָűѸפϤޤޥṲ̄ǻŪħݤäƤޤܥμݤ˱褤ޤǼѤƤűѸ˭ʸŪ仺濴˴վޤƤޤ礦
ֺ¤Ǥϡ֥ޥ̱²ưȥסָűѸθáסָ˻ĤűѸθŪ仺פȤ饤ʥåפǡѸäΥƤλˤĤơܤͽǤͽȤơanglo-saxon oe γƵ
Crystal ˤѸɴʻŵ The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 16ǯ˲Ǥ줿3Ǥνʸǡ15ǯδ֤˱Ѹ˴ؤ¿ΤȤäȽҤ٤ƤȤꡤɴʻŵȤơ̤ĤǤ롥äʸ2Ϥ7Ϥ Part I ϡ120ڡ˵ڤֱѸˤˤȤʤäƤ롥ʬܼįǤڤ롥ʲ˷Ǻܤ褦
PART I The History of English
2 The Origins of English
3 Old English
Early Borrowings
Runes
The Old English Corpus
Literary Texts
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Spelling
Sounds
Grammar
Vocabulary
Late Borrowings
Dialects
4 Middle English
French and English
The Transition From Old English
The Middle English Corpus
Literary Texts
Chaucer
Spelling
Sounds
Grammar
Vocabulary
Latin borrowings
Dialects
Middle Scots
The Origins of Standard English
5 Early Modern English
Caxton
Transitional Texts
Renaissance English
The Inkhorn Controversy
Shakespeare
The King James Bible
Spelling and Regularization
Punctuation
Sounds
Original Pronunciation
Grammar
Vocabulary
The Academy Issue
Johnson
6 Modern English
Transition
Grammatical Trends
Prescriptivism
American English
Breaking the Rules
Variety Awareness
Scientific Language
Literary Voices
Dickens
Recent Trends
Current Trends
Linguistic Memes
7 World English
The New World
American Dialects
Canada
Black English Vernacular
Australia
New Zealand
South Africa
West Africa
East Africa
South-East Asia and the South Pacific
A World Language
Numbers of Speakers
Standard English
The Future of English
English Threatened and as Threat
Euro-Englishes
7Ϥ "World English" ¤Ƥ롥ȤбѸüԤοפåץǡȤƤꡤǤפ23ͤĶƤȤ (115) ʤߤ2ǤǤο20ä
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.
ѤƣɧˤοΥꥹˤˡ֥ꥹˤΥѥפꤹ륻 (16) Ūļ٤ʸϤȤưѤƤ
ɹȤȤˡ֥ƥϳˤäƥ衼åΦ֤Ƥ졤졼ȥ֥ƥȥʬΥϸΩλϤޤǤϤʤϿͤʸ֤ƤǤʤӤĤ⤹롥ꥹˤϤäƥ֥ƥǴ뤹뤳ȤʤȤδطˤŸ롥̡̱ޤϤȤơθ餯϶Ǥȡޤͤȼơʸơ줳˻夫鸽ޤǡ٤Ȥʤ꤫ѥǤä
Ȥ꤫ˡ䤬ƥꥹͤؿʽФ¾ۤ°褦Ȥ롥ȼϤϤȤơޤޤηиŤͤĤġ礷¸줾˳ؤӤ롥Υꥹϡˤν껺Ǥ롥
ʸΡ֥ꥹˡפֱѸˡפ֤Ƥ⡤ΤޤƤϤޤ뤳Ȥ˶äʸϤϡۤܤΤޤޤǡֱѸˤΥѥפʸϤȤɤؤ뤳ȤǤΤȤʤ복ǰĤʤСܿ硦硦¸ơۡ°üȤäȤ˱äƥꥹˤѸˤŸƤȤ롥
ƣ ɧإꥹ10֡١ȽŹҴȿӡ2013ǯ
the British Empire ŪˡפƤƱͤ the British Museum the British Library ơʪۡסѿۡפƤѸɽˤϡפΤϤʤֱѡפˤĤƤ English θƬ첻βͳ褹ΤǤꡤBritish ȤϴطʤΤǡ줬ŪˤƤ봶ʡ#1145. English England ̾Ρ ([2012-06-15-1])#1436. English England ̾ (2) ([2013-04-02-1])#2250. English θƬ첻ʻˡ ([2015-06-25-1])#3761. ֥ƥȥ֥륿˥ ([2019-08-14-1]) ȡˡ
ܸǡ֥ꥹסֱѹפȸƤӤʤ路Ƥ뤢ιؤɽܸˤƤѸˤƤ⡤ˤˤޤߤʣƤ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤ뤬ܸΡסֱѡפȤϡ켫ΤüʲʹѤӤӤƤ롥ƣ (6--7) ˼Τ褦ɾ롥
Ϣ粦ˤĤơѤǡ֥ꥹסֱѹפȤ̾ڤƤ롥εϰϻ켷쥢Ѥ줿ݥȥ졦ʤޤΡ֥ꥢס֥륹פ뤤ϡ֥쥹פǤäꥢˤϡס쥹ˤϡֱѵסֱѡפȤäƤ줿ȾʤˤʤѤʤʤꡤѵѹѸ줬夷ޡפפоŪˡֱѡפȤϡ֡ڡԤ̣ѹȤä硤ͥްդƤϤɽˤʤޤĤβʹѤμƤǤ⤢롥ά
ʤʪۤȤäܸɽڤƤ뤬Ȥ British Empire, British Museum ΤɤˤפȤ̣Ϥʤˤ⤫餺ܸȤ夷Τϡꥹȹͤפϡ뤤ʸɽݤȤƴźȤ¤˾ȻΤ椨ХΤʸϰѤˤȤ鷺ܽǤϱѵѹʪۤȤ褦
ߡ¿ܿͤϡѸפȤƾΤѤƤʤŪˤϱѸѸפȤƤȤ館Ƥ뤤ΤǤϤʤ̣ʤΩŪܸθƾΤȤơ֥åפäƤ褤⤷ʤ
ƣ ɧإꥹ10֡١ȽŹҴȿӡ2013ǯ
٤Ƥθ줬ʿǤ뤳ȤˤĤ language_equality γƵǼꤢƤäȤ⡤ʿ (equal) ȤǰԤǤ롥ŪʸʤɤȤΤϤʤȤ̣ǤʿʤΤ٤˴ؤƺϤʤȤ̣ǤʿʤΤҲŪʲͤ˴ؤʿʤΤϤäꤷʤޤºݤˤ٤Ƥθ줬ʿǤȤ¤Ҥ٤ƤΤ뤤ʿǤ٤ϤȤ˾修ǰҤ٤ƤΤۣ
Τ褦ΥեϤˤ衤¿θؼԤ٤ƤθʿǤȼĥ³Ƥ롥ȤΤϡ̿ɬŪ˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤCrystal (460--61) ⡤"Recognizing language equality" ꤹǡʿĥƤ롥ǫʼĥǡɤߤ䤹ʸϤǤ⤢Τǡʲ˰ѤƤ
It comes near to stating the obvious that all languages have developed in order to express the needs of their users, and that all languages are, in a real sense, equal. But this tenet of modern linguistics has often been denied, and still needs to be defended. Part of the problem is that the word equal needs to be used very carefully. It is difficult to say whether all languages are structurally equal, in the sense that they have the same 'amounts' of grammar, phonology, or semantic structure . . . . But all languages are arguably equal in the sense that there is nothing intrinsically limiting, demeaning, or disabling about any of them. All languages meet the social and psychological needs of their speakers, and can provide us with valuable information about human nature and society. . . .
There are, however, several widely held misconceptions about languages which stem from a failure to recognize this view. The most important of these is the idea that there are such things as primitive languages --- languages with a simple grammar, a few sounds, and a vocabulary of only a few hundred words, whose speakers have to compensate for their language's deficiencies through gestures. In the 19th century, such ideas were common, and it was widely thought that it was only a matter of time before explorers would discover a genuinely primitive language.
The fact of the matter is that every culture which has been investigated, no matter how 'primitive' it may be in cultural terms, turns out to have a fully developed language, with a complexity comparable to those of the so-called 'civilized' nations. Anthropologically speaking, the human race can be said to have evolved from primitive to civilized states, but there is no sign of language having gone through the same kind of evolution. There are no 'bronze age' or 'stone age' languages.
At the other end of the scale from so-called 'primitive' language are opinions about the 'natural superiority' of certain languages. Latin and Greek were for centuries viewed as models of excellence in western Europe because of the literature and thought which these language expressed; and the study of modern languages is still influenced by the practices of generations of classical linguistic scholars. But all languages have a literature, even those which have never been written down. And oral performances encountered in some of these language, once transcribed, stand proudly alongside the classics of established literate societies.
The idea that one's own language is superior to others is widespread, but the reasons given for the superiority vary greatly. A language might be viewed as the oldest, or the most logical, or the language of gods, or simply the easiest to pronounce or the best for singing. Such beliefs have no basis in linguistic fact. Some languages are of course more useful or prestigious than others, at a given period of history, but this is due to the pre-eminence of the speakers at that time, and not to any inherent linguistic characteristics. The view of modern linguistics is that a language should not be valued on the basis of the political, economic, religious, or other influence of its speakers. If it were otherwise, we would have to rate the Spanish and Portuguese spoken in the 16th century as somehow 'better' than they are today, and modern American English would be 'better' than British English. When we make such comparisons, we find only a small range of linguistic differences, and nothing to warrant such sweeping conclusions.
At present, it is not possible to rate the excellence of languages in linguistic terms; and it is no less difficult to arrive at an evaluation in aesthetic, philosophical, literary, religious, or cultural terms. How, ultimately, could we compare the merits of Latin and Greek with the proverbial wisdom of Chinese, the extensive oral literature of the Polynesian islands, or the depth of scientific knowledge which has been expressed in English? Rather, we need to develop a mindset which recognizes languages as immensely flexible systems, capable of responding to the needs of a people and reflecting their interests and preoccupations in historically unique visions. That is why it is so important to preserve language diversity. There are only 6,000 or so visions left . . . .
