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ܥ֥ǡưθ§ (uniformitarian_principle) ˤĤƲ٤夲Ƥ#1588. The Uniformitarian Principle (3) ([2013-09-01-1]) εǤϡComrie Lass δ֤衤process/force ư state ưȤ˿줿Labov ϤˤĤƿŤ٤Ƥ롥
Labov ϡưθ§ϡˤε (Historical Paradox) 椨˻ʤѤʤ§ʤΤǤꡤǽʤɤǤϤʤȤ⤹롥ǤϡˤεȤϲLabov (21) ˤСʲ̤Ǥ롥
The task of historical linguistics is to explain the differences between the past and the present; but to the extent that the past was different from the present, there is no way of knowing how different it was.
ߺդƤСߤȲθ (state) ΰ㤤餫ˤ뤳Ȥ˸ؤλ̿ʤΤ㤦ϤȤȤʬäƤƤ⡤߽Ф (process/force) ΤäƤȤС㤤狼ʤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ʤȤäƤϲ뤳ȤʤɤޤǤǤʤʤäƤޤǤϤʤȻפ碌褦ʵ
ǡ˸椬뤳ȤˤʤΤưǤ롥դ٤ϡưˤεФˡ (solution) ȤƤǤϤʤ (consequence) ȤƤƤˤʤȤȤǤ롥
. . . [the uniformitarian principle] is in fact a necessary consequence of the fundamental paradox of historical linguistics, not a solution to that paradox. If the uniformitarian principle is applied as if it were such a solution, rather than a working assumption, it can actually conceal the extent of the errors that are the result of real differences between past and present.
Solutions to the Historical Paradox must be analogous to solutions to the Observer's Paradox. Particular problems must be approached from several different directions, by different methods with complementary sources of error. The solution to the problem can then be located somewhere between the answers given by the different methods. In this way, we can know the limits of the errors introduced by the Historical Paradox, even if we cannot eliminate them entirely. (Labov 24--25)
ҤΤȤꡤLass ϸ֤Τ٤ѤѤǤȤ state ưComrie ϸѲϳؤΤ٤ѤѤǤȤ process/force ưƤ롥ưˤƤ⡤ˤεˤ¤줶ʤ˸Ω뤿ˡϤǤϤ뤬¤ˤۤʤȾβˤʤ˾ʤ鸦Ƥ뤳ȼΤʤ֡ưΡ˸§פȤƾΤ䤹ȤΤϴȤȤưΡָ§פϡΤȤϡֲפʤΤǤ롥
Labov, William. Principles of Linguistic Change: Internal Factors. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994.
ε#1750. bonfire ([2014-02-10-1]) ǿ줿ꥹǤ115 Bonfire Night 뤤 Guy Fawkes Night ȸƤФ졤ֲФݤǤĤ餹פ꤬Ť롥
James I 1605ǯƱץƥȤˤȥåʬҤIJˤ James I Ż⤯˸Ż (Gunpowder Plot) Ǥ롥Ƴ Robert Catesby ä (gunpowder plotters) ΤʤǡIJˤμ¹ԷȤФ줿ΤͭǽƮ Guy Fawkes ä114뤫5̤ˤơGuy Fawkes 1ȥۤɤȤȤ˵IJϲߡ¹ԤΤȤԤäƤαŤ̤ȯФ˻ä5ˤϡJames I οΤ褦ˡ̤θȤƥɥ̱ʲФdz䤹褦Фʤgunpowder plotters Ϥᤨ졤ǯ1ޤǤ Guy Fawkes ޤᡤߤʽ跺뤳ȤȤʤä
ʹߡʲФκפŤ夷Ƥä17ȾФˤϡֲФǤ夲ꡤGuy Fawkes ɤäͷdz䤹ǧ롥μݤȤƤϡΥƥ̤˺ʤȤȤʤΤݤˤΤʤǤܤȤʤꡤߤ˻äOxford Dictionary of National Biography "Gunpowder plotters" ιˤСΤ褦ɾƤ롥 * * * *
. . . the memory of the Gunpowder Plot, or rather the frustration of the plot, has offered a half-understood excuse for grand, organized spectacle on autumnal nights. Even today, though, the underlying message of deliverance and the excitement of fireworks and bonfires sit alongside the tantalizing what-ifs, and a sneaking respect for Guy Fawkes and his now largely forgotten coconspirators.
ơGuy Ȥ̾ϥեͳ (cf. Guy de Maupassant) ꥢ Guido ʤɤȤƱǡŪˤϥޥϤΤ褦츻Ūˤ guide guy ʥסˤȤϢ롥θͭ̾ϡ19ˡGuy Fawkes ɤäͷפΰդѤ褦ˤʤꡤˤοͷϴ̯ʰ夻뤳Ȥ¿äˡִ̯ʰޤȤä͡פۤɤΰդȯŸˡ̲ơֿ͡ġפۤɤΰ̣19ˤϤȤ櫓ꥫǹȤ褦ˤʤäͭ̾줫̾ؤỌ̇̄ˡ̲1ĤǤ롥ΰ̣Ѳ Barnhart θ츻εҤˤꡤ١ɤäƤ
guy2 n. Informal. man, fellow. 1847, from earlier guy a grotesquely or poorly dressed person (1836); originally, a grotesquely dressed effigy of Guy Fawkes (1806; Fawkes, 1570--1606, was leader of the Gunpowder Plot to blow up the British king and Parliament in 1605). The meaning of man or fellow originated in Great Britain but became popular in the United States in the late 1800's; it was first recorded in American English in George Ade's Artie (1896).
Ū "fellow" ۤɤΰ̣Ѥ guy ϡ20ˤ you guys ηǹѤ褦ˤʤäƤyou guys Ȥɽϡ#529. ɸѼ2;ʣ̾ ([2010-10-08-1]) 䤽¾ε (you guys) Ǽ夲Ƥ褦ˡǤ˸Ū2;ʣ̾ȸƤǺ٤ʤۤɤ˰̲Ƥ롥Ǥ guy ϡ;̾η֤ΰȤƵǽƤˤʤ
Ū狼400ǯ;ФäGuy Fawkes ̾ϡ̣ѲεޤˤꡤѸκˤκפĤƤ롥
Barnhart, Robert K. and Sol Steimetz, eds. The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology. Bronxville, NY: The H. W. Wilson, 1988.
ɸΤ褦ʿñ̤ޤʣƻˤƤϡñ̤ɽ魯̾ʣʤΤ§Ȥ롥a four-power agreement, a five-foot-deep river, a ten-dollar bill, a twelve-year-old boy ʤɤǡǤ롥
Ȥʣ졤a three-hours-and-a-half flight ⤢뤷a four years course ⤢롥Quirk et al. (Section 17.108) ˤСƱɽȤưʲ4̤꤬ǽǤ롥
. . . in quantitative expressions of the following type there is possible variation . . .:
a ten day absence [singular] a ten-day absence [hyphen + singular] a ten days absence [plural] a ten days' absence [genitive plural]
Ʊͤˡ4ǯפˤĤƤ⡤"a four year course", "a four-year course", "a four years course", "a four years' course" Τ⤢뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ѱ۷ˤƤΤȤʬδबꤦΤȤϡ̻ŪŪ˶̣ʳǤ̤ĴǤ롥
ȴϢȤդƤΤϡϤꥤꥹѸˤơ̾θƻˡǤϡ̾줬ʣȤƤٸòƤˡʣη֤ΤޤޤǼ¸뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ¤㤨СQuirk et al. (Section 17.109) ˤȡꥹѸΤ褦㤬ߤȤparks department, courses committee, examinations board, the heavy chemicals industry, Scotland Yard's Obscene Publications Squad, Chesterfield Hospitals management Committee, the British Museum Prints and Drawings Gallery, an Arts degree, soft drinks manufacturer, entertainments guide, appliances manufacturer, the Watergate tapes affair.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ܤˤ⤿ӤˬƤѸ˳νáݡɤ Fisiak (8) ˡܤαѸ츻ؤ¤Ƥݡڤ롥
One important area of research in Japan is English etymology. At least two important recent dictionaries should be mentioned: Osamu Fukushima An etymological dictionary of English derivatives, 1992 (in English), and Yoshio Terasawa.(sic) The Kenkyusha dictionary of English etymology, 1997 (in Japanese), I received both of them in 1997. Fushima's (sic) dictionary is unique in its handling solely derivatives. Terasawa's opus magnum is in Japanese but with some explanations it can be used by people who do not read Japanese. . . . The dictionary is a magnificent piece of work. It is the largest etymological dictionary of English. Its scope is unusually wide. In the notes sent to me Professor Terasawa wrote that the dictionary "includes approximately 50.000 words, the majority of which are common words found in general use, new coinages, slang, and such technical terms as seen in science and technology, such components of a word as prefixes, suffixes, linking forms, as well as major place names and common personal names" (private correspondence). It is comprehensive and up-to-date, well-researched and contains a fairly large number of entries thoroughly revised in comparison with earlier etymological dictionaries. Onions' Oxford dictionary of English etymology, 1966 contains 38.000 words with the derivatives and as could be expected many of the etymologies require revisions. From a linguistic point of view Terasawa's dictionary compares favorably with Klein's comprehensive etymological dictionary of the English language, 1966--67.
߷ʡˤ츻ŵѤԤȤơ˴ޤ٤ɾǤ롥Fisiak ϡرѸ츻ŵ٤ Klein μŵӤ٤ϫǤȤƤ뤬ǰ礤˽ФƤ Klein αѸ츻ŵȤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤǧƤKlein ˤĤƤϡ߷ȤؼѸ졦 (80) ǼΤ褦ɾƤ롥
ܼŵϡ'history of words' Ʊ 'history in words' 餫ˤ뤳ȤɸȤƤ롥 "Dealing with the origin of words and their sense development thus illustrating the history of civilization and culture" ȤꡤƬΥåȡˤ "To know the origin of words is to know the cultural history of mankind" ȸƤ롥СñΰǤǤƱˤѤʹ֤ΰǡʸʳؤνʬȯã̤ФܤĤΤª롥줬ܼÿǤ롥ϡ캬̤硤αѸ켭ŵǤޤ夲ʤäȥ (Tocharian) Ʊ²ܤ롤軰750˵ڤ֥ (Semitic) θˤĤơ˽ऺ뵭ҤԤʤͤϿ̾Τۤáθͭ̾㡧Danaüsθ츻ˤꤢˤ˭٤˺ϿޤϲʳءѤŻ뤹롤ʤɤǤ
Klein 111֡18ǯǯƤμŵԤȤ顤ޤϫϫǤ롥Klein ˤĤƤϡ (100) ⼡Τ褦ɾƤ롥E. 饤ϡåǥӡʥ䶵ζաˤƤʥζƽᤨ졤δ֡㡤ʡ©ҡͻͤä塤ʥ˰ܤꡤꥹθ츶ŵԽפΩʸʸ˽ޤ̵뤵ƤߥƥåϤνȤδطǤϡŪʤΡפǤ롥
ϫ渪ΤȤܤαѸ츻ŵҲ𤵤ƤȤȤϡľ˾ȼäƤ褤Klein μŵѤˤդɬפǤ롥ѸǤθ˵ҤԽʬǤ뤳ȡԼԤη饻ä˥إ֥饤ˤεҤϴԤ줽ɬΤǤϤʤȤʤɤϡˤȤƤɬפ롥
Ϣơ#600. Ѹ츻ν ([2010-12-18-1]) ⻲ȡ
Fisiak, Jacek. "Discovering English Historical Linguistics in Japan." Phrases of the History of English: Selection Papers Read at SHELL 2012. Ed. Michio Hosaka, Michiko Ogura, Hironori Suzuki, and Akinobu Tani. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2013.
