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BNC ( The British National Corpus ) ΥꥫѸǤ ANC ( American National Corpus ) κץȤʹǤ롥1990ǯʹߤΥꥫѸ multi-genre corpus ǡˤ BNC ɤŨ1ʾΥѥȤʤͽȤΤȡǤ2200쵬ϤΤΤ Second Release Ȥͭˤǽ
ǡեѤǤ1500Υ֥ѥ OANC (Open ANC) Ƥꡤäդ300춯դ1100춯Ȥ316MBۤɤǥɲǽŸȥǡǤ5GBۤɤ롥ǡѴġȤ Java ưץब ANC Software ɤǤ롥
ANC ΥȤꡤXCES Markup for Standoff Annotation Ȥ˽äƤꡤƥΤȳƼ annotation ̡Υե˼ƤΤħǤ롥XCESݡȤƤʤ OANC ˤϡ㤨 Xaira WordSmith ʤɤإǡѴʤФʤʤԤˤβΤȤ Xaira °ΥǥѤ롥Ԥ ANCTool Υǥ쥯ȥ "java -jar ANCTool-xxxx.jar" 餻СȤGUIɤˤʤäƤΤǻؼ˽Ф褤ǡ̤ΤΤǡ֤ä
奢ꥫѸ¾ΥѥȤƤϡMark Davies Υ־ѤǤ Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) ʤɤ롥1990--2009ǯ4춯ΥѥMark Davies ˤ¾Υ饤ѥȡ
[2009-11-27-1]˼ꤢ³ԡѸ <h> ֻɽ魯Ҳ [h] ˤޤĤ뺮ϡλҲñ˲ŪǤ뤫ФǤϤʤ<h> ޤեñѸ줬Ѥݤ˰礤ƤȤˤ롥ΤȤˤϡäŵƥޤ̤ʤФʤʤ
ŵƥǤ <h> ֻ /h/ ȤȯƤ구§ŪäȤŵˤʤ /h/ æϤޤäȤֻ <h> ǸꤷƤΤֻȯΥ줬ФΥ줿֤Υޥˤ⤽ΤޤäΥե㳰ǤϤʤ<h> ֤ñǤ /h/ Ϸ褷ȯʤäơѸѸˤΤ褦ʥե줫̤ <h> ޤѤ뤳ȤȤʤäΤǤ롥
ΤȤѸ <h> ֤Τ̵Ȥн褹Τ3ĤˡѤ ( Scragg, p. 41 )
(1) ȯʤΤ֤ɬפʤȤȤ <h> ȤƼ줿able, ability, arbour ʤɤ뤬Ͼʤʥե habile, habiletéƥ herbarium ӡ
(2) 줿ե̤˽äĤޤꡤ<h> ֤뤬ȯʤȤżheir, honest, honour, hour ʤɡ(1) 㤬¿an historical study an hotel Τ褦⻲͡
(3) ֤꤬Τȯ褦Ȥ spelling-pronunciation ȯۤ <h> /h/ ȤɤळȤˤhorrible, hospital, host ʤ¿ <h> ޤѸ줬Υѥ
Ѹϸ§Ȥ (3) ˡ켫ΤϹŪǤꡤֻȯδطäꤹ롥Ѹ spelling-pronunciation ˤǤϡ<h> /h/ ۤɤ˰ӤƵä spelling-pronunciation ϤʤΤǤϤʤޤ spelling-pronunciation ζȤäƤ褤100%ӤƤ櫓ǤϤʤθǤϤ뤬 (1) (2) ŬѤƤޤäȤǡºʬ̴ۤƤޤä(2) ξθˤäơѸƥեΰ仺뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤκϸѸˤ³ƤΤǤ롥
ϢȤơ֥ǥפε[2010-04-22-1]⻲ȡ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
ε[2010-07-28-1]˰³ꥫѸʬˤĤơ Kurath ζʬϹΤƤ뤬Baugh and Cable θŵŪѸ˽ΤʤǺѤƤʬƶϤȻפΤǥΡȤƤ
Baugh and Cable ϡꥫ̤礭4ĤʬʬˡѤƤ롥夫 Upper North, Lower North, Upper South, Lower South Ǥ롥˲äơUpper North ü Eastern New England ̤ȤߤʤΤ˽ʬäǤꡤƱ New York City (NYC) ̰Ȥ碌6Ĥ̤뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʲϿޤϡBaugh and Calbe (377) Ȥ˺

6줾ħ Baugh and Cable (379--91) ˤޤȤޤäƤΤǤǤϾά뤬[2010-07-24-1], [2010-06-07-1]ˤ postvocalic r ̵ͭcot caught 첻Ω̵ͭfast 첻βʤɤʬθȤʤäƤ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ꥫѸθħΰĤˡŪƱ롥ꥫιѤ3̤ǡꥹ40ܡܤ26ܤȼ¤˹γˤϾǤ롥ͳʣŪǤꡤˤȡꥹθϤޤ줿͡ʱѸѼκǤ뤳ȡ¿¿ͤʰ̱θȤκǤ뤳ȡɸ餹뷹ŪʸѤʤɤ
ꥹѸʤɤ٤ŪƱŪȤȤǤꡤꥫѸˤ¸ߤ롥ǤؤʥꥫѸʬϡthe New England dialect, the Southern dialect, General American ȻʬˡǤ롥General American ϡ¾ĤǤʤȤ绨ĤǡŪʥΥꥫѸ˺Ǥᤤ