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
Ѹθä3ع¤ǧ뤳Ȥϡܥ֥ǡ#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) Ϥᡤĥäε䡤lexical_stratification γƵܤƤüŪˤСˤ̤͡ʸܿƤʤǡŪ˴Ϣʤ줬ѤѤƤȤ˵롥ǡask -- question -- interrogate Τ褦ˡȤƤϷӤĤʤʬΥŪʡ (dissociated) äʤĤȤˤʤä
äμѤϤʤäűѸϡ1ĤδŪʸǤȤˤƴϢߡȺФƤդǤꡤ̤ȤäϡַŪʡ (associative) ʤ (Kastovsky 294) θűѸäηŪʤڤ뤿ˡKastovsky (294--96) ˵äơֹԤפ̣ñʸ gan 夲ΤӤϢƤߤ褦
(1) gan/gangan 'go, come, move, proceed, depart; happen'
(2) derivatives:
(a) gang 'going, journey; track, footprint; passage, way; privy; steps, platform'; compounds: ciricgang 'churchgoing', earsgang 'excrement', faldgang 'going into the sheep-fold', feþegang 'foot journey', forlig-gang 'adultery', hingang 'a going hence, death', hlafgang 'a going to eat bread', huselgang 'partaking in the sacrament', mynstergang 'the entering on a monastic life', oxangang 'hide, eighth of a plough-land', sulhgang 'plough-gang = as much land as can properly be tilled by one plough in one day'; gangern, gangpytt, gangsetl, gangstol, gangtun, all 'privy'
(b) genge n., sb. 'troops, company'
(c) -genge f., sb. in nightgenge 'hyena, i.e. an animal that prowls at night'
(d) -genga m., sb. in angenga 'a solitary, lone goer', æftergenga 'one who follows', hindergenga 'one that goes backwards, a crab', huselgenga 'one who goes to the Lord's supper', mangenga 'one practising evil', nihtgenga 'one who goes by night, goblin', rapgenga 'rope-dancer', sægenga 'sea-goer, mariner; ship'
(e) genge adj. 'prevailing, going, effectual, agreeable'
(f) -gengel sb. in æftergengel 'successor' (perhaps from æftergengan, wk. vb. 'to go')
(3) compounds with verbal first constituent, i.e. V + N (some of them might, however, also be treated as N + N, i.e. with gang as in (2a): gangdæg 'Rogation day, one of the three processional days before Ascension day', gangewifre 'spider, i.e. a weaver that goes', ganggeteld 'portable tent', ganghere 'army of foot-soldiers', gangwucu 'the week of Holy Thursday, Rogation week'
(4) gengan wk. vb. 'to go' < *gang-j-an; æftergengness 'succession, posterity'
(5) prefixations of gan/gangan;
(a) agan 'go, go by, pass, pass into possession, occur, befall, come forth'
(b) began/begangan 'go over, go to, visit; cultivate; surround; honour, worship' with derivatives begánga/bígang 'practice, exercise, worship, cultivation'; begánga/bígenga 'inhabitant, cultivator' and numerous compounds of both; begenge n. 'practice, worship', bigengere 'worker, worshipper'; bigengestre 'hand maiden, attendant, worshipper'; begangness 'calendae, celebration'
(c) foregan 'go before, precede' with derivatives foregenga 'forerunner, predecessor', foregengel 'predecessor'
(d) forgan 'pass over, abstain from'
(e) forþgan 'to go forth' with forþgang 'progress, purging, privy'
(f) ingan 'go in' with ingang 'entrance(-fee), ingression', ingenga 'visitor, intruder'
(g) niþergan 'to descend' with niþergang 'descent'
(h) ofgan 'to demand, extort; obtain; begin, start' with ofgangende 'derivative'
(i) ofergan 'pass over, go across, overcome, overreach' with ofergenga 'traveller'
(j) ongan 'to approach, enter into' with ongang 'entrance, assault'
(k) oþgan 'go away, escape'
(l) togan 'go to, go into; happen; separate, depart' with togang 'approach, attack'
(m) þurhgan 'go through'
(n) undergan 'undermine, undergo'
(o) upgan 'go up; raise' with upgang 'rising, sunrise, ascent', upgange 'landing'
(p) utgan 'go out' with utgang 'exit, departure; privy; excrement; anus'; ?utgenge 'exit'
(q) wiþgan 'go against, oppose; pass away, disappear'
(r) ymbgan 'go round, surround' with ymbgang 'circumference, circuit, going about'.
θǤˤϡ٤Ƹ촴 gan ¿ѷäƤȤƤˤޤޤƤ롥űѸäηŪʤΰüָ뤳ȤǤ
űѸθŪʰ֤ŤˤĤƤϡƱ Kastovsky ˵ä#3358. ĸϸ캬١ޥĸϸ촴١űѸʹߤϸ١ (1) ([2018-07-07-1])#3359. ĸϸ캬١ޥĸϸ촴١űѸʹߤϸ١ (2) ([2018-07-08-1])#3360. ĸϸ캬١ޥĸϸ촴١űѸʹߤϸ١ (3) ([2018-07-09-1]) ȡ
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
äθѤ붦ƱΤδؿȿǤƤȤȤϡԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) Humboldt Ρѡ (Weltanschauung) Ǥ⾧Ƥ̤ǤꡤˤĤƹؿ⤿1ĤǤʡ#1484. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ([2013-05-20-1]) )
ؤˤϸ (lexicology) Ȥʬ뤬θʤȤ櫓ŪˤͭյʤΤϡ1ĤˤϾ嵭뤫Kastovsky (291) դΤȤ˸ɽ路Ƥ롥
It is the basic function of lexemes to serve as labels for segments of extralinguistic reality that for some reason or another a speech community finds noteworthy. Therefore it is no surprise that even closely related languages will differ considerably as to the overall structure of their vocabulary, and the same holds for different historical stages of one and the same language. Looked at from this point of view, the vocabulary of a language is as much a reflection of deep-seated cultural, intellectual and emotional interests, perhaps even of the whole Weltbild of a speech community as the texts that have been produced by its members. The systematic study of the overall vocabulary of a language is thus an important contribution to the understanding of the culture and civilization of a speech community over and above the analysis of the texts in which this vocabulary is put to communicative use. This aspect is to a certain extent even more important in the case of dead languages such as Latin or the historical stages of a living language, where the textual basis is more or less limited.
äơȤбѸ˸ϡ1500ǯ;ˤ錄ѸüԶƱΤδؿʤʡѡˤɤȤʻߤȤȤˤʤ롥Τ褦ʻߤ1Ĥη¤OED Τ褦Ū§˴Ť缭ŵȤȤˤʤ롥
äѤȿǤȤϸ (linguistic_relativism) λǤ⤢뤷оȸŪʴؿƤӳФޤƤ⤯롥˴ؿΤϡ#1894. Ѹ͡ʡַסܸ͡ʡֱס ([2014-07-04-1])#1868. Ѹ͡ʡַס ([2014-06-08-1])#2711. ʸȸδط˴ؤ뤪⤷Ĥ ([2016-09-28-1])#3779. brother ȷ --- 11Ȥʤʤδط ([2019-09-01-1]) ʤɤȤ줿ñʸӤȤ˴ŤʸФƤդ٤⤢롥#364. The Great Eskimo Vocabulary Hoax ([2010-04-26-1])#1337. ְñʸաס ([2012-12-24-1]) ˤܤ̤Ƥ餤
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
ɸθ䤹Ѹ췲ˤĤơ[2018-08-29-1]ε˰³մ֤
εǤ⻲Ȥ¼ܸɸפˡ٤DzǫѸβͿƤ (14--15) פʬѤ褦
ĤθǤäƤ⡤դäդȤϰäȤ뤫顤ƹˤϤդɬפǤ롥Ǥפϡդˤϸʸʸʸ뤳ȤǤ롥䤳ȤäդΤȤǤ롥ʸȤʸΤνդΤȤǤ롥դˤϸƬ˶ᤤΤνդ⤢롥ʸȸäƤ롥ʬहȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
äաʸ Ρʸʸ ա ʸΡʸʸ
θؽˤϡפʤȤǡָ졤ʸפȤդڤΩƻѤƤΤ뤬Τ褦ѸϸɬοʬȤꡤָפȡʸפȤľܤˤΩʤޤָʸפȤߤ褤ξָפΡäաפؤƤ褦¾Ρʸפ̤ؤƤΤʸʸΡˤؤƤΤʬʤʤ롥ָʸספȤ䤹ѸȤȤϡʾ夫ȻפäȤָʸספϼºݤˤϡֽոΡפ̵ȤǡָΡפϽФ뤳ȤȲᤵ뤫顤ΰ̣ѸȤäƤʤ̵
ޤʬ褦ˡäդ1˿Ԥ뤬դˤ2ब̤ȤȤΤΤ䤳ä뤿ΥĥܤǤ롥ϡդäդ˽° (medium) Ǥ뤳ȤǡפʥĥܤȤ褦
¼ ˡܸɸפˡ١̼ҡ2019ǯ
Ѹɽˤññδ֤˶ʬνˤĤƤϡ#1112. ʬ (1) ([2012-05-13-1])#1113. ʬ (2) ([2012-05-14-1])#1903. ʬˡ ([2014-07-13-1]) ϤȤ distinctiones γƵǼ夲ƤνϳΤ˸űѸˤ⸫줿Τ٤̤ȯãǤꡤޤDzϴʳˤä¤ΤȤ³ѸǤϤȤƴϤʤäΤǡűѸʬδˤѤƤСѸΤδˤΤȤΤǤ롥
Baker ϡűѸˤñʬñǤιԸ٤˴ؤ "Word- and line-division" (159--60) ꤹߤƤ롥ʲʬˤĤƤβ⡥
Word-division is far less consistent in Old English than in Modern English; it is, in fact, less consistent in Old English manuscripts than in Latin written by Anglo-Saxon scribes. You may expect to see the following peculiarities.
spaces between the elements of compounds, e.g. aldor mon;
spaces between words and their prefixes and suffixes, e.g. be æftan, gewit nesse;
spaces at syllable divisions, e.g. len gest;
prepositions, adverbs and pronouns attached to the following words, e.g. uuiþbret walū, hehæfde;
many words, especially short ones, run together, e.g. þær þeherice hæfde.
The width of the spaces between words and word-elements is quite variable in most Old English manuscripts, and it is often difficult to decide whether a scribe intended a space. 'Diplomatic' editions, which sometimes attempt to reproduce the word-division of manuscripts, cannot represent in print the variability of the spacing on a hand-written page.
³ơñǤιԸ٤ΰˤĤơ
Most scribes broke words freely at the ends of lines. Usually the break takes place at a syllabic boundary, e.g. ofsle-gen (= ofslægen), sū-ne (= sumne), heo-fonum. Occasionally, however, a scribe broke a word elsewhere, e.g. forhæf-dnesse. Some scribes marked word-breaks with a hyphen, but many did not mark them in any way.
űѸˤϥեȤäƤ̻ȤȤζɵ椬̲Τϡ#2698. hyphen ([2016-09-15-1]) ǽҤ٤褦16ȾΤȤǤ롥
ʾꡤűѸʬδˤҤƤˡδˤʬ
Baker, Peter S. Introduction to Old English. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2007.