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
ʡ ԡرѸ츻ŵ١ܿ饤֡1992ǯ
Klein, Ernest. A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Dealing with the Origin of Words and Their Sense Development, Thus Illustrating the History of Civilization and Culture. 2 vols. Amsterdam/London/New York: Elsevier, 1966--67. Unabridged, one-volume ed. 1971.
߷ ˧ͺԡˡؼѸ졦١ұѸʸꡡ8ҡ2006ǯ
͡إˤѤΡ١ҡӡ1968ǯ.
Ѹ (-ing) 2ĤѰ۷ˤĤơ#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1]) ӡ#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1]) ǰäƬ (h) Ѱۤȹ碌ơѸˤŪ˺Ǥ褯Τ줿ҲŪѰۤȤߤǤϡ[ɪŋ] ȯɸŪǡ[ɪn] ȯɸŪǤ롥ε ([2013-06-13-1]) Ǥ줿Ȥꡤ1ۤˤξѰ۷μҲŪʲͤϵդǤä[ɪn] ҿΤȯǤꡤ[ɪŋ] ɸŪäΤǤ롥ɾˤĤƾܤŵõƤΤCrystal (309--10) ؤγǸڤƤΤĤΤǡȤꤢѤ롥
Everyone has developed a sense of values that make some accents seem 'posh' and others 'low', some features of vocabulary and grammar 'refined' and others 'uneducated'. The distinctive features have been a long-standing source of comment, as this conversation illustrates. It is between Clare and Dinny Cherrel, in John Galsworthy's Maid in Waiting (1931, Ch. 31), and it illustrates a famous linguistic signal of social class in Britain --- the two pronunciations of final ng in such words as running, [n] and [ŋ].
'Where on earth did Aunt Em learn to drop her g's?'
'Father told me once that she was at a school where an undropped "g" was worse than a dropped "h". They were bringin' in a country fashion then, huntin' people, you know.'
This example illustrates very well the arbitrary way in which linguistic class markers work. The [n] variant is typical of much working-class speech today, but a century ago this pronunciation was a desirable feature of speech in the upper middle class and above --- and may still occasionally be heard there. The change to [ŋ] came about under the influence of the written form: there was a g in the spelling, and it was felt (in the late 19th century) that it was more 'correct' to pronounce it. As a result, 'dropping the g' in due course became stigmatized.
(-ing) 뤳ˤϡѰ۷ȯΤΤͥȤäͤտ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤ餫ˤƤ롥#1535. non-prevocalic /r/ μҲŪʲ͡ ([2013-07-10-1]) Ǥ褦ˡܤʣѰ۷δ֤ˡͤͥ褦˸ȤƤ⡤βͤϼҲŪʥƥ쥪פˤƱΤ˱ѰۤήưŪʲͤˤʤȤȤǤ롥
ܸѲʹΡ֤ȴȤСפ֤줳ȤСפμҲŪͤʤɤ⻲ȤƤߤȤ⤷
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
Shakespeare ȤκʤˤĤƤϡΤ̤ꡤʸѤ롥ǯɽפत¿뤬Crystal and Crystal Ŭȴ褷ΤĤܤƤʤCrystal and Crystal μפθˤʤäƤǡ١ϡShakespeare's Words ꥢǤ롥¾ Shakespeare ϢΥˤĤƤϡ#195. Shakespeare ˴ؤ Web resources ([2009-11-08-1]) ȡ
(1) Chronology of works (Crystal and Crystal 6)
| 1590--91 | The Two Gentlemen of Verona; The Taming of the Shrew |
| 1591 | Henry VI Part II; Henry VI Part III |
| 1592 | Henry VI Part I (perhaps with Thomas Nashe); Titus Andronicus (perhaps with George Peele) |
| 1592--3 | Richard III; Venus and Adonis |
| 1593--4 | The Rape of Lucrece |
| 1594 | The Comedy of Errors |
| 1594--5 | Love's Labour's Lost |
| by 1595 | King Edward III |
| 1595 | Richard II; Romeo and Juliet; A Midsummer Night's Dream |
| 1596 | King John |
| 1596--7 | The merchant of Venice; Henry IV Part I |
| 1597--8 | The Merry Wives of Windsor; Henry IV Part II |
| 1598 | Much Ado About Nothing |
| 1598--9 | Henry V |
| 1599 | Julius Caesar |
| 1599--1600 | As You Like It |
| 1600--1601 | Hamlet; Twelfth Night |
| by 1601 | The Phoenix and Turtle |
| 1602 | Troilus and Cressida |
| 1593--1603 | The Sonnets |
| 1603--4 | A Lover's Complaint; Sir Thomas More; Othello |
| 1603 | Measure for Measure |
| 1604--5 | All's Well that Ends Well |
| 1605 | Timon of Athens (with Thomas Middleton) |
| 1605--6 | King Lear |
| 1606 | Macbeth (revised by Middleton); Antony and Cleopatra |
| 1607 | Pericles (with George Wilkins) |
| 1608 | Coriolanus |
| 1609 | The Winter's Tale |
| 1610 | Cymbeline |
| 1611 | The Tempest |
| 1613 | Henry VIII (with John Fletcher); Cardenio (with John Fletcher) |
| 1613--14 | The Two Noble Kinsmen (with John Fletcher) |
| good | 3995 |
| lord | 3164 |
| man | 3091 |
| love | 3047 |
| sir | 2548 |
| know | 2252 |
| give | 2114 |
| think/thought | 1911 |
| king | 1680 |
| speak | 1626 |
| Poetry (%) | No. of lines | Prose (%) | No. of lines | Play |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 100 | 2752 | 0 | 0 | Richard II |
| 100 | 2569 | 0 | 0 | King John |
| 100 | 2493 | 0 | 0 | King Edward III |
| 99.7 | 2892 | 0.3 | 8 | Henry VI Part III |
| 99.5 | 2664 | 0.5 | 14 | Henry VI Part I |
| 98.6 | 2479 | 1.4 | 35 | Titus Andronicus |
| 97.6 | 3517 | 2.4 | 85 | Richard III |
| 97.4 | 2735 | 2.6 | 74 | Henry VIII |
| 94.5 | 2641 | 5.5 | 154 | The Two Noble Kinsmen |
| 93.5 | 1948 | 6.5 | 135 | Macbeth |
| 90.1 | 2208 | 9.9 | 244 | Julius Caesar |
| 89.8 | 2718 | 10.2 | 308 | Antony and Cleopatra |
| 86.9 | 2610 | 13.1 | 393 | Romeo and Juliet |
| 86.6 | 1543 | 13.4 | 239 | The Comedy of Errors |
| 85.2 | 2808 | 14.5 | 487 | Cymbeline |
| 83.7 | 2580 | 16.3 | 503 | Henry VI Part II |
| 81.2 | 1903 | 18.8 | 441 | Pericles |
| 80.6 | 2076 | 19.4 | 498 | The Taming of the Shrew |
| 80.6 | 1713 | 19.4 | 413 | A Midsummer Night's Dream |
| 80.4 | 2599 | 19.6 | 633 | Othello |
| 78.6 | 2025 | 21.4 | 551 | The Merchant of Venice |
| 77.2 | 2571 | 22.8 | 760 | Coriolanus |
| 76.5 | 1569 | 23.5 | 481 | The Tempest |
| 73.2 | 2181 | 26.8 | 800 | The Winter's Tale |
| 73.1 | 2345 | 26.9 | 865 | King Lear |
| 73.1 | 1707 | 26.9 | 627 | Timon of Athens |
| 73.1 | 1613 | 26.9 | 595 | The Two Gentlemen of Verona |
| 71.5 | 2742 | 28.5 | 1092 | Hamlet |
| 66.4 | 2250 | 33.6 | 1137 | Troilus and Cressida |
| 64.2 | 1716 | 35.8 | 955 | Love's Labour's Lost |
| 60.6 | 1634 | 39.4 | 1062 | Measure for Measure |
| 60.5 | 1943 | 39.5 | 1269 | Henry V |
| 55.6 | 1666 | 44.4 | 1332 | Henry IV Part I |
| 51.6 | 1447 | 48.4 | 1356 | All's Well that Ends Well |
| 47.6 | 1547 | 52.4 | 1700 | Henry IV Part II |
| 47.4 | 1276 | 52.6 | 1415 | As You Like It |
| 38.2 | 949 | 61.8 | 1532 | Twelfth Night |
| 28.3 | 739 | 71.7 | 1871 | Much Ado About Nothing |
| 12.5 | 338 | 87.5 | 2370 | The Merry Wives of Windsor |
| Total lines | Total words | Play | First Folio | Riverside |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3834 | 29,844 | Hamlet | 3906 | 4042 |
| 3602 | 28,439 | Richard III | 3887 | 3667 |
| 3387 | 25,730 | Troilus and Cressida | 3592 | 3531 |
| 3331 | 26,479 | Coriolanus | 3838 | 3752 |
| 3295 | 26,876 | Cymbeline | 3819 | 3707 |
| 3247 | 25,737 | Henry IV Part II | 3350 | 3326 |
| 3232 | 26,003 | Othello | 3685 | 3551 |
| 3212 | 25,623 | Henry V | 3381 | 3297 |
| 3210 | 25,341 | King Lear | 3302 | 3487 |
| 3083 | 24,490 | Henry VI Part II | 3355 | 3130 |
| 3026 | 23,726 | Antony and Cleopatra | 3636 | 3522 |
| 3003 | 24,023 | Romeo and Juliet | 3185 | 3099 |
| 2998 | 24,126 | Henry IV Part I | 3180 | 3081 |
| 2981 | 24,597 | The Winter's Tale | 3369 | 3348 |
| 2900 | 23,318 | Henry VI Part III | 3217 | 2915 |
| 2809 | 23,333 | Henry VIII | 3463 | 3221 |
| 2803 | 22,537 | All's Well that Ends Well | 3078 | 3013 |
| 2795 | 23,388 | The Two Noble Kinsmen | not in | 3261 |
| 2752 | 21,884 | Richard II | 2849 | 2796 |
| 2708 | 21,290 | The Merry Wives of Windsor | 2729 | 2891 |
| 2696 | 21,269 | Measure for Measure | 2938 | 2891 |
| 2691 | 21,477 | As You Like It | 2796 | 2810 |
| 2678 | 20,541 | Henry VI Part I | 2931 | 2695 |
| 2671 | 20,881 | Love's Labour's Lost | 2900 | 2829 |
| 2610 | 20,767 | Much Ado About Nothing | 2684 | 2787 |
| 2576 | 20,911 | The Merchant of Venice | 2737 | 2701 |
| 2574 | 20,552 | The Taming of the Shrew | 2750 | 2676 |
| 2569 | 20,472 | King John | 2729 | 2638 |
| 2514 | 19,888 | Titus Andronicus | 2708 | 2538 |
| 2493 | 19,406 | King Edward III | not in | not in |
| 2481 | 19,592 | Twelfth Night | 2579 | 2591 |
| 2452 | 19,149 | Julius Caesar | 2730 | 2591 |
| 2344 | 17,728 | Pericles | not in | 2459 |
| 2334 | 17,796 | Timon of Athens | 2607 | 2488 |
| 2208 | 16,936 | The Two Gentlemen of Verona | 2298 | 2288 |
| 2126 | 16,305 | A Midsummer Night's Dream | 2222 | 2192 |
| 2083 | 16,372 | Macbeth | 2529 | 2349 |
| 2050 | 16,047 | The Tempest | 2341 | 2283 |
| 1782 | 14,415 | The Comedy of Errors | 1918 | 1787 |
| You-forms | Thou-forms | ||
| you | 14,244 | thou | 5,942 |
| ye | 352 | thee | 3,444 |
| your | 6,912 | thy | 4,429 |
| yours | 260 | thine | 510 |
| yourself | 289 | thyself | 251 |
| yourselves | 74 | ||
| Total | 22,131 | 14,576 | |
|---|---|---|---|
ɸϡ֤Сפΰ̣Ѥ롤褯Τ줿Ǥ롥ʤΤǶŪˤʬϤΤ̵̣Ūʴؿ餤̵̣ǤϤʤwere ˡɽ路ƤȤȤĤ⤷ʤas Ȥ³ƳDzˡȤȤΤ̯ʤΤǤϤʤ
˽Ҥ٤С as as if ѤȹͤƤ褤ʲ OED as, adv. and conj. P2 θˤȤꡤ"as if it were so" ۤɤɽȤʤäƤȹͤ롥
P2. a. as it were: (as a parenthetic phrase used to indicate that a word or statement is perhaps not formally exact though practically right) as if it were so, if one might so put it, in some sort.