绨ĤʶʬϥꥫؤȯŸȤȤ˽ִƤꥫؤܳŪʸϡߥؤ Hans Kurath λشץ The Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada Ȥ1931ǯ˻Ϥ줿1939ǯ New England1973--76ǯ the Upper Midwest1986--92ǯ the Gulf States ϿޤǤ졤Ϣ븦ϸߤ³Ǥ롥
ΰϢθΤʤǡ1949ǯ Kurath Ǥ A Word Geography of the Eastern United States ϸߤǤפϰ̤Ƥ롥Kurath ϸäʬۤ˴ŤƥꥫѸޤ18ξʬ Northern, Midland, Southern 3ĤˤޤȤʲϡCrystal (245) ϿޤȤ˺ Kurath ʬϿޤǤ롥

ꥫζʬˡˤ͡ذƤƤꡤߤǤ䤨ʤ Kurath ζʬˡϴܤȤƲƤꥫѸʬˤĤƤϡBaugh and Cable (376ff) 褯ޤȤޤäƤ롥
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ѸǷƻӵ顤ǾΤˡ(1) -er, -est Ȥղäˡȡ(2) more, most Ȥ֤ˡΡ礭ʬ̤꤬ꤦ롥
̤ (1) ( inflection )(2) ( periphrasis ) ȸƤ֤Kytö (1) ϼºݤˤ϶ޤϴؤäƤʤȤ (123)ǤϵϾάƤ뤬-er, -est ޤǤʤȤ뺬ϡ餯 (a) ٤Ƥηƻ졦줬Ӥ櫓ǤϤʤ(b) ηƻ졦ϱŪˤӵ顤Ǿ줺(c) ˤηƻ졦ϱǤղäǤ롤ʤɤʬۤФ餱ƤΤǡ-er, -est ղäʸˡŪɬܤǤפȤȤֶޡפȤߤʤΤϤդ路ʤȤȤʤΤǤϤʤ
ǡCarstairs-McCarthy ˤ -er, -est ϶ޤȸƤ֤٤Ȥ
The justification for saying that comparative and superlative forms of adjectives belong to inflectional rather than to derivational morphology is that there are some grammatical contexts in which comparative or superlative adjectives are unavoidable, anything else (even if semantically appropriate) being ill-formed: (41)
ϡޤȸƤ뤿ˤϡ٤ƤδϢˤʸˡŪɬܤǤʤФʤΤ뤤ϤʬˤʸˡŪɬܤǤФ褤ΤȤǤ롥㤨Сʸ pretty Ѥ褦ȤʤʸˡŪ prettier ˤʤФʤʤ
This girl is prettier/*pretty than that girl.
ʸ̮Ǥϡ-er ʸˡŪɬܤǤ뤫ޤȸƤǺ٤ʤ褦˻פ롥beautiful ѤΤǤСmore ˤ뱪ˡǤʤФʤʤ
This girl is more beautiful/*beautifuler/*beautiful than that girl.
Ǥ -er ʸˡŪɬܤǤʤɤʸˡŪǧʤ櫓ǡΤ褦 pretty beautiful ʤɸ֤褦Ǥ϶ޤȤʤΤǤϤʤȤΤ Kytö
줬 -er ȤΤ more ȤΤζ̤ΤˤĤΤǤСθ¤ˤơ췲ˤƤ -er ղäʸˡŪɬܤȤȤˤʤꡤޤȸƤӤ뤳ȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤΤʶ̤ʤΤ[2010-06-04-1]ǤҤ٤ȤǤ롥ޤȸƤ٤뤫ɤϡŪΤ褦
Kytö, Merja. " 'The best and most excellentest way': The Rivalling Forms of Adjective Comparison in Late Middle and Early Modern English." Words: Proceedings of an International Symposium, Lund, 25--26 August 1995, Organized under the Auspices of the Royal Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities and Sponsored by the Foundation Natur och Kultur, Publishers. Ed. Jan Svartvik. Stockholm: Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien, 1996. 123--44.
Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew. An Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2002. 134.