(The Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy) Ȥ5--9Υɤ¸ߤ7Ĥβ Northumbria, Mercia, Essex, East Anglia, Wessex, Sussex, Kent ؤ5濴Ȥ륢Υ֥ƥؤ˺ݤơȤƥͤ Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia ͤ Essex, Wessex, Sussex , 塼ȿͤ Kent ˳ơΤεǤ롥ߤ˹ɤ֤6ˤϼΩ800ǯޤǤˤ Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Wessex 4ĤؤȺԤ졤ǽŪˤ9--10ˤ Wessex Ƹꡤβǥʥɡ˲줵˻ä
ˤϡˤäưۤʤ벦Ƥ78ȾˤƤ Northumbria ƸꡤBede, Alcuin ʤɤΥɷϥꥹȶؼԤڽФʡ֥Ρ֥ꥢͥפȸƤФˡ8Ⱦ9ˤƤϡMercia Offa 졤ˤ̾Ȥɤۤɤδؤäʡ֥ޡƸסˡOffa ϶ߤ¤˶ᤤȤޤǤäޤ륺Ȥι褹֥åեݡ (Offa's Dyke) 褯ΤƤ롥Mercia Ƹ³9ʤǤ Wessex ν縢β뤳Ȥˤʤä
9Ⱦˤƥο㲽ƤȡϼΩȤɤΤϥեå粦 Wessex ΤߤȤʤäƤޤäWessex ȴ粦Ȥλ¹ϡ910ˤƥɤ¾ΰˤƶϤԻȤ¾Υ̤Ƥä
Τ褦ˡϡⰵȳˤꤽʬΩ˲äƤĤˤϥʥɡ˲ؤȯŸƤäλΤ⤦ܤǯɽˤĤƤϡ#2871. űѸΥ饤ǯɽ ([2017-03-07-1])#3193. űѸμפʽǯɽ ([2018-01-23-1]) ȡ
(13) Ρ֥פꤹϿޤǤƤºݤˤΤʹä櫓ǤϤʤ줾ϷήưŪäȤդƤ

ؿ⥤ꥹˡ١Ͻн˼ҡ2002ǯ
5ΥΥ֥ƥؤϡ֥ޥ̱²ư (Volkerwanderung) ΰĤȤƤ褯ΤƤ뤬ƱƤȤΰưˤĤƤä̾ΤͿƤ餺ݤ¤ϡ֥ƥΥȿͤϡ夹4--8ΤʤʤưŪäΤǤ롥4--5ˤϥɤ饹åȥߤ䥦륺ߤؤΰܽߤ줿4--8Τˤϥ֥ƥ鳤˱ۤƥ֥륿˥Ⱦؤ͡ϤäƤʸԤˤĤƤϡ#734. panda Britain ([2011-05-01-1]) ȡ#3761. ֥ƥȥ֥륿˥ ([2019-08-14-1]) ȡˡ
衤֥ƥ˲äƤȤˤꡤȤɤ줿ȹͤƤȤϼºݤˤϥäƤ͡ưƤΤǤ롥 (12--13) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
衤ͤϡ轻ΥȿͤǤϥ륺ʥͤθդǡֳͤϡפ̣ˤ䥳롤ǤϹϥåȥȤäնɤäȹͤƤޥͤγưǤä塤ꥹΥȿͤưȯǤäȤ˺ƤϤʤʤǤ˻ˤϥɤΥåȿ֥ͤƥ˰ܽ轻Υԥȿͤ礹뤫ǸΥåȥɤ뤳ȤˤʤäΥɿͤϥ륺ˤϤä륺ʤɥ֥ƥΥ֥ȥͤ⡤?ȬˡϤäƥ֥륿˥Ⱦ塤ꥹȤǤȤ礭ʿ͡ư줿ΤǤ롥
ǯǤϡɤ⥱ȷ轻̱व줿櫓ǤϤʤΥȿͤ¿轻̱ͻ礷Ƥ褦ˡºݤˤ϶⤷ƤȤųؤȯˤä餫ˤƤƤ롥οϥȿͤο魯ΤǤϤʤä褦βǡͥǤäʸ夷Ѹ줬Ѥʤɡϰ褫饱ʸवƤäȤ⡤ޤΤǤ롥
#389. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes θϤȰܽ ([2010-05-21-1]) Τ褦ϿޤˡȤΰưȤ߹碌̤Ͽޡʻ, p. 12 ˤ

ǯΥΡŷŪʰפȤǤϤʤȤȤζꤹ롤䤫⤬ʹ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#3113. ͤ˥ɤΤ ([2017-11-04-1]) ε䡤Υεȡ
ؿ⥤ꥹˡ١Ͻн˼ҡ2002ǯ
914ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ10ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ7Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤˤ to ȸ2बΤפǤ
⤽ȤϲʤΤ褦ʸƤ̾ĤƤΤϤޤꡤto ȸ2ब̤ƤŪͳ줾ˡμϰϤȤƸߤˤޤ³ξΤ礤ޤȾǤϡShe made me laugh. Τ褦ǽư֤λʸѤ븶줬ư֤ʸˤʤ I was made to laugh by her. Τ褦 to ѤΤϤʤȤѤʵˤޤ

ܥ֥Ǥ⡤ˤĤƤ infinitive γƵǤǤ˼夲ƤޤΤǡϢܵȹ碌Ƥ
δ졡ֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ7ʤˤ to ȸ2बΤסرѸ춵2019ǯ10桤罤۽Ź2019ǯ91462--63ǡ
ܥ֥DZѸˤΤˡ츻ʤɤǤФнȤɬפ뤬κݤѤ̾ά롥ޤǤεǤɬά줵ƤʤäϤʤ٤˽ȤƤϡرѸ츻ŵ٤Ρָ̾ά (xvi--xvii) ˰͵롥פʡŪ˸ˤĤƤϡƱŵ xiv ǯʬƤάطȤƤϡ#1044. ѸʡChaucerShakespeareά ([2012-03-06-1]) ⻲ȡ
| Aeol. | Aeolic | |
| AF | Anglo-French | 1100--1500 |
| Afr. | African | |
| Afrik. | Afrikaans | |
| Akkad. | Akkadian | |
| Alb. | Albanian | |
| Aleut. | Aleutian | |
| Am. | American | |
| Am.-Sp. | American Spanish | |
| Anglo-L | Anglo-Latin | |
| Arab. | Arabic | |
| Aram. | Aramaic | |
| Arm. | Armenian | |
| Assyr. | Assyrian | |
| Austral. | Australian | |
| Aves. | Avestan | |
| Braz. | Brazilian | |
| Bret. | Breton | |
| Brit. | Brittonic/Brythonic | |
| Bulg. | Bulgarian | |
| Canad. | Canadian | |
| Cant. | Cantonese | |
| Cat. | Catalan | |
| Celt. | Celtic | |
| Central-F | Central French | |
| Chin. | Chinese | |
| Corn. | Cornish | |
| Dan. | Danish | |
| Drav. | Dravidian | |
| Du. | Dutch | |
| E | English | |
| E-Afr. | East African | |
| Egypt. | Egyptian | |
| F | French | |
| Finn. | Finnish | |
| Flem. | Flemish | |
| Frank. | Frankish | |
| Fris. | Frisian | |
| G | German | |
| Gael. | (Scottish-)Gaelic | |
| Gaul. | Gaulish | |
| Gk | Greek | --200 |
| Gmc | Germanic | |
| Goth. | Gothic | |
| Heb. | Hebrew | |
| Hitt. | Hittite | |
| Hung. | Hungarian | |
| Icel. | Icelandic | |
| IE | Indo-European | |
| Ind. | Indian | |
| Ir. | Irish(-Gaelic) | |
| Iran. | Iranian | |
| It. | Italian | |
| Jamaic.-E | Jamaican English | |
| Jav. | Javanese | |
| Jpn. | Japanese | |
| L | Latin | 75 B.C.--200 |
| Latv. | Latvian | |
| Lett. | Lettish | |
| LG | Low German | |
| LGk | Late Greek | 200--600 |
| Lith. | Lithuanian | |
| LL | Late Latin | 200--600 |
| MDu. | Middle Dutch | 1100--1500 |
| ME | Middle English | 1100--1500 |
| Mex. | Mexican | |
| Mex.-Sp. | Mexican Spanish | |
| MGk | Medieval Greek | 600--1500 |
| MHeb. | Medieval Hebrew | |
| MHG | Middle High German | 1100--1500 |
| MIr. | Middle Irish | 950--1300 |
| Mish. Heb. | Mishnaic Hebrew | |
| ML | Medieval Latin | 600--1500 |
| MLG | Middle Low German | 1100--1500 |
| ModE | Modern English | |
| ModGk | Modern Greek | |
| ModHeb. | Modern Hebrew | |
| MPers. | Middle Persian | |
| MWelsh | Middle Welsh | 1150--1500 |
| N-Am.-Ind. | North American Indian | |
| NGk | Neo-Greek | |
| NHeb. | Neo-Hebrew | |
| NL | Neo-Latin | |
| Norw. | Norwegian | |
| ODu. | Old Dutch | |
| OE | Old English | 700--1100 |
| OF | Old French | 800--1550 |
| OFris. | Old Frisian | 1200--1550 |
| OHG | Old High German | 750--1100 |
| OIr. | Old Irish | 600--950 |
| OIt. | Old Italian | |
| OL | Old Latin | 500--75 B.C. |
| OLG | Old Low German | 800--1100 |
| OLith. | Old Lithuanian | |
| ON | Old Norse | 800--1300 |
| ONF | Old Norman French | |
| OPers. | Old Persian | |
| OProv. | Old Provençal | |
| OPruss. | Old Prussian | 1400--1600 |
| OS | Old Saxon | 800--1000 |
| Osc. | Oscan | |
| Osc.-Umbr. | Osco-Umbrian | |
| OSlav. | Old (Church) Slavonic | 900--1100 |
| OSp. | Old Spanish | |
| OWelsh | Old Welsh | 700--1150 |
| PE | Present-Day English | |
| Pers. | Persian | |
| Phoen. | Phoenician | |
| Pidgin-E | Pidgin English | |
| Pol. | Polish | |
| Port. | Portuguese | |
| Prov. | Provençal | |
| Rum. | Rumanian | |
| Russ. | Russian | |
| S-Afr. | South African | |
| S-Am.-Ind. | South American Indian | |
| Scand. | Scandinavian | |
| Sem. | Semitic | |
| Serb. | Serbian | |
| Serbo-Croat. | Serbo-Croatian | |
| Siam. | Siamese | |
| Skt | Sanskrit | |
| Slav. | Slavonic, Slavic | |
| Sp. | Spanish | |
| Sumer. | Sumerian | |
| Swed. | Swedish | |
| Swiss-F | Swiss French | |
| Syr. | Syriac | |
| Tibet. | Tibetan | |
| Toch. | Tocharian | |
| Turk. | Turkish | |
| Umbr. | Umbrian | |
| Ved. | Vedic | |
| VL | Vulgar Latin | |
| W-Afr. | West African | |
| W-Ind. | West Indies | |
| WS | West Saxon | |
| Yid. | Yiddish |
ѸˤĤƤϡ#1624. Ѹΰ ([2013-10-07-1]) ϤȤ (waseieigo) γƵǼ夲ƤѸ˾ֱסֱʩסֱפʤɤǧƤꡤѸפϷ褷ܸΤߤΥäǤϤʤҤȤʤ̸üѤˤɤäƤˤϡФи븽ݤǤ롥
ǤεѸΰشۤΡرѸŵ٤ӡդ٤ʸ졦Ѹ (pp. 450--53) ꤹ볺äΤǡƸƤܸȤƤŤΡʤȤ졩ˤʤʤ褦ʡ
| ơground; ʱѡearth | |
| åȥޡ | at sign |
| ɥХ륤 | advertising balloon |
| ˥ | animation |
| ѡ | ơapartment house; ʱѡblock of flats |
| եӥ | after-sales service |
| ߥۥ | tinfoil; aluminum foil |
| | anchor(man/woman) |
| amplifier | |
| semi-tailored | |
| ޥ | yes-man |
| ʥ | makeover |
| 饹 | illustration |
| åȥץ | ink-jet printer |
| ۥ | intercom |
| եޡʾޡ | info(r)mercial |
| ե | infrastructure |
| | ơturn signal; ʱѡindicator |
| ޥ | women's liberation |
| air conditioner | |
| extract | |
| ͥ륮å | energetic |
| | engagement ring |
| | ignition key |
| | engine stall; engine failure |
| | entertainment |
| | custom-made; tailor-made; made to order |
| ȥХ | motorcycle |
| ץ | convertible |
| 饦ɤΡŪ | ơall-around; ʱѡall-round |
| ե | hydrogen peroxide |
| Х | sacrifice bunt |
| ơsuspender; ʱѡgarter | |
| ɥޥ | (security) guard |
| ʥ | car navigation system |
| ʥ˥졼 | racing driver |
| | ơgas station; ʱѡpetrol station |
| ơcatalog; ʱѡcatalogue | |
| åĥܡ | victory pose |
| ޥʼ̿ȡ | photographer |
| ޥʱDzʤɤΡ | cameraman |
| ˥ | cheating |
| ̥ӡ | canned beer |
| å | keyboarding |
| ۥ | key chain; key ring |
| ޡ | hickey; kiss mark |
| եȥɡʥեȷ | gift certificate |
| 㥹ʲԡ | newscaster |
| åܡ | play catch |
| åۥ | telephone with call waiting |
| 顼˼֡ | air conditioner |
| 饯 | (car) horn |
| ꥹޥ (X'mas) | Xmas; Christmas |
| ॻ | ơ(penny) arcade; amusement arcade |
| å | coin-operated locker |
| go-kart | |
| ϥ | coke highball |
| goggle | |
| all-clear; green light | |
| ȥå | traffic signal |
| ҡs | coffee bar |
| ݥ饹 | condominium |
| ǥ | prime time |
| ɥޡ | cold wave |
| Х | rubber band; ʱѡelastic band |
| grounder | |
| | ơ(electrical) outlet; ʱѡ(wall) socket |