ȤƤνФϡ1200ǯդ Ormulum (l. 16996) ǡ"Þatt lede þatt primmseȝȝnedd iss..iss all alls itt wære ȝet I nahhtess þessterrnesse." Ȥ롥
as = as if ȤƤˡϡOED θ6ˤƤ뤷ḽѸǤ?褦ˡפ褦ʥˤưճȤ褯Ƥ롥³ΤδʷǤϤʤά줿ФֻʤɤȤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ٹ (446--47) εƤʸ
It lifted up it head and did address / Itself to motion, like as it would speak.---Shakespeare.
And all at once their breath drew in, / As they were drinking all.---Coleridge.
Our vast flotillas / Have been embodied as by sorcery.---Hardy.
Boadicea stands with eyes fixed as on a vision.---Binyon.
She is lost as in a trance.---ibid.
I have associated, ever since, with the sunny street of Canterbury, dozing as it were in the hot light.---Dickens.
He fixes it, as it were in a vice in some cleft of a tree, or in some crevice.---Gilbert White.
Every man can see himself, or his neighbour, in Pepy's Diary, as it were through the back-door.---George Gordon.
㤨 "She is lost as in a trance." ̩ŸС"She is lost as (she would be if she were) in a trance." ȤʤΤɤˡȤơas = as if ˡȯãƤΤȻפ롥
ʤ"as (it would be as if) it were (so)" ˤƤϡit Ȥ it ȹͤ롥бľˡ as it is (= as it happens) ⻲ȡ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
ܸ֤̾פȡ֤ߡפˤĤơHagiwara et al. ʸɤƻθ촴³̾첽뵡ǽäƤ뤬֤פŪǤǡ֤ߡפϴΤ֤ȤȤΤƤ롥ֲסִŤס뤤סˤסֽŤסֹ⤤סֶסֶ줤סֿסִݤסֽ餫פʤɤϤ뤳ȤǤ뤬䤿סָǤסְ¤פʤɤϡ֤ߡפӽ뤷ʣƻֻҶ餷סֱפʤɤƱͤºݡ֤ߡפ³ǤΤ30ۤɤ˸¤졤ˤƸꤵƤ롥̣⡤̵֤̾ɸͽ¬ǽ⤤֤ߡ̾ͭɸͽ¬ǽ㤤㤨Сֹ⤵פŪֹ̾ߡפϡֹ⤤ȤפۤɤΤŪʰ̣̾Ǥ롥
Ρ֤פȡ֤ߡפηỤ̄Ūΰ㤤ϡѸ -ness -ity ΰ㤤Ȥ褽ʿԤƤ롥Ѹ2Ĥ̾ˤĤƤϡ#935. (1) ([2011-11-18-1]) Ǽ夲ΤǡȤƤܸȱѸΥȤǤκۤϡѸŪ -ity ϴΤβ֤Ѳ (ex. válid vs valídity) ΤФơܸŪ֤ߡפϴΤβ֤ݤĤȤȤΤȤƤϡѸ4Τʿˤܤ٤
Hagiwara et al. εϤǤ롥Ѹε§ưγѷϵ§ˤ뤬Ե§ưγѷϵľܰФ롥Ʊ褦ˡܸΡ֤̾ϵ§ˤ뤬֤ߡ̾ϵľܰФƤΤǤϤʤκݤˡѸư϶ (inflectional morphology) °ǤꡤܸΡ֤ס֤ߡפ (derivational morphology) °ǤϤ뤬ƱξޤƯƤڵǤϤʤȡ衤Ͻ̤٤2ĤȹͤƤζˤƹ⤤βϡषޤ˶ᤤȹͤΤǤϤʤȤΤ Hagiwara et al. ƤǤ롥ʾεɴԤΥƥȤи (neurolinguistics) δʤƤ롥Ѥ褦
Our investigation of the Japanese nominal suffixes -sa annd -mi led us to the conclusion that the affixation of these two suffixes involves two different mental mechanisms, and that the two mechanisms are supported by different neurological substrates. The results of our study constitute a new piece of evidence for the dual-mechanism model of morphology, where default rule application and associative memory are supposed to operate as mutually independent mechanisms. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the dual-mechanism model is valid for morphological processes in general, and is not limited to inflectional ones. This, in turn, shows that some derivational processes can involve default rules or computation, much like those in inflection or syntactic operations. From the neurolinguistic point of view, our study has contributed to the clarification of the localization of linguistic functions, namely, the Broca's area functions as the rule-governed grammatical computational system whereas the left-middle and inferior temporal areas subserve the unproductive/semiproductive memory-based lexical-semantic processing system. (758)
ȤʬŪ˼ʧȤȤοиؾƤϡ㤨С#456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1]) Τ褦ˤ⿷ʸꤲ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
Hagiwara, Hiroko, Yoko Sugioka, Takane Ito, Mitsuru Kawamura, and Jun ichi Shiota. "Neurolinguistic Evidence for Rule-Based Nominal Suffixation." Language 75 (1999): 739--63.
ɽŪʸηϤˡֻ֤ȤȤŪʲȤбطƤʤˤĤơ#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) ˤ§ŪɽŪǤ륢ե٥åȤΤ褦ʸηϤˤơʸȲȤ̩ܤбƤ뤫ΤˡˡΡפֿפȤɽȤ뤳Ȥ롥ѸȤѸˡŬѤСֱѸˡϻ֤ȤȤ˿ʤäƤפȸ롥˴ؤơHorobin (34) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The degree to which a spelling system mirrors pronunciation is known as the principle of 'alphabetic depth'; a shallow orthography is one with a close relationship between spelling and pronunciation, whereas in a deep orthography the relationship is more indirect. It is a feature of all orthographies that they become increasingly deep over time, that is, as pronunciation changes, so the relationship between speech and writing shifts.
ѸˡԵ§ˤĤƤϡ#503. Ѹֻϵ§ŪԵ§Ū ([2010-09-12-1]) #1024. ѸֻԵ§줳 ([2012-02-15-1]) ۤ¿εǼ夲ƤԵ§ŬڤɾΤϰƳऺ[2010-09-12-1]εǤ⼨褦ˡñ type ǤߤԵ§ֻϰճȾʤΤtoken ǤСŪǹ٤θԵ§ʤΤ¿ˡѸˡΤȤԵ§˸ƤޤȤ𤬤롥Ѹˡϰ̤ˤϡֿפȤߤʤƤ뤬Crystal (72) ϡοϸΤΤǤȤơʸΩ
There are only about 400 everyday words in English whose spelling is wholly irregular --- that is, there are relatively few irregular word types . . . . The trouble is that many of these words are among the most frequently used words in the language; they are thus constantly before our eyes as word tokens. As a result, English spelling gives the impression of being more irregular than it really is. (Crystal 72)
ΤŪʹٸ줬Ե§ǤȤΤ "trouble" ǤϤ뤬ξԵ§ֻ˽ƤޤСȾ뤳Ȥˤʤ櫓Ǥꡤݥƥ˹ͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ɤˡ֤ȤȤ˿ޤäƤ椯Τ̿ǤȤСֻפε⡤ʤȤ⤳ν̿ξǤʤ٤
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
2֤ε ([2014-02-17-1], [2014-02-18-1]) ǡ18Ⱦ19ˤƤΥޥɤ synaesthesia ɽδطˤĤƸƤŪ뤤ϰ̣ŪˤСsynaesthesia ɽΤĺ̥Ϥϡ̴ֲФ̴Фؤΰ̣žѡפȤ뤤ϡؿӤɽǤСˡ§ˤ롥
ˤĤƤβѸζɽˤä̤˼¾ڤͤΤWilliams Ǥ롥Williams ϡ100Ķ봶Фɽ魯ѸηƻˤĤơϢνǯ OED MED dzΤʤ顤̣žѤ̻Ū餫ˤˡѸ˸¤äƤСñ˲̤̤ؤžѤȤҤ٤ǤϤʤδд֤ǤžѤΩĤȤ餫ˤWilliams (463) ηǤ롥
THE MAJOR GENERALIZATION is this: if a lexeme metaphorically transfers from its earliest sensory meaning to another sensory modality, it will transfer according to the schedule shown in Figure 1.