| party; get-together | |
| ѥ˥ʰⷸ | escort; guide |
| combination | |
| ӥ | convenience store |
| soda | |
| ɥӥͥʥХȡ | sideline |
| ɥߥ顼 | ơside(view) mirror; ʱѡwing mirror, door mirror |
| ʽ̾ | signature |
| ͭ̾ͤʤɤΡ | autograph |
| ȥ | sound track |
| | off season |
| Х | jeans |
| åȥ | roller coaster |
| system administrator | |
| ƥ७å | built-in kitchen unit |
| 㡼ʥס˥ڥ | ơmechanical pencil; ʱѡpropelling pencil |
| 㡼 | jersey |
| 塼 | cream puff |
| Сʤǯ | senior citizen |
| С | priority seat |
| ѡʻٻԡ | sympathizer |
| å | squash |
| å | physical contact |
| ɥץ졼 | grandstand play |
| ƥå | (walking) stick |
| ƥʥ쥹 | stainless steel |
| ȡ | heater |
| ѥ | ơstudded tire; ʱѡstudded tyre |
| ԡɥ | slowdown |
| ԡɥ | speedometer |
| ڥߥ | spelling error; misspelling |
| ޡȤ | stylish; dashing |
| å | mules; scuffs |
| եƥХ | drag bunt |
| ϥ | sexual harassment |
| celeb(rity) | |
| ơ | adhesive tape; Scotch tape |
| եȡʥԥ塼 | software |
| ץߥ | typo; typographical error |
| ߥå | deadline |
| 쥳 | time clock |
| ơdinner suit; ʱѡtuxedo | |
| personality; star | |
| ץ | ơdump truck; ʱѡdumper truck |
| ?????????? | fastener; ?米??zipper; ?????zip (fastener) |
| 硼ʼ֤Ρ | choke |
| ơ֥륹ԡ | after-dinner speech |
| ơ | ơtail light; ʱѡtail lamp |
| ǥ | digital camera |
| ǥʼұư | demonstration |
| ƥۥӥ | telephone information service |
| Żҥ | microwave oven |
| ɥܡ | doorman |
| ɥإ | medi-copter |
| ɥåȥץ | dot matrix printer |
| ȥåץХå | lead-off batter; lead-off man |
| ȥʼ֤Ρ | ơtrunk; ʱѡboot |
| ȥ | (playing) card |
| ??????????? | ?米??sweat pants; ?????track-suit trousers |
| ʥ | night game |
| ʥСץ졼 | ơlicense plate; ʱѡnumber plate |
| ˥塼㥹 | anchor(man/woman) |
| ˥塼ե | newcomer |
| ͡¥塼 | recognition value |
| ?????? | negative |
| Ρ֡ʤΡ | sleeveless |
| ΡȡĢ̡ | notebook |
| Υ | quota |
| ΥƥåץХ | kneeling bus |
| Х | buffet; buffet-style dinner; smorgasbord |
| Х | motorcycle; motorbike |
| ϥƥ | late teens |
| ?????????? | high tech(nology) |
| ϥӥ | high-definition TV system |
| ϥޥ̥ | sales clerk |
| Х | ơbathrobe; ʱѡdressing gown |
| ѥ | personal computer |
| Хååסʻٱ | backing; support |
| Хåͥå | backstop |
| Хåޡ | kickback |
| Хåߥ塼å | background music |
| Хåߥ顼 | rear-view mirror |
| Хå饤 | ơbackup light; ʱѡreversing light |
| Хåܥå | batter's box |
| ϥåԡ | happy ending |
| ѥͥ顼 | panelist |
| Хꥫ | hair clippers |
| ϥ | ơemployment agency; employment bureau |
| ѥ | ơflat tire; ʱѡpuncture |
| ϥ | hunger strike |
| ѥ | ơpantyhose; ʱѡtights |
| ϥɥޥ | ơbullhorn; ʱѡloudhailer |
| ϥɥʼ֤Ρ | steering wheel |
| ?????????? | green pepper |
| ԥå®١ | pace |
| ӥˡ | plastic bag |
| ?????? | flyer; flier |
| ӥʷʪ | building |
| եܡ | base on balls |
| ץåۥ | push-button phone; touch-tone phone |
| ֥饤ɥå | touch typing |
| ץǥ | plastic model |
| ֥ʪ | brand-name goods |
| ե | one size fits all |
| ե | job-hopping part-timer worker |
| ե | ơtoll-free; ʱѡfreephone; freefone |
| ץ | pudding |
| ץ쥤 | ticket agency |
| ֥졼 | brake light |
| ֥쥹å | bracelet |
| ץ쥼 | presentation |
| եå | flexible working hours; flextime; flexible time |
| ??????????? | prefabricated house |
| ֥å | block signal |
| ץ쥹 | professional wrestling |
| ե | ơfront desk; ʱѡreception |
| եȥ饹 | ơwindsheeld; ʱѡwindscreen |
| ڥ | deposit insurance cap; deposit payoff |
| ١å | ơ(pay) raise; ʱѡ(pay) rise |
| ڡѡƥ | written test |
| ڡѡɥ饤С | driver in name only; driver on paper only |
| ٥åɥ | bedroom scene |
| ٥åɥ | bedroom suburb |
| ڥåȥܥȥ | plastic bottle; PETʥԡƥbottle |
| إåɥ饤 | ơheadlight; ʱѡheadlamp |
| ٥ƥ | expert |
| ٥ӡ | ơstroller; ʱѡpushchair |
| ٥ӡ٥å | baby crib |
| إ륹 | bathroom scales |
| ڥ | resort inn |
| ۥ륭å | hub cap |
| ܡʥۥƥʤɤΡ | page; bellboy; bellhop |
| ۡʱؤΡ | platform |
| ۡɥ | family doctor |
| ۡإѡ | ơcaregiver; ʱѡcarer |
| ܡڥ | ơball-point pen; ʱѡbiro |
| ?????? | positive |
| ۥå | stapler |
| ܥǥå | body search |
| ۥƥޥ | hotel employee |
| ܥͥå | ơhood; ʱѡbonnet |
| ޡ | computerized answer sheet |
| ޥ | owned car; private car |
| ޥå | mug |
| ޥ | mother complex |
| ޥå | marker, marking pen, felt-tip (pen) |
| ޥ | mass communication(s), (mass) media, |
| ޥˡʤͤ߹ּ | pyramid selling |
| ޥ | condominium |
| ߥ | sewing machine |
| ߥ | type; typographical error |
| ߥ륯ƥ | tea with milk |
| ʵ | ơˡʱѡˤȤ meter |
| ȥʵΥ | ơmeter; ʱѡmetre |
| ɥ | soap opera |
| ⡼˥ | wake-up call |
| ⡼˥ӥ | breakfast special |
| ӥ | ubiquitous |
| 饱åȡʥԥݥΡ | ơpaddle; ʱѡbat |
| դʡʥ | casual; informal |
| ϥӥ | rehabilitation |
| ӥå | living room with a kitchenette |
| եहʲȤʤɡ | remodel |
| ॸХ | limousine |
| ⥳ | remote control |
| ȥ | retort |
| ƥ | tea with lemon |
| ƥ | early teens |
| ץ | word processor |
| 磻 | (dress) shirt |
| 磻ɥ硼 | variety program |
| ܥå | van |
| ޥ | autocrat |
| 롼ޥ | studio apartment; one-room apartment |
#3781. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ3֥ο̱ϡפΤ ([2019-09-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ȥꡤ97ڡ15:15?18:30ī㡼ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻3ο̱ϡꤹֱԤʤޤ2Ʊ͡˻äޤơ꤬Ȥޤ˿ͤ¿ӽФ伫Ȥ⤪ٶˤʤޤ *
ϡ(1) ޥ֥ƥλطʤҲ𤷤塤(2) ƱˤϤޤΦˤäѸȥƥΡڤӤθΡפˤĤƳ⤷(3) ǽΥƥѸ줬ճˤŪʤܤޤ
ä3ܤˤĤƤϡ褢ޤѸˤܤƤʤä褦˻פޤΤǡʤ⤷ޤƥѸȤСä3ع¤Υȥåפ˷פäȤơ⤯꤬äƤȤ館뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤȺǽ˼Ѥ줿ΤˤϸǤѤ̤θ줬ʤޤƥ˴ؤ륹ƥ쥪פǤդ뤳ȤȻפޤ
ֺ¤Ѥ饤ɻ֤Ƥޤܥ֥δϢؤΥˤʤäƤޤΤǡʤɤˤΩƤ
41012ڡ15:15?18:30ֱѸˤȸ츻4ޥ̱²ưꤷơ褤ֱѸλϤޤפˤĤƤäͽǤ
1. Ѹˤȸ츻3 ֥ο̱ϡ
2. 3ο̱
3. ܼ
4. 1. ޥ֥ƥλ
5. ޥ֥ƥϿ
6. ޥ֥ƥθ (1) --- ʣʥޥҲ
7. ޥ֥ƥθ (2) --- ꥢȤ
8. λĤ -chester, -caster, -cester ̾
9. ¿Υƥ̾˥ͤˤäƼΤƤ줿ͳ
10. 2. ƥȤΡפȤΡ
11. ƥȤΡפγ
12. Ѹˤƥΰ֤Ť
13. 3. ǽΥƥѸΰճ
14. ټ -er -ster ǽΥƥǡ
15. űѸäˤƥѸΨ
16. Ѥηϩ --- ƥ졤ȸ졤űѸδط
17. cheap ͳ
18. pound (?) ͳ
19. Saturday Ȥ¾̾ͳ
20. ޤȤ
21. ʸ
ɸ2Ĥιټ (agentive suffix) ˤĤơ줾#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])#2188. spinster, youngster ʤɤˤߤ -ster ([2015-04-24-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
-er ϸűѸǤ -ere ȤƸ졤ޥˤƱ줬ǧ롥饲ޥĸ *-ārjaz, *-ǣrijaz ƷƤ뤬̤ȤȵȽȤʤDurkin (114) ˤСƥ -ārius, -ārium, -āria μѤȤΤȤʤΥƥӱѸ˷ƻ -ary ȤäƤƤꡤbudgetary, discretionary, parliamentary, unitary ʤɤˤߤˡ
ȤȽιټԤɽ魯űѸ -estre, -istre Ūʤ⤤ĤΥޥˤߤ졤ޥĸ *-strjōn ƷƤϤ뤬ϤꤽεǤ롥Durkin (114) ϡƥ -istria ͳ褹ΤǤϤʤȵäƤ롥
⤷ιټƥ줫Ѥ줿Ρʤ餯ΦΡǤȤСαѸˤˤơۤɹ⤤ȤˤʤäƥͳηǤϤʤä -er ˤĤƤϤǤ롥줬¤ʤС#3788. űѸΥƥѸΰճ ([2019-09-10-1]) ǽҤ٤ȤꡤǽΥƥǤΤŪʤ⤦ĤλȤʤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
3֤εʡ#3787. 650ǯդȤ롤ΥƥѸü ([2019-09-09-1])#3788. űѸΥƥѸΰճ ([2019-09-10-1])#3789. űѸäˤƥѸΨ1.75% ([2019-09-11-1])ˤǤ줿褦ˡ650ǯդ˥ƥ줫ѸήñˤϡճŪʤΤ¿ޤޤƤ롥
ǧˤϡŪñįƤߤΤ֤Durkin (107--16) Ȥơʲˡ̣ʬȤˡơñˤĤƸűѸμѷбʤ뤤ϸˡƥƬ "?" դƤϡμѸǤȶäƤǧʤǤ롥
[ Religion and the Church ]
abbod, abbot 'abbot' [L abbat-, abbas]
abbodesse 'abbess' [L abbatissa]
antefn, also (later) antifon, antyfon 'antiphon (type of liturgical chant)' [L antifona, antefona]
ælmesse, ælmes 'alms, charity' [L *alimosina, variant of elemosina]
bisċeop 'bishop' [probably L episcopus]
cristen 'Christian' [L christianus]
dēofol, dīofol 'devil' [perhaps Latin diabulus]
draca 'dragon, monstrous beast; the devil' [L draco]
engel, angel 'angel' [probably L angelus]
mæsse, messe 'mass' (the religious ceremony) [L missa]
munuc 'monk' [L monachus]
mynster 'monastery; importan church' [L monasterium]
nunne 'nun' [L nonna]
prēost 'priest' [probably L *prebester, presbyter]
senoð, seonoð, sinoð, sionoð 'council, synod, assembly' [L synodus]
? ancra, ancor 'anchorite' [L anachoreta, perhaps via Old Irish anchara]
? ærċe-, erċe-, arce- 'arch-' (in titles) [L archi-]
? relic- (in relicgang (probably) 'bearing of relics in a procession') [clipping of L reliquiae or OE reliquias]
? reliquias 'relics' [L reliquiae]
[ Learning and scholarship ]
Læden 'Latin; any foreign language', also (later) lātin [L Latina]
sċolu, also (later) scōl 'troop, band; school' [L schola]
? græf 'stylus' [L graphium]
? stǣr (or stær) 'history' [probably ultimately L historia, perhaps via Celtic]
? traht 'text, passage, commentary' [L tractus]
? trahtað 'commentary' [L tractatus]
[ Plants, fruit, and products of plants ]
bēte 'beet, beetroot' [L beta]
billere denoting several water plants [L berula]
box 'box tree', later also 'box, receptable' [L buxus]
celendre, cellendre 'coriander' [L coliandrum]
ċerfille, ċerfelle 'chervil' [L caerefolium]
*ċiċeling 'chickpea' [L cicer]
ċīpe 'onion' [L cepe]
ċiris-(bēam) 'cherry tree' [L *ceresia, cerasium]
ċisten-, ċistel-, ċist-(bēam) 'chestnut tree' [L castinea or castanea]
coccel 'corn cockle, or other grain-field weed' [L *cocculus < coccum]
codd-(æppel) 'quince' [L cydonium, cotoneum, or cotonium]
consolde '(perhaps) daisy or comfrey' [L consolida]
corn-(trēo) 'cornel tree' [L cornus]
cost 'costmary' [L constum]
cymen 'cumin' [L cuminum]
cyrfet 'gourd' [L cucurbita]
earfe plant name, probably vetch [L ervum]
elehtre '(probably) lupin' [L electrum]
eofole 'dwarf elder, danewor' [L ebulus]
eolone, elene 'elecampane' (a plant) [L inula, helenium]
finol, finule, finugle 'fennel' [L fenuculum]
glædene a plant name (usually for a type of iris) [L gladiola]
humele 'hop plant' [L humulus]
lāser 'weed, tare' [L laser]
leahtric, leahtroc, also (later) lactuce 'lettuce' [L lactuca]
*lent 'lentil' [L lent-, lens]
lufestiċe 'lovage' [L luvesticum]
mealwe 'mallow' [L malva]
*mīl 'millet' [L milium]
minte, minta 'mint' [L mentha]
næp 'turnip' [L napus]
nefte 'catmint' [L nepeta]
oser or ōser 'osier' [L osaria]
persic 'peach' [L persicum]
peru 'pear' [L pirum, pera]
piċ 'pitch' (the resinous substance) [L pic-, pix]
pīn 'pine' [L pinus]
pipeneale 'pimpernel' [L pipinella]
pipor 'pepper' [L piper]
pieir 'pear tree' [L *pirea]
pise, *peose 'pea' [L pisum]
plūme 'plum; plum tree' and plȳme 'plum; plum tree' [both perhaps L pruna]
pollegie 'penny-royal' [L pulegium]
popiġ, papiġ 'poppy' [L papaver]
porr 'leek' [L porrum]
rǣdiċ 'radish' [L radic-, radix]
rūde 'rue' [L ruta]
syrfe 'service tree' [L *sorbea, sorbus]
ynne- (in ynnelēac) 'onion' [L unio]
? æbs 'fir tree' [L abies]
? croh, crog 'saffron; type of dye; saffron colour' [L crocus]
? fīċ 'fig tree, fig' [L ficus]
? plante 'young plant' [L planta]
? sæðerie, satureġe 'savory (plant name)' [L satureia]
? sæppe 'spruce fir' [L sappinus]
? sōlsēċe 'heliotrope' [L solsequium, with substitution of a derivative of OE sēċan 'to seek' for the second element]
[ Animals ]
assa 'ass' [L asinum perhaps via Celtic]
capun 'capon' [probably L capon-, capo]
cat, catte 'cat' [L cattus]
cocc 'cock, rooster' [L coccus]
*cocc (in sǣcocc) 'cockle' [perhaps L *coccum]
culfre 'dove' [perhals L columbra, columbula]
cypera 'salmon at the time of spawning' [L cyprinus]
elpend, ylpend 'elephant', also shortend to ylp [L elephant-, elephans]
eosol, esol 'ass' [L asellus]
lempedu, also (later) lamprede 'lamprey' [L lampreda]
mūl 'mule' [L mulus]
muscelle 'mussel' [L musculus]
olfend 'camel' [probably L elephant-, elephans, with the change in meaning arising from semantic confusion]
ostre 'oyster' [L ostrea]
pēa 'peafowl' [L pavon-, pavo]
*pine- (in *pinewincle, as suggested emendation of winewincle) 'wincle' [perhals L pina]
rēnġe 'spider' [L aranea]
strȳta 'ostrich' [L struthio]
trūht 'trout' [L tructa]
turtle, turtur 'turtle dove' [L turtur]
[ Food and drink (see also plants and animals) ]
ċȳse, ċēse 'cheese' [L caseus]
foca 'cake baked on the ashes of the hearth' (only attested with reference to Biblical contexts or antiquity) [L focus]
must 'wine must, new wine' [L mustum]
seim 'lard, fat' (only attested in figurative use) [L *sagimen, sagina]
senap, senep 'mustard' [L sinapis]
wīn 'wine' [L vinum]
[ Medicine ]
butere 'butter' [L butyrum, buturum]
ċeren 'wine reduced by boiling for extra sweetness' [L carenum]
eċed 'vinegar' [L acetum]
ele 'oil' [L oleum]
fēfer or fefer 'fever' [L febris]
flȳtme 'lancet' [L fletoma]
[ Transport; riding and horse gear ]
ancor, ancra 'anchor (also in figurative use)' [L ancora]
cæfester 'muzzle, halter, bit' [L capistrum, perhaps via Celtic]
ċæfl 'muzzle, halter, bit' [L capulus]
ċearricge (meaning very uncertain, perhaps 'carriage') [perhaps L carruca]
punt 'punt' [L ponton-, ponto]
sēam 'burden; harness; service which consisted in supplying beasts of burden' [L sauma, sagma]
stǣt 'road; paved road, street' [L strata]
[ Tools and implements ]
cucler 'spoon' [L coclear]
culter 'coulter; (once) dagger' [L culter]
fæċele 'torch' [L facula]
fann 'winnowing fan' [L vannus]
forc, forca 'fork' [L furca]
*fossere or fostere 'spade' [L fossorium]
inseġel, insiġle 'seal; signet' [L sigillum]
līne 'cable, rope, line, cord; series, row, rule, direction' [probably L linea]
mattuc, meottuc, mettoc 'mattock' [perhaps L *matteuca]
mortere 'mortar' [L mortarium]
panne 'pan' [perhaps L panna]
pæġel 'wine vessel; liquid measure' [L pagella]
pihten part of a loom [L pecten]
pīl 'pointed object; dart, shaft, arrow; spike, nail; stake' [L pilum]
pīle 'mortar' [L pila]
pinn 'pin, peg, pointer; pen' [probably L penna]
pīpe 'tube, pipe; pipe (= wind instrument); small stream' [L pipa]
pundur 'counterpoise; plumb line' [L ponder-, pondus]
seġne 'fishing net' [L sagena]
sicol 'sickle' [L *sicula, secul < secare 'to cut']
spynġe, also (later) sponge 'sponge' [L spongia, spongea]
timple instrument used in weaving [L templa]
turl 'ladele' [L trulla]
? stropp 'strap' [L stroppus or struppus]
? trefet 'trivet, tripod' [L tripes]
[ Warware and weapons ]
camp 'battle; war; field' [L campus]
cocer 'quiver' [perhaps L cucurum]
[ Buildings and parts of buildings; construction; towns and settlements ]
ċeafor-(tūn), cafer-(tūn) 'hall, court' [L capreus]
ċealc, calc 'chalk, plaster' [L calc-, calx]
ċeaster, ċæster 'fortification; city, town (especially one with a wall)' [L castra]
ċipp 'rod, stick, beam (especially in various specific contexts)' [probably L cippus]
clifa, cleofa, cliofa 'chamber, cell, den, lair' [perhaps L clibanus 'oven']
clūse, clause 'lock; confine, enclosure; fortified pass' [L clausa]
clūstor 'lock, bolt, bar, prison' [L claustrum]
cruft 'crypt, cave' [L crupta]
cyċene 'kitchen' [L coquina]
cylen 'kiln, oven' [L culina]
*cylene 'town' (only as place-name element) [L colonia]
mūr 'wall' [L murus]
mylen 'mill' [L molina]
pearroc 'enclosure; fence that forms an enclosure' [perhaps L parricus]
pīsle or pisle 'warm room' [L pensilis]
plætse, plæce, plæse 'open place in a town, square, street' [L platea]
port 'town with a harbour; harbour, port; town (especially one with a wall or a market)' [L portus]
post 'post; doorpost' [L postis]
pytt 'hole in the ground; excavated hole; pit; grave; hell' [pherlaps L puteus]
sċindel 'roof shingle' [L scindula]
solor 'upper room; hall, dwelling; raised platform' [L solarium]
tīġle, tīgele, tigele 'earthen vessel; potshert; tile, brick' [L tegula]
torr 'tower' [L turris]
weall 'wall, rampart, earthwork' [L vallum]
wīċ 'dwelling; village; camp, fortress' [L visum]
? port 'gate, gateway' [L porta]
? prtiċ 'porch, portico, vestibule, chapel' [L poorticus]
[ Containers, vessels, and receptacles ]
amber 'vessel, dry or liquid measure' [L amphora, ampora]
binn, binne 'basket, bin; manger' [L benna]
buteruc 'bottle' [perhaps from a derivative of L buttis]
byden 'vessel, container; cask, tub; tub-shaped geographical feature' [probably L *butina]
bytt 'bottle, flask, cask, wine skin' [L *buttia]
ċelċ, cælc, calic 'drinking vessel, cup' [L calic-, calix]
ċist, ċest 'chest, box, coffer; reliquary; coffin' [L cista]