ŪʴɽС"Sensory words in English have systematically transferred from the physiologically least differentiating, most evolutionary primitive sensory modalities to the most differentiating, most advanced, but not vice versa." (Williams 464--65) Ȥʤ롥Williams (464) ꡤŪʷƻ롥
TOUCH TO TASTE: aspre, bitter, bland, cloying, coarse, cold, cool, dry, hard, harsh, keen, mild, piquant, poignant, sharp, smooth.
TOUCH TO COLOR: dull, light, warm.
TOUCH TO SOUND: grave, heavy, rough, smart, soft.
TASTE TO SMELL: acrid, sour, sweet.
TASTE TO SOUND: brisk, dulcet.
DIMENSION TO COLOR: full.
DIMENSION TO SOUND: acute, big, deep, empty, even, fat, flat, high, hollow, level, little, low, shallow, thick.
COLOR TO SOUND: bright, brilliant, clear, dark, dim, faint, light, vivid.
SOUND TO COLOR: quiet, strident.
Ullmann ΥޥɻͤĴˤ⸫줿褦ˡ㳰ʤ櫓ǤϤʤWilliams (464) ϡʲ㳰ꥹȤƤ롥
TOUCH TO DIMENSION: crisp.
TOUCH TO SMELL: hot, pungent.
TASTE TO TOUCH: eager, tart.
TASTE TO COLOR: austere, mellow.
DIMENSION TO TASTE: thin.
DIMENSION TO TOUCH: small.
SOUND TO TASTE: loud.
SOUND TO TOUCH: shrill.
Williams ϡβ˱褦ɽϡˤ뤬Τ83--99%ǤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ޤǹ⤤ΨǤСʤȤⷹȤϸƤ٤뤷ˤϰˡ§˶ᤤΤȤߤʤƤ⺹٤ʤ
Williams (470--72) ϡβڤ¾ˤƤϤޤϤȸǤꡤºݤܸζɽˤĤơع٤ܸüԥեޥȤѤơƱ91%ȤΨʤǧƤ롥
ΰ̣žѤβ⤬̣1Ĥϡ̳ (smell) ɤͤޤǤȤȤ̳ФžѤϤʤȤȤˤʤ뤬ϰˤܸˤ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤtouch -> taste -> smell ˤĤƤСꥹȥƥ쥹̣ (taste) üʿ (touch) ǤȹͤȤȶ礤̣ (taste) ̳ (smell) ȶᤤԤԤѸߤФƤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ (Williams 472) ŪʶɽȡʲؤȤʿܤʤ顤Williams (473) ϤҤ٤Ƥ롥
Though I do not suggest that Fig. 1 represents more than chronological sequence, the 'dead-end' appearance of the olfactory sense is a striking visual metaphor for the evolutionary history of man's sensory development.
ʸκǸǡWilliams (473--74) ϡְ̣ˡ§ס[2014-02-16-1]ε#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷ΡפȡˤؤμƤ롥
. . . what is offered here constitutes not only a description of a rule-governed semantic change through the last 1200 years of English---a regularity that qualifies for lawhood, as the term LAW has ordinarily been used in historical linguistics---but also as a testable hypothesis in regard to past or future changes in any language.
Williams, Joseph M. "Synaethetic Adjectives: A Possible Law of Semantic Change." Language 52 (1976): 461--78.
ε#1757. synaesthesia ȥޥɻ (1) ([2014-02-17-1]) ˰³ɽȥޥɻͤˤĤơ
Ullmann (281) ˡ2ͤΥޥɻ Keats Gautier κʤѥȤ synaesthesia Ĵ̤ǺܤƤ롥ɽˤơ6ĤδФΤ줫餤ؤΰ̣žѤ줾첿㤢뤫פΤǤ롥ɽθϡǽ Keats ɽǤСTouch -> Sound žѤ39㤢Ȥɤߤˤʤ롥
| Keats | Touch | Heat | Taste | Scent | Sound | Sight | Total |
| Touch | - | 1 | - | 2 | 39 | 14 | 56 |
| Heat | 2 | - | - | 1 | 5 | 11 | 19 |
| Taste | 1 | 1 | - | 1 | 17 | 16 | 36 |
| Scent | 2 | - | 1 | - | 2 | 5 | 10 |
| Sound | - | - | - | - | - | 12 | 12 |
| Sight | 6 | 2 | 1 | - | 31 | - | 40 |
| Total | 11 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 94 | 58 | 173 |
| Gautier | Touch | Heat | Taste | Scent | Sound | Sight | Total |
| Touch | - | 5 | - | 5 | 70 | 55 | 135 |
| Heat | - | - | - | - | 4 | 11 | 15 |
| Taste | - | - | - | 4 | 11 | 7 | 22 |
| Scent | - | - | - | - | 5 | 1 | 6 |
| Sound | 2 | 1 | - | 1 | - | 13 | 17 |
| Sight | 3 | - | - | 1 | 34 | - | 38 |
| Total | 5 | 6 | - | 11 | 124 | 87 | 233 |
Visual terminology is incomparably richer than its auditional counterpart, and has also far more similes and images at its command. Of the two sensory domains at the top end of the scale, sound stands more in need of external support than light, form, or colour; hence the greater frequency of the intrusion of outside elements into the description of acoustic phenomena.
ˡUllmann (282) ϡ¾κȤޤʲĴ̤Ƥ롥̴Ф̴ФؤžѤ Upwardεդ Downward ȤҤη䶯Ƥ롥
| Author | Upward | Downward | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| Byron | 175 | 33 | 208 |
| Keats | 126 | 47 | 173 |
| Morris | 279 | 23 | 302 |
| Wilde | 337 | 77 | 414 |
| 'Decadents' | 335 | 75 | 410 |
| Longfellow | 78 | 26 | 104 |
| Leconte de Lisle | 143 | 22 | 165 |
| Gautier | 192 | 41 | 233 |
| Total | 1,665 | 344 | 2,009 |
synaesthesiaˤϡ¿ο͡δؿĤ롥ؤΥߤǤ⡤ǯΤ褦´ֳ롥⤽ synaesthesia ȤϲޤϡBussmann θѸ켭ŵѤ褦
synesthesia [Grk synaísthēsis 'joint perception']
The association of stimuli or the sense (smell, sight, hearing, taste, and touch). The stimulation of one of these senses simultaneously triggers the stimulation of one of the other senses, resulting in phenomena such as hearing colors or seeing sounds. In language, synesthesia is reflected in expressions in which one element is used in a metaphorical sense. Thus, a voice can be 'soft' (sense of touch), 'warm' (sensation of heat), or 'dark' (sense of sight).
Ĥޤꡤ봶Фɽ魯Τˡ̤δФ°ɽѤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥̸Ū˹ѻ븽ݤǤꡤε#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) ήǤС̣˴ؤ뷹Ȥˡ§ȸƤ֤٤Τ˶ᤤܸǤ⡤ֽ餫סʿФȻСˡִŤס̣Ф̳СˡֲסʻФİСˤʤ¿롥
ѸǤ嵭ΰŪΤۤʸŪʸ줫 "I see a voice: now will I to the chink, To spy an I can hear my Thisby's face" (Sh., Mids. N. D. 5:1:194--95), "As they smelt music" (Sh., Tempest 4:1:178), "eyes which mutter thickly" (E. E. Cummings), "And taste the music of that vision pale" (Keats) ʤɤɽǤ⸫Ĥ롥
ʸػŪˤСͽۤ뤳Ȥsynaesthesia ϥޥɤλͤˡǤ롥ޥɤνи synaesthesia ϡ̵ǤϤʤɤӤĤƤ롥Ullmann (272--73) ϡ18ȾμҲˤʸػˤŸˡѸˤܳŪʶɽѤεߤƤ롥
In the latter half of the eighteenth century, a number of contributory factors prepared the ground for the romantic vogue of synaesthesia: occult influences (Swedenborg), theories about language origin (Herder), efforts to delimit the various arts (Lessing, Erasmus Darwin), Rousseau's use of sense-metaphors, and various other currents of pre-romantic literature.
All these threads were gathered up by the Romantic Movement. There were also some factors peculiar to that generation: the cult of exoticism and the use of drugs like hashish and opium; the part played by certain synaesthetic temperaments, such as E. T. A. Hoffmann; the tightening of social contacts between writers, artists and musicians; and in a more general way, the new code of aesthetics, with its search for novel and imaginative effects, expressiveness, and evocatory power. For the first time in the history of literature synaesthetic metaphor became a fully-fledged poetic device, and its stylistic potentialities were widely exploited. The most frequent settings in which it automatically presented itself were descriptive passages with strong suggestive power, where synaesthesia, like Leibniz's monads, provided several angles from which the same sensation could be viewed; situations where the organic unity of perceptual states had to be stressed; and last but not least, vague, dreamy, or even uncanny and hallucinatory moods where the semi-pathological implications of intersensorial transfer found a congenial expression. So strong was the interest in these 'correspondences', 'harmonies', and 'transpositions', that entire poems were devoted to synaesthetic themes. (273)
ΰѤϡ̣εҤǤȤȤʸػ˾ɾȤʤäƤꡤ¤˶̣Ullmann 夲ȷˤϡByron, Keats, William Morris, Wilde, Dowson, Phillips, Lord Alfred Douglas, Arthur Symons; Longfellow; Leconte de Lisle, Théphile Gautier; and the Hungarian romantic poet Vörösmarty ʤɤ
Ǥϡޥɤλͤ϶ŪˤɤΤ褦ʼ synaesthesia ɽѤΤˤĤƤϡεǡ
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
Ullmann, Stephen. The Principles of Semantics. 2nd ed. Glasgow: Jackson, 1957.