cuppe 'cup', also copp 'cup, beaker; gloss for Latin spongia sponge' [L cuppa]
cȳf 'large jar, vessel, or tub' [L cupia < cupa]
cȳfl 'tub, bucket' [L cupellus]
cyll, cylle 'leather bottle, leather bag; ladele; oil lamp' [L culleus]
disċ 'dish, bowl, plate' [L discus]
earc, earce, earca, also arc, arce, arca 'ark (especially Noah's ark or the ark of the covenent), chest, coffer' [L arca]
gabote, gafote kind of dish or platter [L gabata]
ġellet 'jug, bowl, or basin' [L galleta]
læfel, lebil 'spoon, cup, bowl, vessel' [L labellum]
orc 'pitcher, crock, cup' [L orca]
pott 'pot' [perhaps L pottus]
sacc, also sæcc 'sack, bag' [L saccus]
sester 'jar, vessel; a measure' [L sextarius]
spyrte 'basket' [probably L sporta, *sportea]
? cæpse 'box' [L copsa]
? sċrīn 'chest; shrine' [L scrinium]
? sċutel 'dish, platter' [L scutella]
? tunne 'cask, tun, barrel' [L tunna]
[ Coins, money; wights and measures, units of measurement ]
dīner, dīnor type of coin, denarius [L denarius]
mīl 'mile' [L milia]
mydd 'a measure' [L modius]
mynet 'a coin; coinage, money' [L moneta]
oma 'a liquid measure' [L ama]
pund 'pound (in weight or money); pint' [L pondo]
trimes 'unit of weight, a dracm; name of a coin' [L tremissis]
ynċe 'inch' [L uncia]
yntse 'ounce' [L uncia]
[ Transactions and payments ]
ċēap 'perchase, sale, transaction, market, possessions, price' [L cauō or caupōnārī]
toll, also toln, tolne 'toll, tribute, rent, duty' [L toloneum]
trifet 'tribute' [L tributum]
[ Clothing; fabric ]
belt 'belt, girdle' [L balteus]
bīsæċċ 'pocket' [L bisaccium]
cælis 'foot-covering', also (later) calc 'sandal' [L calceus]
ċemes 'shirt, undergarment' [L camisia]
ġecorded 'having cords, corded (or perhaps fringed)' [L corda]
cugele '(monk's) cowl' [L cuculla]
fifele 'broach, clasp' [L fibula]
mentel 'cloak' [L mantellum]
pæll, pell 'fine or rich cloth; purple cloth; altar cloth rich robe' [L pallium]
pyleċe 'fur robe' [L pellicia]
seolc 'silk' [perhaps L sericum]
sīde 'silk' [L seta]
*sīric 'silk' [perhals L sericum]
socc 'light shoe' [L soccus]
swiftlēre 'slipper' [L subtalaris]
? orel, orl 'robe, garment, veil, mantle' [L orale, orarium]
? purpure, purpur 'deep crimson garment; deep crimson colour (imperial purple)' [L purpura]
? sabon 'sheet' [L sabanum]
? tæpped, teped 'cloth wall or floor covering' [L tapetum, tappetum]
[ Furniture and furnishing ]
meatte, matte 'mat; underlay for a bed' [L matta]
mēse, mīse 'table' [L mensa]
pyle, pylu 'pillow, cushion' [L pulvinus]
sċamol, sċemol, sċeomol, sċeamol 'stool, footstool, bench' [L *scamellum]
strǣl, strēaġl 'curtain; quilt, matting, bed' [L stragula]
strǣt 'bed' [L stratum]
[ Precious stones ]
ġimm 'gem, precious stone, jewel; also in figurative use' [L gemma]
meregrot 'pearl' [L margarita, but showing folk-etymological alteration after an English word for 'sea' and (probably) an English word for 'fragment, particple']
pærl '(very doubtfully) pearl' [perhals L *perla]
[ Roles, ranks, and occupations (non-religious or not specifically religious) ]
cāsere 'emperor; ruler' [L caesar]
fullere 'fuller' [L fullo]
mangere 'merchant, trader' [L mango]
mæġester, also (later) māgister or magister 'leader, master, teacher' [L magister]
myltestre 'prostitute' [L meretrix, with remodelling of the ending after the Old English feminine agent noun suffix -estre]
prafost, also profost 'head, chief, officer' [L praepositus, propositus]
sūtere 'shoumaker' [L sutor]
[ Punishment, judgement, codes of behaviour ]
pīn 'pain, fortune, anguish, punishment' [L poena]
regol, reogol 'rule; principle; code of rules; wooden ruler' [L regula]
sċrift 'something decreed as a penalty; penance; absolution; confessor; judge' [L scriptum]
[ Verbs ]
*cōfrian 'to recover' (implied by acōfrian in the same meaning) [L recuperare]
*cyrtan 'to shorten' (implied by cyrtel 'garment, tunic, cloak, gown' and (probably) ġecyrted 'cut off, shortened') [L curtus, adjective]
dīligian 'to erase, rub out; to destroy, obliterate' [L delere]
impian 'to graft; to busy oneself with' [L imputare]
*mūtian (implied by bemūtian 'to exchange' and mūtung 'exchange') [L mutare]
*nēomian 'to sound sweetly' or *nēome 'sound' [L neuma, noun]
pinsian 'to weigh, consider, reflect' [L pensare]
pīpian 'to play on a pipe' [L pipare]
pluccian 'to pluck' [perhaps L *piluccare]
*pundrian (implied by apyndrian, apundrian 'to weigh, to adjudge') [L ponderare, if not a derivative of OE punduru]
pynġan 'to prick' [L pungere]
sċrīfan 'to allot, prescribe, impose; to hear confession; to receive absolution; to have regard to' [L scribere]
seġlian 'to seal' [L sigillare]
seġnian 'to make the sign of the cross; to consecrate, bless' [L signare, if not < OE seġn]
*-stoppian (implied by forstoppian) 'to obstruct, stop up' [perhaps L *stuppare]
trifulian 'to break, bruise, stamp' [L tribulare]
tyrnan, turnian 'to turn, revolve' [L turnare]
? cystan 'to get the value of, exchange for the worth of' [L constare]
? dihtan, dihtian 'to direct, command, arrange, set forth' [L dictare]
? glēsan 'to gloss, explain' [L glossare (verb) or glossa (noun)]
? lafian 'to pour water on, to bathe, wash' [L lavare]
? *pilian 'to peel, strip, pluck' [L pilare]
? plantian 'to plant' [L plantare, or < OE plante]
? *pyltan 'to pelt' (implied by later pilt, pelt) [perhaps L *pultiare, alteration of pultare]
? sealtian 'to dance' [L saltare]
? trahtian 'to comment on, expound; to interpret' [L tractare, if not < OE traht]
[ Adjectives ]
cirps, crisp 'curly, curly haired' [L crispus]
cyrten 'beautiful' [perhals L *cortinus]
pīs 'heavy' [L pensus]
sicor 'sure, certain; secure' [L securus]
sȳfre 'clean, pure, sober' [L sobrius]
byxen 'of box wood' [probably L buxeus]
? cūsc 'virtuous, chaste' [L conscius, perhaps via Old Saxon kusko]
[ Miscellaneous ]
candel, condel 'candle, taper', (in figurative contexts) 'source of light' [L candela]
ċēas, ċēast 'quarrel, strife; reproof' [L causa]
ċeosol, ċesol 'hut; gullet; belly' [L casula, casella]
copor 'copper' [L cuprum]
derodine 'scarlet' [probably L dirodinum]
munt 'mountain, hill' [L mont-, mons]
plūm-, in plmfeðer '(inplural) down, feathers' [L pluma]
sælmeriġe 'brine' [L *salmuria]
sætern- (in sæterndæġ 'Saturday') [L Saturnus]
seġn 'mark, sign, banner' [L signum]
tasul, teosol 'dice; small square of stone' [L tessella, *tassellus]
tæfl 'piece used in a board game, dice; type of game played on a board, game of dice; board on which this is played' [L tabula]
-ere, forming agent nouns [probably L -arius; if so, borrowed early]
-estre, forming feminine agent nouns [perhaps L -istria]
? coron-(bēag) 'crown' [L corona]
? diht 'act of directing or arranging; direction, arrangement, command' [L dictum]
? *pill (perhaps shown by pillsāpe soap for removing hair, depilatory) [perhals L pilus 'hair']
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
Ѹ츻ؤͼ Durkin ˤСűѸޤǤ˱Ѹ˼Ѥ줿ƥñοϡʤȤ600ϤȤ650ǯդˡ300ۤɡ300ۤɤȤΩƤǤ롥600ȤűѸΤįƤߤȡ1.75%Ȥ礬ϤФ롥ΥƥѸñΤǤϤʤ˴Ťƺ줿ޤǤθȡűѸäˤ4.5%ķ;夬롥Durkin (100) βѤ褦
If we take an estimate of at least 600 words borrowed (immediately) from Latin, and a total of around 34,000 words in Old English, then, conservatively, around 1.75% of the total are borrowed from Latin. If we include all compounds and derivatives formed on Latin loanwords in Old English, then the total of Latin-derived vocabulary probably comes closer to 4.5% . . . , although this figure may be a little too high, since estimates of the total size of the Old English vocabulary (native and borrowed) probably rather underestimate the numbers of compounds and derivatives.