Ѳˤˡ§̾ͤΤ롥⤢뤬ʤȤ⡤ȵ뤳ȤϤǤ롥̣Ѳˤˡ§褦ʤΤϤʤΤˡ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) #1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1]) ʤɤǸ褦ˡ̣Ѳη丶ˤĤƤͤϤ뤬ˡ§Ȥۤɤΰ̲ϤޤʤƤʤʤ뤳ȤϤʤ⤷ʤʾ塤ˡ§̤Ȥ٤㤬롥
Stern ϡ"The Regularity of Sense-change. Semantic Laws." ꤹ (185--91) ˤơ®ע֤ˡפȤ̣Ѳ˴ؤˡ§פŦƤ롥®פư®٤®ͻҡ֤ˡפϻֳִ֤ƤʤͻҤǤꡤξԤΰ̣ϡquickly Ѥ3ʸ٤뤳Ȥˤä뤳ȤǤ (Stern 185)
I. He wrote quickly.
II. When the king saw him, he quickly rode up to him.
III. Quickly afterwards he carried it off.
I quickly Ͻ®٤®Ȥɽ魯III quickly ϡ?θ夹ˡפΤ褦˻ֳִ֤ûȤްդ롥I III θĤʤΤII ʸˤ quickly Ǥ롥ϤǶĤ®٤®Ȥɤ뤷ʸƬ when ȤδطǡֲȤˡפȤɤ롥ܸΡ֤Ϥ䤤פ⡤®٤Ρ®פȻ֤Ρפξɽ魯Τạ̇̄Ϣ³ԤԤؤθѲβǽˤĤƤϡݤ߹
ѸˤλȤƶ̣Τϡΰ̣Ѳ®פɽ魯Ϣˤơꤵ줿㳰ʤ餷ȤȤǤ롥Ϳ뤢ˤλƯȤǤϡˡ§ȸƤФ벻ѲƱäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤꡤ "semantic law" ȸƤ֤ˤդ路Τ褦˻פ롥
ŪˤϡStern (188) ϡ23ˤ3ĤθνǯĴ١ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤ
| Sense I | Sense II | Sense III | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 'Rapidly' | 'Rapidly/immediately' | 'Immediately' | |
| Hrædlice | OE | OE | OE |
| Hraþe (Raþe) | OE | OE | OE |
| Ardlice | OE | OE | OE |
| Lungre | OE | OE | OE |
| Ofstlice | OE | OE | OE |
| Sneome | OE | OE | OE |
| Swiþe | OE | OE | 1175 |
| Swiftly | OE | OE | 1200 |
| Caflice | OE | OE | 1370 |
| Swift | OE | 1360 | 1300? 1400? |
| Georne | OE | 1290 | 1300 |
| Hiȝendliche | 1200 | 1200 | 1200 |
| Quickly | 1200 | 1200 | 1200 |
| Smartly | 1290 | 1300 | 1300 |
| Snelle | 1300 | 1275 | 1300 |
| Quick | 1300 | 1290 | 1300 |
| Belife | 1200 | 1200 | 1200 |
| Nimbly | 1430 | 1470 | 1400 |
| Rapely | 1225 | 1300 | 1325 |
| Skete | 1300 | 1300 | 1200 |
| Tite | 1300 | 1350 | 1300 |
| Wight | 1300 | 1360 | 14th cent. |
| Wightly | 1350 | 1350 | 1300 |
We have found that English adverbs with the sense 'rapidly' are divided into two chronological groups, one in which the sense is earlier than 1300 (or 1400) and in which the sense 'immediately' nearly always arises out of it; another in which the sense 'rapidly' is later than the date mentioned, where no such development occurs. It is further demonstrable that the development always takes place in definite contexts: when the adverb is employed to qualify verbs which may be apprehended as imperfective or as perfective (punctual). We may therefore formulate the following semantic law:
English adverbs which have acquired the sense 'rapidly' before 1300, always develop the sense 'immediately'. This happens when the adverb is used to qualify a verb, the action of which may be apprehended as either imperfective or perfective, and when the meaning of the adverb consequently is equivocal: 'rapidly/immediately'. Exceptions are due to the influence of special factors.
But when the sense 'rapidly' is acquired later than 1300, no such development takes place. There is no exception to this rule.
This "law" has the form of a sound-law: it gives the circumstances of the change and a chronological limit.
We ask, next, what may be the reasons for the cessation of the development. It cannot have been that the conditions favouring it ceased to exist, for we may still say, he went rapidly out of the room; but this has not caused a change of meaning for rapidly.
It seems that the tendency itself disappeared. The reason is obscure. The changes began at a period when OE, without any considerable influence from other languages, was following its own line of development; they continued during the periods of Scandinavian and French influence, and ceased as the importation of French and Latin linguistic material was at its height. We cannot demonstrate any connection between the general linguistic and cultural development, and the sense-change in question. (190)
ΰϢθ췲Ʊ̣ѲΤϡ̣ˡ§ˤΤǤϤʤñѤˤΤȿ뤫⤷ʤStern (191) ϡѤȤϹͤʤȼĥƤ롥
Analogical influence ought to work with equal strength in both directions, so that words meaning 'immediately' receive the sense 'rapidly', but there is no trace of such a development And why has not the analogical influence continued during the Modern English period, with regard to the adverbs in my second list?
ϤơϱѸˤ˸ؤ̣ˡ§εŤ1ʤΤ
ʤְ̣ˡ§פˤĤƤϡWilliams (461--63) ͤͻͿƤ롥
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
Williams, Joseph M. "Synaethetic Adjectives: A Possible Law of Semantic Change." Language 52 (1976): 461--78.
#1749. οʲŤΥԡɡ ([2014-02-09-1]) ǡȯʲŤˤĤ Aitchison "language bonfire" Ҳ𤷤ؤΡؤפȤƤ롤ƣŹسؤӤΥȤФβʳء٤ɤǤȤβ⤬狼䤹Ҳ𤵤Ƥ
ƣ (23--24) ˤȡߤοؤθ̤餫ȤˤС¾θͤ褫顤पӥͥǥ륿ͤζ̤褬ʬΤ100ǯΤȤǤ롥ơ2Ĥ褬ߤʬΤ50ǯ25ǯ餤˥ͥǥ륿ͤǤӤޤǤϡȶ¸ƤȤ狼äƤ롥बեꥫΤ20ǯΤȤǤ롥θ7--6ǯ˥եꥫسȻ15ǯ餤Ƥã
嵭θˤΤʤǡ˸ΤʤΤƱȯȹͤΤˤĤƤϡ#544. ҥȤȯﴱοʲŬ ([2010-10-23-1]) ȡˡθ夷Ф餯ϡΤϴˤ䤫ʿʲˤ10ǯۤˤ褦䤯ŪʸοãĤĤäȤ롥Ȥ10ǯۤλˡʸοʲ롥ơХեꥫλ濴ˡ˻θηϤˤۤɤŨ٤ʸηϤȯãθϡĹˤ䤫̲λꡤߤ˻롥줬"language bonfire" Ǥ롥ƣ (24) ȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

Ϣơ#41. ʸˤ ([2009-06-08-1])#751. ϵ46ǯΤߤΤʤǤοȸ ([2011-05-18-1])#1544. εȿʲǯɽ ([2013-07-19-1]) ⻲ȡ
ƣ ŹسؤӤΥȤФβʳء١ҤĤ˼2007ǯ
ꥹͤνȤơˤȤȤФи롥㤨СNTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings ˤȡGeorge Mikes How to Be an Alien (1946) Τʤǡ"Queueing is the national pastime of an otherwise dispassionate race. The English are rather shy about it, and deny that they adore it" ɾƤ롥
ꥹͤΤνȿǤˤ⥤ꥹѸŪȸ٤줬ˤФֹʤˡפ̣ queue Ǥ롥ꥫѸǤϤΰ̣Ǥ line ѤΤ̤Ǥ롥ȥꥢ˽ФƤǤͽ̤ꥤꥹŪ queue ѤƤ롥queue ꥹѸŪǤ뤳ȤŪ˳ǧ٤#1730. AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-21-1]) #1739. AmE-BrE Diachronic Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-30-1]) ˡ^queu(e[sd]?|ing)$ ƸƤߤȡŪ˸ꤹޤǤʤ餫ʬۤϥꥹѸؤФAmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ˤ븡̤ʲ˷ǤƤ
| ID | WORD | FREQ | TEXTS | RANK | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AME_2006 | BRE_2006 | AME_2006 | BRE_2006 | AME_2006 | BRE_2006 | ||
| 1 | queue | 2 | 19 | 2 | 12 | 26348 | 5149 |
| 2 | queued | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 39987 |
| 3 | queues | 0 | 9 | 0 | 9 | 0 | 8971 |
| 4 | queuing | 0 | 9 | 0 | 9 | 0 | 8972 |
#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ڤӺε#1752. interpretor interpreter (2) ([2014-02-12-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ
Marchand (221--22) ˤȡѸ줫ѸˤƤξؤΤȻפ뤬-er, -or, -ar ʤɤμư -er ذܲ礭ήȡФ -or, -ar ʤɤؤȸʵήȤ¸ߤȤ
Variants in -or are sailor 1642, orig. sailer LME, vendor 1594 (AE also vender), editor (cp. to edit), conqueror (cp. conquer), visitor (formerly -er, cp. visit), operator(cp. operate), survivor (coined as a legal term 1503; in law terms the spelling -or with pronunciation [ɔ(r)] is usual), director (cp. direct) and many others. / . . . . Original loans from French (ending in -ier, -our, -oir) which had a verb or a suffixless noun to go with, naturally came to be felt as derivatives. Examples are: farmer, jeweller, gardener / miner, commander / dresser, counter. On the other hand, classical influence produced a certain counter-action in the 16th and 17th c. insofar as -er words received a Latinizing spelling in -ar or -or . . . . There are thus two opposite currents: one is to assimilate foreign elements to the native -er, and the other to introduce a learned or pseudo-learned element. The latter is responsible for the frequent AE pronunciation [ɔ(r)] in creator, actor a.o. / Latin-coined words in -ator also contain the sf -er for the present-day linguistic feeling. Their stress is dictated by that of the underlying verb in -ate: génerate/génerator, oríginate/oríginator. Between 1550 and 1750 the stress was often on the penult, after the Latin accentuation (see B. Danielsson 137--142).
Marchand θ̤Ȥȡinterpreter ϡ-or -er ؤΤŪĬή˾ä1ĤȤȤˤʤ롥ɤθ줬ɤĬή˾뤳ȤˤʤäΤȤФơŪˡŪˤɤޤڤ뤫Ϥ狼餺ʾƧ߹ΤϤ뤬塤ݤˤդƤȻפ
Marchand, Hans. The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation: A Synchronic-Diachronic Approach. 2nd. ed. München: Beck, 1969.