οͤɤɾ뤫ϻμǤ롥ˤˤѸθüѤεϤȤαƶͤСʳǤΥƥѸγʤɡʤˤߤ줳ѸθüѤˤǤȤߤʤС0%ȯѸΨǤ˸űѸ1.75%ʤ뤤4.5%ˤãƤȤΤϡݤǤȤʤʤˤС¿ɴǯ֤ƤѸˤĤäƤꡤȤѤƤΤΩĤΤǤʺε#3788. űѸΥƥѸΰճ ([2019-09-10-1]) ȡˡ
űѸΥƥѸˤĤƤϱѸ˸ˤƤ⤵ۤܤƤ櫓ǤϤʤѤнʬ̥Ūʥȥԥåˤʤꤽ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ε#3787. 650ǯդȤ롤ΥƥѸü ([2019-09-09-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡűѸȤ櫓650ǯäƤǽΥƥѸˤϡߤǤŪѤƤΤ¿#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) ʤɤǸƤ褦ˡƥѸˤϥ٥ι⤤ñ줬¿Τϻ¤űѸμѸ˴ؤƤСΥƥ쥪פɬ¤ɽ路Ƥʤ
Durkin (138--39) ˤ붽̣ͤ롥Durkin ϡ#3400. Ѹ˸ä˼Ѹ줬ɤǤ뤫 ([2018-08-18-1]) Ǥ⼨Ȥꡤ"Leipzig-Jakarta list of basic vocabulary" ȸƤФ̸Ū˺ǤŪʰ̣ô100Ѹ줫ФΤʤˤɤۤɼѸ줬ޤޤƤ뤫ĴƤߤ̤ȤƤϡƥѸˤĤƤСˤ1ޤޤƤʤä
"the WOLD survey" ˤ1,460ĤδŪʰ̣ܤʤꥹȤĴƤߤȡ137ۤɡʤ褽10%ˤűѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥѸǧꤵΤä⡤ñϡ24ߤƤ̣ΥƥΤ"Kinship", "Quantity", "Miscellaneous function words" 21ĤΥƥˤ錄äƸФȤĤޤꡤѸ˾塤ǽäƤƥѸϡʬˤ錄ŪѤѸθäξʤʬƤȤ櫓űѸηǶĤƤ
butere "butter"
ele "oil"
cyċene "kitchen"
ċȳse, ċēse "cheese"
wīn "wine" (and its compounds)
sæterndæġ "Saturday"
mūl "mule"
ancor "anchor"
līn "line, continuous length"
mylen (and its compounds) "mill"
scōl, sċolu (and the compound leornungscōl) "school"
weall "wall"
pīpe "pipe, tube"
pīle "mortar"
disċ "plate/platter/bowel/dish"
candel "lamp, lantern, candle"
torr "tower"
prēost and sācerd "priest"
port "harbour"
munt "mountain or hill"
Τ褦˥ƥѸΤʤˤϰճ¿ִܸáפ⤢뤳ȤõƤϢơܸγƵ⻲ȡ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ѸˤˤƥѸȤСűѸΥꥹȶѸ졤ѸΥͥߤθáʤ뤤ϡ֥Ѹ (inkhorn_term)ˡḽѸ濴Ȥ뿷ŵʣʤɤΥפˡַáפȤƥ쥪פܥ֥Ǥ⡤줾ʲεǼ夲Ƥ
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])
#296. 轡ѸܸͿŪƶ ([2010-02-17-1])
#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ ([2014-07-05-1])
#478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1])
#576. inkhorn term ȱѸ켭 ([2010-11-24-1])
#1408. ([2013-03-05-1])
#1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1])
#1615. 礹ߡ2 ([2013-09-28-1])
#3157. ʤ splendid Ʊ ([2017-12-18-1])
#3438. ʤѸΥƥѸΤ ([2018-09-25-1])
#3013. 19줿ŵŪʣ ([2017-07-27-1])
#3179. ֿŵŪʣפֱפ ([2018-01-09-1])
ŪˤСΥƥ쥪פϷ褷ƴְ㤤ǤϤʤŪܶȤ⤤ƥѸ¸ߤȤ¤˺ƤϤʤʤ绨Ĥˤе650ǯդĤޤΦ夫űѸˤƱѸʤ뤤ϥޥˤäƤƥñ¿ϡճʤȤˡ褽褽äǤϤʤˤʤƤϤʤʤäƤΤǤ롥λ¤ϡ֥ƥҿȶܤθפȤظ˱ƤΤǡ褯ǧƤȤɬפǤ롥
650ǯȤΤϤ褽ǯλäƤƥѸΥפϰۤʤäƤ롥ñ㲽ƤСϡֿƤߤΤ졤ʹߤϡ֤⤤ȳѸ줬äƤDurkin (103) ʸѤ褦
The context for most of the later borrowings is certain: they are nearly all words connected with the religious world or with learning, which were largely overlapping categories in the Anglo-Saxon world. Many of them are only very lightly assimilated into Old English, if at all. In fact it is debatable whether some of them should even be regarded as borrowed words, or instead as single-word switches to Latin in an Old English document, since it is not uncommon for words only ever to occur with their Latin case endings.
The earlier borrowings include many more words that are of reasonably common occurrence in Old English and later, for instance names of some common plants and foodstuffs, as well as some very basic words to do with the religious life.
ǤϡŪΥƥѸȤϤɤΤ褦ñʤΤˤĤƤϺεǾҲ𤷤ƤͽǤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
#3784. ޥ֥ƥθ (1) ([2019-09-06-1]) ȡ#3785. ޥ֥ƥθ (2) ([2019-09-07-1]) ǡޥ֥ƥ夲ͤؤΥꥹ˳Ȥơλ濴ȤάǯɽƤߤʥꥹΤǯɽˤĤƤϡ#3478. ؿ⥤ꥹˡ٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-04-1])#3487. ʪ졡ꥹˡʾ岼ˡ٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-13-1])#3497. إꥹ10֡٤ǯɽ ([2018-11-23-1]) ʤɤȡˡ
| 81ǯ | ֥ƥն˿बサ |
| 1ǯ | ĺν̱サʵд |
| 7--6ǯ | ֥ƥ礬ΦʬΥ |
| 4ǯ | ̡ܤγϡʿдγϡ |
| 22--20 | ӡͤƼγϡ |
| 18 | ȡإη¤ |
| 6 | ȷϤΥ٥륬ͤ |
| 2 | ٥륬ͤ٤Ŵʸʸۤ |
| 55--54ǯ | ꥦΥ֥˥ |
| 43ǯ | 륯饦ǥΥ֥˥ |
| 50ǯ | ǥ˥ʥɥˤη |
| 61ǯ | ²νܥǥåȿ |
| 80ǯ | åȥɤ |
| 122--132ǯ | ϥɥꥢ̥Ĺη¤ |
| 140ǯ | ȥ˥̥Ĺη¤ʤ60ǯ |
| 2 | ɥ濴ԻԤȤȯãƻ |
| 211ǯ | ֥ƥޤȶ뤷Ʊԡפ |
| 306ǯ | ֥˥¨̤ƥ̥κԤ |
| 4Ⱦ | ꥹȶ衤衼ȥɥ˻ʶ |
| 406ǯ | ΦΥޥ²饤Ķƥꥢؿ |
| 410ǯ | ޡ֥˥ű |
| 449ǯ | 褬Ϥޤ |
| 6 | 7Ω |
| 597ǯ | ƥ̥ꥹȶ붵Τ˶ĥ쥴ꥦ1ˤäƥޤ饱Ȳɸ |
| 664ǯ | åȥӡνĤǥޥꥹȶ̤ͥǧ |



ε³ޥ֥ƥθˤĤơDurkin (58) ϡΥꥢθӤʤ顤ͻƤ롥
One tantalizing comparison is with Roman Gaul. It is generally thought that under the Empire the linguistic situation was broadly similar in Gaul, with Latin the language of an urbanized elite and Gaulish remaining the language in general use in the population at large. Like Britain, Gaul was subject to Germanic invasions, and northern Gaul eventually took on a new name from its Frankish conquerors. However, France emerged as a Romance-speaking country, with a language that is Latin-derived in grammar and overwhelmingly also in lexis. One possible explanation for the very different outcomes in the two former provinces is that urban life may have remained in much better shape in Gaul than in Britain; Gaul had been Roman for longer than Britain, and urban life was probably much more developed and on a larger scale, and may have proved more resilient when facing economic and political vicissitudes. In Gaul the Franks probably took over at least some functioning urban centres where an existing Latin-speaking elite formed the basis for the future administration of the territory; this, combined with the importance and prestige of Latin as the language of the western Church, probably led ultimately to the emergence of a Romance-speaking nation. In Britain the existing population, whether speaking Latin or Celtic, probably held very little prestige in the eyes of the Anglo-Saxon incomers, and this may have been a key factor in determining that England became a Germanic-speaking territory: the Anglo-Saxons may simply not have had enough incentive to adopt the language(s) of these people.
ĤޤꡤαƶĹ³ʤä֥ƥˤƤϡƥ¸ߴϤۤʤ轻Υȿͤ⡤褷Ƥޥͤ⡤礭ʸŪƶ뤳ȤϤʤäޤƤƥظ (language_shift) 뤳ȤʤäꥢˤƤϡαƶĹ³ƥʤƥޥˤȤθܿ³ˡǽŪ˴ؤΥȸȯΥե⡤ƥݤ߹ޤ褦ˤƾǤƤȤˤʤäȤ櫓
֥ƥȥꥢϡȷϸδؤξ˥ƥ줬֤äƤȤǤ϶̤ˤͭƤ褦ˤߤ뤬ƥȤܿδ֤̩٤ȤǤϺꡤ줬ơϰˤθˤפʥѥȤͿȤȤκϡʬŪˤϥޤεΥκƥФƤҿκؤԸǤΤ⤷ʤ
ξϰμҲŪʾκϡäƱѸȥեˤ륱ȼѸμ̤κˤƶͿƤ롥ˤĤƤϡDurkin ˤ#3753. ʩˤ륱ȼѸӡоȡ ([2019-08-06-1]) Ȥ줿
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
Claudius ˤ֥ƥä43ǯ顤ޤűह410ǯޤǤΥޥ֥ƥˤϡϤʤΤäΤȷϸȥƥϤɤΤ餤¸Ƥꡤɤ٤ΥХҲäΤˤĤƤΤʤȤ餫ˤƤ餺褽¬ΰФʤ1ĤθȤ Durkin (57--58) ˼Ƥߤ褦
Unfortunately for our purposes, the linguistic situation is one of the things about which we know the least. During the period of Roman imperial domination, Latin was certainly the language of administration and of much of the elite; what is much less certain, and rather hotly disputed, is whether it was also the language of the 'man in the street', and if it was, whether it remained so in more troubled times before the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons. The assumption made by most scholars is that Latin had relatively little currency outside the urban areas; that (some form of) Celtic was the crucial lingua franca; while auxiliaries recruited from many locations both inside and outside the Roman Empire probably spoke their own native languages. There were certainly Germani among such auxiliaries. There were probably also slaves of Germanic origin in Britain and in the later stages of Roman Britain there were also certainly at least some mercenaries and other irregular forces of Germanic origin, and some settlements associated with such people. They may have been quite numerous, but it is unlikely that they had any significant impact on the subsequent linguistic history of Britain.