ɸηˤĤƤϡ#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ȡ#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1]) ǿƤνȯǤ롤16 interpretor interpreter ִ줿ȤڤˤĤơ¤ɤǧƤɬפ롥θڤϡرѸ츻ŵ٤ǤʤƤꡤ餯 OED "In 16th cent. conformed to agent-nouns in -er, like speak-er" ˰͵ƤΤȻפ뤬ˤ16λΤĤΥѥܺ٤Ĵ٤Ƥߤ
ޤϡMED ѸֻΤƤߤ褦 Wycliffite Bible, Early Version (a1382) ޤᡤ33ޤǤ -our 뤤 -or ޤߡ-er Τ Reginald Pecock ˤ Book of Faith (c1456) 2ΤߤǤ롥а衤ѸΰŪֻϡ-o(u)r äȤäƤ
ƱѸξPPCME2 ǤߤƤߤȡPeriod M4 (1420--1500) Interpretours 1Τߵä
ˡѸ (1418--1680) 45줫ʤʥѥΥץ CEECS (The Corpus of Early English Correspondence Ǥ⸡Ƥߤ2˶ʬ줿ѥ2ʬ (1580--1680) interpreter interpretor 줾1㤺Ĥäˤʤ
³ơMEMEM (Michigan Early Modern English Materials) Υ饤ѥϡΥڡΤȤꡤѸ켭ԻΤ˽줿ȤˡưΤʸǡ١ؤʥѥȤѤǤ롥ĤֻǸȤinterpretour 2㡤1535? Thomas Elyot ˤ The Education or Bringing up of Children 줿Ū interpreter(s) ֻϡ9ΰۤʤƥȡ3Ĥ166Ĥ17ˤ16ǧ줿Τˡ16餸露 -er ӤƤƤ褦
LC (The Lampeter Corpus of Early Modern English Tracts) ϡ1640--1740ǯ罰ʪ119Υѥ줿7Ϥ -er ֻä
Ʊͤη̤330ζḽѸ쥳ѥ ARCHER 3.2 (A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers) (1600--1999) Ǥǧ줿1672ǯǽȤơ13㤬 -er Ǥ롥
ǸˡѸ줫Ѹˤ̻ŪˤߤƤߤ褦HC (Helsinki Corpus) ˤȡE1 (1500--70) Henry Machyn's Diary ꡤ"he becam an interpretour betwen the constable and certein English pioners;" 1Τ߸줿HC 礵 PPCEME ˤȡ嵭ޤ17λʬۤϰʲ̤ꡥ
| -o(u)r | -er(s) | |
|---|---|---|
| E1 (1500--1569) | 2 | 1 |
| E2 (1570--1639) | 3 | 5 |
| E3 (1640--1710) | 0 | 6 |
ε#1750. bonfire ([2014-02-10-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡʣ1ǤŪˤĤŤޤȤϡѸˤǤ⤷ФƤ롥
Skeat (490) εƤ벻§ˤС"When a word (commonly a monosyllable) containing a medial long accented vowel is in any way lengthened, whether by the addition of a termination, or, what is perhaps more common, by the adjunction of a second word (which may be of one or two syllables), then the long vowel (provided it still retains the accent, as is usually the case) is very apt to become shortened." ȤĤޤꡤΤդ̤μͳǤ³ʣˤơ1ǤȤʤȤδΤĹ첻첻ûʤȤȤ졤ʣ졤¾ξʬơSkeat (492--94) ꡤĤƤߤ褦
ޤϡ㡥Ҳ³ȡΤĹ첻첻û䤹
heather < heath
rummage < room
throttle < throat
harrier < hare
children < child (cf. #145. child children 첻Ĺ ([2009-09-19-1]))
breadth < broad (cf. #16. -th ̾ΤȤˤʤäư졦ƻϡ ([2009-05-14-1]))
width < wide (cf. #1080. ʤ five ν fifth ʤΤ ([2012-04-11-1]))
bliss < blithe
gosling < goose
led (pa., pp.) < lead (cf. #1345. read -- read -- read γѡ ([2013-01-01-1]))
fed (pa., pp.) < feed
read (pa., pp.) < read (cf. #1345. read -- read -- read γѡ ([2013-01-01-1]))
hid (pa., pp.) < hide
heard (pa., pp.) < hear
ˡʣ㡥2Ҳ³ȡȤ櫓Τ첻û
bonfire < bone (cf. #1750. bonfire ([2014-02-10-1]))
breakfast < break (cf. #260. ([2010-01-12-1]))
cranberry < crane
futtocks < foot (+ hooks)
husband, hustings, hussif, hussy < house (cf. #260. ([2010-01-12-1]))
Lammas < loaf (+ mass)
leman < lief (+ man)
mermaid < mere (cf. #115. ˤο͵ϤʤΤ ([2009-08-20-1]))
nostril < nose
sheriff < shire (+ reeve)
starboard < steer
Whitby, Whitchurch, whitster, whitleather, Whitsunday < white
Essex < East
Sussex, Suffolk < South
¾ΥȤơ³ҲˤΤǤϤʤ˵Ȥߤ㤬롥
cushat < cow (+ shot)
forehead < fore (cf. #260. ([2010-01-12-1]))
halyard < hale
heifer < high
knowledge < know
shepherd < sheep
stirrup < sty (+ rope)
tuppence < two (+ pence)
thrippence < three (+ pence)
fippence < five (+ pence)
holiday, halibut, hollihock < holy (cf. #260. ([2010-01-12-1]))
Skeat, Walter W. Principles of English Etymology. 1st ser. 2nd Rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1892.
ε#1749. οʲŤΥԡɡ ([2014-02-09-1]) ǡAitchison "language bonfire" βҲ𤷤 bonfire ʲСˤȤθ郎̣ΤǿƤ̣ȷ֤ξˤơѲ뤲ƤǤ롥
θνФ15̤ꡤbonnefyre, banefyre ʤɤֻǸ롥츻ȤƤŪñǡbone + fire ʣǤ롥ʸ̤DzФʲ餯ꥹȶ̤ԻؤƤ褦ǡֽŪŵޤʤɤΤŷʲ礫Сפ̣ ¤εԤιΤ褦Ѥdz䤹ФΤȤǤ⤢ꡤФ֤ηʲѤФΤȤǤ⤢äOnians (268fn) ˤȡ̿μȹͤƤꡤdz䤹Ȥ˭¿ȿƤȤ⤤ƥ ignis ossiumե feu d'os ʤɤб礬롥ϡMED bōn-fīr ȡ
161ĤŤޤä bonfire ֻڤˤĤ bone θ˺褦ˤʤꡤ̲ʲСס֥ʲפƤ롥åȥɤǤϡOED bonfire, n. θ츻ˤ褦ˡֻȸ1800ǯޤݤƤ褦 ("In Scotland with the form bane-fire, the memory of the original sense was retained longer; for the annual midsummer 'banefire' or 'bonfire' in the burgh of Hawick, old bones were regularly collected and stored up, down to c1800.") ۤˤǤĹ첻ֻĤäƤ (see "bonefire" in EDD Online)
1Ǥ bon ɽΤˤʤäƤȡָ̱츻βԤ褦ˤʤꡤ1755ǯˤ Johnson μǤ鼡Τ褦ʲ
BO'NFIRE. n. s. [from bon, good, Fr. and fire.] A fire made for some publick cause of triumph or exultation.
ʣ1ǤΤ褦ṳ̂ΤȤǤϤʤȤȤĹ첻ʣˤΤĹʤ뤳ȤؤȤơû첻Ȥϡgospell (< God + spell), holiday (< holy + day), knowledge (< know + -ledge), Monday (< moon + day) ʤɤ̤˸롥
bonfire ȤСꥹǤ115˹Ԥֹ̱Ի Bonfire Night 뤤 Guy Fawkes Night ͭ̾Ǥ롥1605ǯ115ȥå̤IJˤ James I Ż⤯Ż (Gunpowder Plot) ¹Ԥͽäײ褬Ϫ¹ԼԤȤ Guy Fawkes (1570--1606) ᤵ줿衤ŤϪȹ̵ˤ٤Ƭ礭ʤФdz䤷Guy Fawkes ɤäͷdz䤷ֲФ뽬¯ԤƤ
Onians, Richard Broxton. The Origins of European Thought about the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World, Time, and Fate. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1954.
εοʲŤˤĤƤ͡Ƥꡤܥ֥Ǥ origin_of_language evolution εǴϢ夲ƤȤɾΤ Aitchison ˤСȯȽοʲˤϡ3Ĥβ⤬롥
1ܤϡAitchison "rabbit-out-of-a-hat" ȸƤǤΤǡϼʻդ˹Ҥ饦ФΤ褦ǡȤΤȤ#544. ҥȤȯﴱοʲŬ ([2010-10-23-1]) εǾҲ𤷤ѥɥΤǡChomsky ʤɤ羧ԤǤ롥"What use is half a wing for flying?" ȤʲѤطʤˡ줬ȾüȯãʳȤΤǤʤȤ롥ˤȡȯľθˤϡθˤߤʣʵǤäƤȤȤˤʤ롥
2ܤϡ"snail-up-a-wall" ȤǤƤ֤٤ǡʳϢ³ŪȯθⲿǯǯȤ֤ˤ錄äƤäȰ®٤ǿʲƤäȤΤǤ롥ɤΥΥ礦ĥȤǤ롥ʪʲˤơβ˹פ褦ʷʤȤ顤οʲˤƤϤޤʤΤǤϤʤȤ롥
3ܤϡ嵭2ĤȤ߹碌褦ʲǡAitchison "fits-and-starts" ȸƤǤ롥ˤȡȯȿʲϡڴĹȤߤ˷֤ͼħŤȤ롥#1397. ³ʿեǥ ([2013-02-22-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 punctuated_equilibrium ˤϢʤͤ
Aitchison ϤΤ餺4βȤơ٤ƤȤ߹碌褦ƤФܿͤϡ "language bonfire" ȸƤǤ롥
Probably, some sparks of language had been flickering for a very long time, like a bonfire in which just a few twigs catch alight at first. Suddenly, a flame leaps between the twigs, and ignites the whole mass of heaped-up wood. Then the fire slows down and stabilizes, and glows red-hot and powerful. . . . Probably, a simplified type of language began to emerge at least as early as 250,000 BP. Piece by piece, the foundations were slowly put in place. Somewhere between 100,000 and 75,000 BP perhaps, language reached a critical stage of sophistication. Ignition point arrived, and there was a massive blaze, during which language developed fast and dramatically. By around 50,000 BP it was slowing down and stabilizing as a steady long-term glow. (60--61)
ϡSǥȸƤ褤˼Ƥ륿ॹѥǥդȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥

οʲˤĤƤβϾ嵭̤줬͡δ֤ŤƤäͼˤĤƤϤɤ2Ĥ϶̤٤ۤʤǤ롥Aitchison ϡŤˤĤƤϰ쵤˹ޤ "language bushfire" θѤƤ롥դʤСޤʷľ뤤϶ȤȤˤʤ
. . . there's a distinction between language emergence (the bonfire) and its diffusion---the spread to other humans (a bush fire). . . . Once evolved, language could have swept through the hominid world like a bush fire. It would have given its speakers an enormous advantage, and they would have been able to impose their will on others, who might then learn the language. (61--62)
Aitchison, Jean. The Seeds of Speech: Language Origin and Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
#1740. interpretor interpreter ([2014-01-31-1]) ˤ -er -or ˤĤơξԤϤȤ˹ټ (agentive suffix, subject suffix) ȸƤФ빴«Ǥ̣֡ʬۤʤɤ˴ؤơߤˤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤϡŪʻȤϸѸζŪʻ顤ξԤΰƱ
Carney (426--27), Huddleston and Pullum (1698) (170--73)ĤʤɡĤλʸäƤߤȤȡʲ̤ˤʤ롥
| -er | -or | |
|---|---|---|
| ¿ | Ūʤ | |
| Ū | Ū | |
| ܼ饹 | Class II | Class I |
| ³Τθ츻 | Romance Ϥ˸¤ʤ | Romance Ϥ˸¤ |
| ³Τμͳ | ͳ˸¤ | ͳ˸¤ʤ |
| ư | ʤ | |
| Τؤζ | ʤ | |
| ʤղ | ʤ | Class I դ |
| Ending | Word types | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| -ator | 291 | indicator, navigator |
| -ctor | 63 | contractor, predictor |
| -itor | 29 | inheritor, depositor |
| -utor | 16 | contributor, prosecutor |
| -essor | 15 | successor, professor |
| -ntor | 14 | grantor, inventor |
| -stor | 12 | investor, assistor |
ɸιɤʬϡʥ붦¹ (Republic of Nauru) Ǥ롥ʿΡƻΤ⤫21ʿȥλ̤ǡ1ͤۤɤǤ롥

Ethnologue Nauru ˤȡȥͥ²° Nauruan 䡤Chinese Pidgin English ¾ΰ̱ʤɤäƤ뤬Ѹ줬¾θѸȤäƤ褤
ʥΤߤʤ餺ʿΤٹ¿ϡѸȤƱѸѤƤꡤαѸѤŪʬˤ ESL (English as a Second Language) Ǥ롥#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#1475. Ѹȸ˴ؤϿޤΥȡ ([2013-05-11-1])#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1]) 齦ФСNauru ¿쾯ʤ褦ʸˤȤ the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), Fiji, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Palau, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu ̾롥ϰζˤϰǤ͡ǤϤ뤬衼åѤιҳΤˤȯסˤѤȺ衤ܷˤΡƤΰǤФƤΩʤɤˤäħŤ礬¿
ʥ붦¹ϡμϤ鷺19kmΡ3ܤ˾ʹǤ롥ΤȤܿϡ1798ǯ˥ꥹϥ椬ʥˬ줿Ȥ˻Ϥޤ롥1830ǯʹߡߴϤȤƵǽϤᡤ1888ǯˤϥɥĤݸΤȤʤä1907ǯϥꥹβ Pacific Phosphate Company ɥĤιؤȤθĤξ塤θȤʤ (phosphate rock) κηϤ롥1˥ȥꥢΤ1920ǯʹߤϥꥹȥꥢ˥塼3ΰǤΤȤʤ롥1942ǯܷˤΤФơ3ΰǤä1968ǯˤΩ
ʥǺǤ٤ι⤤Фߤ4/5ʤäƤФκη9ʾ夬ꡤϳǤ롥ФˤפˤʿνΤʤǤϹ⤤ݻƤοȰ̳ȤʤäƤ롥ǰȤƤϥȥꥢȥ˥塼ɤȴƤ롥ŪˤСʥϡФˤäƥꥹܤɤξԤȤʤäѸαƶ֤뤳ȤˤäơѸȤȴؤäƤȤ롥
ʤʥ˰֤빭ٹХ¹ (Republic of Kiribati) ФλϤäꥹΩ1979ǯˤϤǤ˷ԤƤѤȾʬ륯ꥹޥϡ1777ǯΥꥹޥ֤ James Cook ˬ줿Ȥͳ褹뤬1956--58ǯˤƥꥹ91962ǯ˥ꥫ24γ˼¸ԤäϤȤΤ롥ХǤѸ줬¾θѸǤꡤʥӤˤäƤȤ롥
ʥ¤ǡĥХ (Tuvalu) ѸѸȤƤĺǾι1ĤǤΤǡ⻲ȡ
ʾ塤н (22, 36--37) ȤƼɮ
н ˡإ˥ܤȤΤĤʤǸ륢ߡ̤衡7˥١Ź2003ǯ
ҲؤγǰǡĶ뤤ϸʴѤȤΤ롥#1612. ƻϩɸѸɽء ([2013-09-25-1]) ӡ#1613. ƻϩɸαѸɽȡָĶס ([2013-09-26-1]) ˤ褦ˡˤɸĤʤɤʸλȤϡΰݤꤹƱˡθν䤽ξħŪʰҿȿǤƤȹͤ롥Τ褦ʴ顤ܤǤ⳹δɽΥեɥԤ褦ˤʤäƤ
2001--02ǯˤëĵαؼդǹԤäŹ̾Ĵ⡤Τ褦ʻߤ1ĤǤ롥뾦ŹåȤˡδĤʸĴҤ餬ʡʡΤɤʸʤȤ߹碌ˤĤѤƤ뤫ΤʲɽǤëp. 224 ˡ
| Ȥ߹碌 | Ŀʷ |
|---|---|
| 197 | |
| Ҥ餬 | 21 |
| 49 | |
| | 109 |
| 1 | 376 |
| ܤҤ餬 | 220 |
| ܥ | 130 |
| ܥ | 30 |
| Ҥ餬ʡܥ | 10 |
| Ҥ餬ʡܥ | 10 |
| ʡܥ | 42 |
| 2 | 442 |
| ܤҤܥ | 77 |
| ܤҤܥ | 27 |
| ܥܥ | 44 |
| Ҥܥܥ | 9 |
| 3 | 157 |
| ܤҤܥܥ | 24 |
| 4 | 24 |
षǶᵤˤʤΤϡɽνĽĤǤ롥ȤСʣҤαؤˤϱ̾ShinjukuפΤ褦˲Ƕ塻ٲž֤ɽƤ롥盧ɽ˴Ƥκǽǡ֣ȣϣԣţ̡סֱѲãΣϣ֣ס֣ڣϣϡסŹ̾ˤΤ褦ʥνĽĤ¿Ϥʤμ¤˸롥ˤʤǸνĽĤϺǽ뤫⤷ʤȤС̤ɽˤƶǽ롥ĽʸϤ˽ĽΥɽФƤ夬Τ
ë (243) ³ơɽƤ롥
ɽΤȤŹ̾Ĥ⾯ʤ餺ȴؤοȤǤΤ褦ɽܤˤƤȡܿͤʸˤƶͿΤǤϤʤȤ롥äˡ˸ĽʽФƤС֤ʣǤʤñʤɤ̾ʸǽ⽽ʬͤΤǤϤʤ
̾Ķϰ̤θѤαƶƤȹͤ뤬դ˸Ķ̤θѤ˱ƶڤܤȤ⽽ʬˤꤦȻפ롥ĶϡѤȿǤƱˡ˱ƶڤܤ⤹Τ2020ǯԥåˤǡʤˤ˥ɸĤƤǽ⤤Τ褦ʸĶѲϡ˰̤ܸѤˤƶڤܤˤϤʤ
ë ͵ҡִĤʸɽסظֺܸ¡6ʸɽ١ ʸƣ ԡˡˡ2002ǯ221--43ǡ
ǯ٤⥼´ʸФ줿ǯ٤ϰʲ16ܤǤ롥ˤʬ̤¤٤Ƥߤ
(1) Ѹˤ Yod-dropping ˤĤ --- 夹Ҳܤ ---
(2) Long Front-Vowel Shift in Early Sixteenth Century
(3) The Shift from be-perfect to have-perfect in Late Modern English
(4) ư had better ˡ --- had best ȤӤ ---
(5) ñֻˤʬλ --- ΰֻ̣7˸ꤷ ---
(6) 1810ǯ?2000ǯΥꥫѸˤ at all costs at any cost λȤʬˤĤ
(7) On Classification of Old English Christian Terms into the Native or Exotic Type
(8) Ѹˤ̾줫ưؤΰ̣ʬ
(9) ƻ "hot" "cold" ΰ̣ӡоȸŪ
(10) 1617ޤǤΥꥹˤ2;̾ ye λ٤ŪʤǤλ
(11) Ѹˤ thou λѤ⤿餹
(12) ȥꥢīξˤݥ饤ȥͥɽη
(13) ѸѼˤҶѸüˤĤ
(14) 鸫륷ݡαѸ춵
(15) ͥƥֱѸ˱ƶܿ --- Ĵ ---
(16) ʸΥߥ˥ǽˤ̷ --- ظ¸ߤѸȥꥫ ---
֡졤ˡạ́Ѥˤ錄Ū⤢СѼФ٤ȤäҲŪ⤢äŪ¿äȤȤ⤢Ȥ櫓Хꥨ˭ǯȤʤäޤǡǯ٤⿷ȤٶƤ餤ޤ¿աǯ٤ˤԤޤ
2009ǯٰ´ܥꥹȽɤ (##1745,1379,973,608,266)
ΤȤˤʤ뤬13American Dialect Society ˤ 2013ǯ The Word of the Year ȯɽ줿ץ쥹 (PDF)
2013ǯޤ because Ǥ롥ŤˡȯãƤ椨μޤȤ
This past year, the very old word because exploded with new grammatical possibilities in informal online use. . . . No longer does because have to be followed by of or a full clause. Now one often sees tersely worded rationales like 'because science' or 'because reasons.' You might not go to a party 'because tired.' As one supporter put it, because should be Word of the Year 'because useful!'