ƥϥ֥ƥߤԻǤѤƤʳǤϽΥȸäƤϤȤΤθǤ롥ŪΰˤƤϥХҲ¸ߤȻפ뤬ۤΤǤϤʤäޥ֥ƥθˤϡޥͤ⤢٤οǥ֥ƥ˽ޤäƤȤϳΤʤ褦ǤꡤθϤʣäȻפ롥
ޥ֥ƥˤΤܤ̾ˤĤƤϡ#3440. λĤ -chester, -caster, -cester ̾Ȥʬۡ ([2018-09-27-1])#3454. ʤɤ˥ƥ̾ޤĤʤäΤ ([2018-10-11-1]) ȡ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ѸʤӥޥˤΦ˥ƥ줫ѤȤñ줬Ĥ뤳Ȥϡ#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ ([2014-08-24-1]) ʤɤǾҲ𤷤ƤμѸȤ pound, kettle, cheap; street, wine, pit, copper, pin, tile, post (wooden shaft), cup (Durkin 55) ʤɤ㤬뤬Τ pound, kettle, cheap ˤĤ Durkin (72--75) ˾ܤ⤬Τǡ
űѸ pund ϡOld Frisian pund, Old High German phunt, Old Icelandic pund, Old Swedish pund, Gothic pund ʤɤȹޥʸڤ롥˶ͭƤȤǤϡμѤǤ뤳ȤγξڤˤϤʤʤǤΥݥȤϡν˰̣ѲͭƤ뤳ȤĤޤꡤŤñ̤ȤƤΡ֥ݥɡפΰ̣ͭƤ롥ϥƥ lībra pondō (a pound by weight) Ȥͳ褷ΰ̣¸ĤġŪˤ2ǤΤߤäȤˤפˤΤʽ¬꤬פǤ뤳ȤʪѤȤ롥
˸űѸ ċ(i)etel ⥲ޥƱ줬ǧ (ex. Old Saxon ketel, Old High German kezzil, Old Icelandic ketill, Gothic katils) űѸϻҲ첻 i-mutation Ƥ뤳Ȥ顤μѤȤߤƤ褤ƥ catīnus ϡֿפ̣ޥǤϤȯã֤䤫פΰ̣ͭƤ뤳Ȥ⡤μѤ롥Ѹ kettle Ȥ֤ϡċ(i)etel ľƳȤǤʤλˡƬҲ k ĸťΥɸƱ줫αƶäΤ
ƥ caupō (small tradesman, innkeeper) ͳ褹ȤűѸ ċēap (purchase or sale, bargain, business, transaction, market, possessions, livestock) ȤδϢ⡤ФΦμѤȤߤƤ롥ηƻ cheap "good cheap" (good bargain) Ȥû̷Ȥ롥ޥƱϡOld Frisian kāp, Middle Dutch coop, Old Saxon kōp, Old High German chouf, Old Icelandic kaup ʤɡư첽 ċēapian (to buy and sell, to make a bargain, to trade) ċȳpan (to sell) ⥲ޥƱ줬롥ۤ ċȳpa, ċēap (merchant, trader) ϤȤơċēapung, ċȳping (trade, buying and selling, market, market place) ċȳpman, ċȳpeman (merchant, trader) ʤɤ졦ʣ¿ߤĤ롥θˤĤƤϡ#1460. cheap θ츻 ([2013-04-26-1]) ⻲ȡ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
#3774. ͧǤιֱֱѸˤ鸫븽ѸפΤΤ餻 ([2019-08-27-1]) ǤΤ餻Ȥꡤ轵ˤ錄äͧˤƱǤäޤ5νʳ鹭ͧĹĹˤϤäˤʤäƤޤϲγޤơȯȿѸ졦ܸˤĤƹäĤȤǤޤ
ˤϡֱѸˤDzѸѤʵȤǤäνΤۤǤϡüԤγŪʡѤʵפꡤˤĤƱѸˤδ顤뤤Ϥ¾δǤޤä˸줴Ȥ˴ѻ֥פȤ֥եפ˴ؤƤϡθκƲβˤޤǻۤơڤäǤޤʸΡ֥եפˤĤƤϡfetishism γƵȡˡ
2ܤˤϡֱѸꤷơȤϲȤŪ꤫ϤᡤܸѸˤɸȽˤĤäޤǤȯʰո⿷ʻ뤳ȤǤޤ
ΤȤơθåӺƲޤޤơä줿Ȱ˱ѸȤϡˤĤơ뤤ܸˤĤơ˸뤳ȤǤȻפޤͭյʲǤƴդޤ
äǤΤǡֱѤ饤ɻåץɤƤޤ
ֱ (1): ѸˤDzѸѤʵ
ֱ (2): Ѹ
97ڡˤ15:15?18:30ˡī㡼ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻3ο̱ϡꤹֱԤʤޤֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ3Ȥʤޤ2Ʊ͡Ȥγ赤ڤߤˤƤޤؿΤϡꤪߤμݤϰʲ̤Ǥ
塤֥ƥȾϥǿޤȤ߹ޤޤλˤϥ֥ƥϤޤȤǤꡤѸ줬äϤǤϤޤǤʸθȤƤ⤿餵줿ƥϡȸͳơˤäƤѸˤƶͿۤΦˤͤˤľܡŪʱƶڤܤޤѸˤߤƥñΰ仺Ƥߤޤ礦
ѸΥƥȤδطϡ衼åѽ˱̤줺Ѹ줬ѸȤʤε³פǤξƱ²ο̶ڤǤȤϤޥɤȥåɤȤۤʤȶ°뤿ˡΤĤʤϷ褷ǻϤޤäƤߤοͤȤƤޤĹդäƤˡѸϥƥʤǤϼɽǤʤۤɤޤǤ˥ƥΰȤƼ˻ޤ
äƥƥαƶϱѸˤ̤³Ƥ櫓Ǥϥ֥ƥ礬ο̱ϤȤʤäλ塤ĤޤѸ˾塤ǽ˥ƥΥѥȤǧʱѸ줽ΤΤϥ֥ƥǤϤʤޤΦѤ줿ǤϤޤˤ˾ơѸȥƥΡפҲ𤷤ޤξǡδطŸˤĤƤҤ٤ͽǤ
ιֱȴϢơ#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ ([2014-08-24-1])#2578. ȸ̤ƱѸؼѤ줿찮Υƥñ ([2016-05-18-1])#3440. λĤ -chester, -caster, -cester ̾Ȥʬۡ ([2018-09-27-1])#3454. ʤɤ˥ƥ̾ޤĤʤäΤ ([2018-10-11-1]) ʤɤε
䤿ʳؤӡѤƤɸѸ (Standard English) ˾夤ȯŸƤȤϡѸˤκǽץơޤ1ĤǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ standardisation ε濴͡˼夲ƤʤȤ櫓#3231. ɸ˼ Blake αѸ˻ʬ ([2018-03-02-1])#3234. ָȿʹ֡ (HLC) νմߥʡɸѸȯãˤĤäޤ ([2018-03-05-1]) ȡˡ
ѸɸಽˤϡɤαѸˤγǤɬ夲ؤγ路 Foley νƤ "The Development of Standard English" Ȥ1֤褤ʸϤǤ롥ʤ顤ʽŪɸѸȯŸ˾ˤޤȤƤ롥3ڡˤ錄ΤǡѤΤˤ褷ûϤʤȤιɤȤƤȤʤΤǡPDFѰդƤ
εҤƤ1ĤϡɸѸΥ١ȤʤɥѸ줬κʪǤ뤳ȤˤĤơŪаޤʬ䤹ƤƤ뤳ȤȤŪǤ¿ʬ˴ޤǤɥαѸ줬14--15ΤˡкŪ˱ɤƤοήŪǤˤϡ14Ⱦι¤˵ήưιޤؤäƤˡ15ˤϡʤǷкŪ˽äüԤ⡤¿ɥξήؤήߡ̤ȤơκȤƤΥɥѸ줬Ωơ줬ɸѸΤȤʤäƤäΤǤ롥
⤦1ܤ٤ϡѸˤ˸ꤵʤŪΩ줫顤ɸಽ3ĤξƵäƤǤ롥1ĤϡкŪŪͭϤϰθ졦ɸȤʤȤȡ⤦1Ĥϡθ졦ȽĤΤΤǤ뤳ȡǸˡʸä졦ɸȤʤ䤹ȤβǤ⡤ʲľܰѤƤ
To summarize, the rise of Standard English . . . exhibits a number of important general points about the how and whys of language standardization: first, if economic and political power is centralized in a particular area, the language of that area has a strong likelihood of being the basis of the standard, as the center imposes its hold upon the periphery (Standard French based on the Parisian dialect is another example of this); second, the standard is likely to be based on the speech of economically and politically powerful social groups, the elite, as their speech becomes imposed upon or diffused to lower status groups; ability to speak this dialect now becomes emblematic of higher social standing and thus a desirable skill, a kind of symbolic resource further empowering the elite, who may control access to the dialect through the education system, as is clearly the case in most modern nation-states; and third, a language or dialect which is the basis of literate forms and other cultural activities is a strong candidate for an imposed standard (Standard Italian based on the Tuscany dialect of Dante exemplifies this). (Foley 403)
Foley, William A. Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997.
ʤѸǤϷζ̤Ҥä brother ȤΤ褯ѤʵǤ롥ʸŪʴСܸҲǤǯξ岼ȤƽפʰյäƤꡤʹִطɽ魯äˤƤϤФзΰۤʤǤѰդƤ뤬ѸҲˤƤǯξ岼ŪˤۤɽפȤʤˡ1ˤҤäƤΤǤ롥ܸǤ岼ä˽פǤʤʸ̮ǤϡַפȤäƺѤޤ뤳ȤǤ뤷դ˱ѸǤ岼ζ̤ɬפȤ elder brother younger brother ȤȤǤ롥ǥեȤȤƤϡѸǤ brotherܸǤϷȤǤ줾Ѥ롥
褯ͤƤߤȡbrother ˤ餺¿ѸñˤĤơ줤11δطϤߤʤ츫б褦ˤߤߤñΰ̣ܤ٤ƤߤȡƤ餫Υ줬ΤǤ롥ǤʤС¼ŵ±ѼŵפʤϤñʤñбꥹȤнʬȤȤˤʤ뤫
ƣ߷ (237--38) ʲΤ褦Ƥ롥

ʤ brother, rice, give Τ褦ˡѸΤۤƤʬǡܸΤۤ٤⤢Сդ˲ʤΤ褦˱ѸΤۤ٤ܸΤۤƤ⤢롥ǤϤߤͤǤ롥ѸӤˤ餺ɤ2٤ƤߤƤ褦ʤΤ¿ξ硤̣ƤʸŪװؤäƤȤǽϤˤƤ⡤ˡȤϤΤ褦ʤΤǤƤΤǤ롥μоȤεˤȿƤƤϿȤʤȤ餤ӤθݤǤ롥
ϢѸζ̣Ȥơ#1868. Ѹ͡ʡַס ([2014-06-08-1])#1894. Ѹ͡ʡַסܸ͡ʡֱס ([2014-07-04-1]) 䡤#2711. ʸȸδط˴ؤ뤪⤷Ĥ ([2016-09-28-1]) λ⻲ȡΤ褦ʻϡФԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ΤʤǻФ뤬#1337. ְñʸաס ([2012-12-24-1]) Ȥپ⤬뤳Ȥ˺ʤǤ
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