οˡϡߤ "in informal online use" Ȥ register ˸ꤵƤ뤬嵭̤ǤˤϤʤΤǡ register ȤƤ椯ǽ롥MOST USEFUL ǤޤƤ롥
ˡ because ǤϤʤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäȤΤˤ2ब̤褦˻פ롥1Ĥϡ"because tired" "because useful" Τ褦ˡŪǤάƤȹͤΡǤϡ줾 "because (I am) tired" "because (it is) useful" Τ褦˼ be ư줬άƤȲǤ롥ȯäƤʤɤθŪʾȤȤ⡤ŪˡפǤ륿פŪ٤ˡȤ
⤦1Ĥϡ"because science" "because reasons" Υפ "because of science" "because of reasons" Ȥۤʤ뤷դŪءפǤ櫓Ǥʤष1ˤ̣ߤ;Ϳ뽤Ūʸ̤ФƤ롥ϡŪȤϽŪ٤ˡȤ롥
ơޤ because Τۤˤ⡤Υߥ͡ȸ¾Ǥμ礬ꡤįƤߤȤ⤷㤨 slash ϡ"used as a coordinating conjunction to mean 'and/or' (e.g., 'come and visit slash stay') or 'so' ('I love that place, slash can we go there?')" ƤꡤΤʸǤ롥դ°ɵ (punctuation) 1Ĥɽ줬äդ³ȤѤƤȤΤ⤷ְʾ彪פ̣ȤƤ Period. हðۤǤ롥
#1730. AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-21-1]), #1739. AmE-BrE Diachronic Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-30-1]) ǡthe Brown family of corpora [2010-06-29-1]ε#428. The Brown family of corpora ѾաפȡˤѤѼ֤뤤̻ŪӥġäBrown family ȤС褦߷פԤޤ줿 ICE (International Corpus of English) ۵[2010-09-26-1]ε#517. ICE 7ϰѼ拾ѥפȡˡ1990ǯʹߤνդäդǼ줿100쵬ϤΥѥǡߤӲǽȤʤ褦˺Ƥ롥
ǡ긵ˤ ICE ΤCanada, Jamaica, India, Singapore, the Philippines, Hong Kong αѸѼ拾ѥ6оݤˡƱ褦ɽꡤǡ١ӤǽȤʤġȤˤĤƤϡ#1730. AmE-BrE 2006 Frequency Comparer ([2014-01-21-1]) Ȥ줿
ε#1741. ȤƤȳ (1) ([2014-02-01-1]) ³εǤϡ٤ϡˤߤ줿ȳ٤1ǤȽҤ٤ºݤˤۤˤ奤ꥹˤ㤬ϿƤ롥륺ȥåȥɤDZѸ줬ƩƤäˤϡ#1718. Wales ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-09-1]) ȡ#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) εǸȤ櫓19ȾˤϡϤˤѸζްä
륺㤫ߤ褦1846ǯܤϥ륺ζ𡤤Ȥ櫓ϫƯԳαѸ콬μ֤ĴѰΩ夲ǯ3ˡФ줿ɽ椬ĤäΤǡ̾ Blue Books ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤä륺ͤˤȤäƶŪƤ¿ޤǤ The Betrayal (or Infamous, Treason) of Blue Books ȤƾΤ줿¼ (79) ¹뤬Blue Books (462) ˡWelsh not (or Welsh stick or Welsh) ȸƤФȳεҤ롥
The Welsh stick, or Welsh, as it is sometimes called, is given to any pupil who is overheard speaking Welsh, and may be transferred by him to any schoolfellow whom he hears committing a similar offence. It is thus passed from one to another until the close of the week, when the pupil in whose possession the Welsh is found is punished by flogging. Among other injurious effects, this custom has been found to lead children to visit stealthily the houses of their schoolfellows for the purpose of detecting those who speak Welsh to their parents, and transferring to them the punishment due to themselves.
¼ (80) ϡƱȤåȥɤΥåˤŬѤƤȽҤ٤Ƥʰʲ¼ˤ M. Stephens, Linguistic Minorities in Western Europe, Gomer, 1978. p. 63. ΰѡˡ
From the end of the nineteenth century Gaelic faced its most serious challenge --- the use of the States schools to eradicate what one Inspector called 'the Gaelic nuisance' ... The 'maide-crochaich'', a stick on a cord, was used by English-speaking teachers to stigmatise and punish children speaking Gaelic in Class --- a device which was to survive in Lewis as late as the 1930s.
ޤ¼ (80) ϡϼ긵ˤʤȤʤ⡤ꥫ1960ǯ溢ޤǥڥػäȤȤˤڤƤ롥
ްΤȳ٤ϡΤ褦ʣϰˤäȤ狼뤬19ȾʹߤΤΤǤȤ̣Ωȯ٤ǤϤʤ路Ƴ줿٤Ǥȹͤʤ褦ǯǤϤ롥
¼ ɡرѸϤɤʸ줫ѸμҲŪ١Ʋ1989ǯ
ˤʤ뤬俷ʹ2013ǯ1213ī4̤ˡ֤ΰΩפȤäǤϡΩꡤơפؤθڤʤƤ
#1031. ܸʬ ([2012-02-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̤ˤϡΰäѼܸ1ѼȤơʤܸΤʤΰȤƤߤʤƤ롥ŪŪΩˤäƤϡܸȤΩΰǤȤ븫⤢롥ŪΩȸȤϸʪǤϤ뤬ӤĤΤǤȤäƤ褤ΰΰ줫Ȥϡ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ǿ줿ƼҲŪǤ롥
ä뤳ѼϡŪްƤˤġξħ˿줿פǤ롥ʤޤǤˡγعǤϡ̤ѼˤȡϤȤʤΤˤ줿ɴʻŵ٤ΡΰסΰǤϤʤˤιˤϡʸϤߤ롥
ʹߡ¼ߡعߤɸԱưϤˤ졤ʸϸȤƤäȤФȤƤ⡤ɸνϹ٤ɬפʤȤȤʤäλ뤵찵عäҤɤؤȳȤƤΡ(դ)Ӥͭ̾ǡäҤɤϼȤҤɤ⤬ޤǡΤˤˤƤʤФʤʤäȳ2ˤԤƤơȤ٤ƤθŪʾ̤ǤɸΤߤȤ褦ˤʤꡤߤ˻äƤ롥Ͽषɸαƶʤɤˤä礭ƤĤĤ롥̱ۤڤʸεȤޤäơưΤºŤ졤⤿褦ˤʤꡤ饸ƥӤˤо줹褦ˤʤä¤ˤӤᡤϷͤβáϫƯԤΥ̱ؤβλȲǵΤդʤɤ˻Ѥ¤졤ȤƤäޤޤǤ롥Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤ硹¼ŪϷͤ¾ȤȤ˼ȾǤĤĤꡤؼԤϤεϿޤƤ롥
ϡްˤޤȤɤळȤǤ롥ȳ٤ʤƻŪʻܺϡΤߤʤ餺νϰǹԤƤɸѼȤüԤްϡ褷ƤޤǤϤʤΤǤ롥ȳ٤ˤĤƤϡ (118--21) Τ褦˲ɾͿƤ롥Ĺ٤ưѤ褦ʸʸηϡǤˤƤˡ
եΩäƳΩҤ줿ˤȤʤԸưΥƥϡܤǤܤζŪʾǤ⡤ޤޤǤʤäƳ줿Τȹͤդ롥
餯ܤ¾ϰǤ⤳हʤѤ줿⤷ʤΰΤФϡФз㤷ƻפ뤳Ȥ¿ΰпȼԤ̾⤤ȳˤĤƤäǤ뤬ФǤ롥ֲڻפѰդơïˤ̤Сˤλˤ롥줿̤ϡ¾֤ΤïƱޤȤԤФΤԤȿͤĤޤƤϤơʬμ顤֤ȿͤμؤȻܤߤȳƨ뤳ȤǤ롥⡤ϥȤʤ顤ȳϡΤޤӤȿǤȤΤǤ롥
ζΤ뤷ǤڻϡȳפȸƤФ줿ΰпȼԤǤΤˡפīʤϡ虜ȰȿŤͤȳᡤ褷פФ褯äȳϰĤζ˲⤢äΤ
ΰζˤߤȡȳо줷Τ͡ʰ塻ǯΤȤǡϡפȸƤФƤ줬ä줿Τϰ졻ǯϻʰ켷ǯǤ롥ΩؤǤǷĹϡפȯơȳѤäȸʿξ½ޡʰ͡ǯˤ⡤Ƥˬ줿̱ݶԤפȤäȤꤷޤȽȤϿΤǡȳϡΰ˵̳餬ڤϤƱƳ졤餯˻ޤǡȾۤĤŤΤȻפ롥
ȤȳȤȸΤεˤĤƤϡïϰƤΤǤϤʤסֺμȯŪʹαѤȸפȤҤ٤Ƥơ路ȤϤ狼ʤʾȬϺֲΡפˤĤơסˡǤϤäּȯŪʹפȤϤʤˤĹˤϹˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ˤΤȤͤäơΰȿԤŦȯˤäơȤǤƤդȤաȿػߤξˤѤƵȤϾ𤱤ʤäǤ롥γعʤɤǤϡ٤ȤռԤݤ̵ʤĤϤȤСȿˤʤ뤫Ǥ롥ʾ°ǯ
ĤƥեåġޥȥʡϡֳعȤܤǤäФǤפȽҤ٤Ǥϡˡֳعϡ٤ƤäȺԤˤ̩ԤƤǤפȸʤФʤʤǤ٤ϡʰȿԤĤФơκΤȤȤˤˡÿ뤫
ɤऴ̯̩١ߴƻ٤äɤȯŪΤȤΤǯεǤäܿͤϤ餤μοʹִ˴ؤƤϤɤ餫ȤۤϤǤäơ̤ͥʵѤϤƤǤϤʤȻפäΤǤ롥ȤǶᡤǥåưʤäƤͤƱͤηиäƤ뤳ȤҤ٤ƤսˤĤäϡ륪åпȼԤβۤǤ롥
ޤޥåñ줬ˤΤܤ뤳Ȥȡκͤϡ vergonha ѡˤܤˤ餹뤷Ȥơsenhal ˤ롥ϤΤ褦˴Ĥ̤Ƽ餫롥κͤϡ줫ͧΤ˥åˤۤơĤ˼ؤƤʤΤʹƤƤ롥μȤȤ̴褦̤踸ۤˤĤΤΡ̩δڤ٤Ǥ롥ʥ֥륶衼åο̱ϡס
֥ȥưˤμ㤤ԡˤȡȳϡե¾ϰ衤ʤ֥륿˥塤˥ˤ⡤ȤˤäƤϰϻǯäƤ⤪ʤƤեʳˤץ۲Υݡɡ˥եޥϰ䥦륺ˤƤ溢Ⱦˤư̲ȤȳѤϡĤϤäȸŤޤǤΤܤ롥ǤϵդˡեäԤμˤơƥ춵ǽΨϤäιפǤäȤޤ䡤ƥϰ̤ˤĤ¯줬Ѥ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ롥
ȳˡϡȯŪȼΤΤȤϡǤˤƤϤ뤫ŪʡϤ뤫ȿŪײŪǤäե뤤Ϥ¾Υ衼åѽؤӤȤ줿ǽ
٤ζȤ͢줿Τäɤˤϰ⤢롥εͤߤ뤳Ȥϡפʲ
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
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