[2009-06-17-1]ǥɥ衼åѸ²ηޤǺܤܸ̾ɽȤǤƤߤäƺ¦ centum 롼ס¦ satem 롼 ( see [2009-08-05-1] )碌ΡɤĤǤFlashäΤǡˤɤ
餿ưޤʬäȤϡͽˤäƸν°֤ۤʤ롤̾λˤʤܸ̾ɽɤ줬ʤɡ̤ääꤹ¿ȤȡηȤΤΤȼ´ ( see [2010-05-01-1] )
ʿޤåȳ
첻 ( The Great Vowel Shift ; see [2009-11-18-1] ) Ǥϡ̾ /ɛ:/ /i:/ ؤʳ徺ʳ徺ʤä㳰Ȥ break, great, steak ʤɤθ줬äȤ [2009-11-19-1], [2009-11-20-1] ǸGVS ϤȸνϤ٤ȡʳФ褦˸췲¾ˤ⤢롥
ɸ˷ǤϡѸǤϤ줾 brer, quer, frere, noumper(e) ȤƸƤθǸ r ȼäĹ첻Ϥ /e:/ äΤǡGVS ˤнϤ /i:/ ȤʤϤºݤˤϤ˰ʳʤ첻 /aɪ/ ȤƸ˻äƤ롥̾ȯŸ beer, career, cheer, deer, here, mere, peer, severe, sincere, steer ʤ¿θȿǤƤꡤ嵭ξθ췲 /e:/ > /i:/ > /aɪ/ ʳФΤפ㳰ȹͤʤ롥
frer ʤɤθ췲ˤĤĴ٤ƤߤȡǤѸ־夲פФ۷ frir Ԥ줿פꡤΤ褦ʰ۷ GVS ϤˤʤäΤǤϤʤȹͤ롥ʤθ췲ǤΤߡ־夲פ줿۷̲Τ̤ȤʳФ褦˸ȤơƱͤ break, great, steak ˤ⼨ͿƤ뤫⤷ʤ
Ѹ friar ϡƥ frāter ե frère ФѸ frer ȤäƤΤ嵭Τ褦ʳФǤꡤ/a:/ /aɪ/ ޤǸιȤ롥Ʊͤˡ*non-pār > *no(u)mper > noumpere > umpire ĹιʤߤˡθΡֿȽפΰ̣ϡ츻 non-peer ƱǤʤԡפǤ뤳ȤͤǼǤƬ n ξü16ʬ ( metanalysis ) ˤäΤȤƤ ( a noumpere > an oumpere )
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ185ǡ
ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ107ǡ
ε[2010-07-23-1]˰³postvocalic r ꡥ[2010-06-07-1]Ǹ褦ŵŪʥꥫѸǤ postvocalic r ȯ뤬ɤξƱͤˡꥫǤŵæ¸ߤ롥 (33) ˤȡꥫѸ rhotic ʬۤϰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

ѤǤȥɤ non-rhotic Ψճ㤫äΤФꥫ rhotic Ψ⤤äƤ뻲ʸϤǤ˸ŤȤȤȤƤꥫѸüԤ 2/3 3/4 ۤɤ rhotic ǤȤ⤢롥New England New York CityᥭѴˤƤϰ褬ꥫǤϥޥʡ non-rhotic ϰǤȤȤΤäƤȤϱѸŪˤϽפǤ롥ȤΤϡ non-rhotic ϰϡǤ non-rhotic Ƥ뤤 non-rhotic ĤĤäΰ̱濴Ȥʤäƿ̱ϰǤ롥ǡ rhotic ϰϡ General American ȸƤФƤȤ褽פŪˤ rhotic Ǥäѹϰ褫ΰ̱ˤäƼ˳ƤϰǤ롥ꥹǤ r ʬۤȰ̱ˤͤ碌ȡꥫǤ r ʬۤϹKrapp ( Vol. 2, 228 ) ϡƤ r ʬۤ礬ǤϤʤŪʷѾ ( inheritance ) ˴ŤƤ뤳ȤοƤ ( see [2009-12-21-1], [2009-12-23-1] )
. . . one must be assured that the weakening of [r] in America was really an older dialectal phenomenon, a trait of speech which did not develop on American soil in the eighteenth century, but one which went back, as a common inheritance of both British and American speech, to an early colonial custom in America.
äȤ⡤[2010-06-07-1]Ǹ Labov θ椬̤ꡤߤǤŪʥꥫ non-rhotic ϰǤ r ʹ褦ˤʤäƤƤ褦
ȡرѸIIIB١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Krapp, George Philip. English Language in America. 2 vols. New York: Century, 1925.
[2010-06-07-1]ε New York City r ˤĤƿ줿ϥɤˤ r 夲롥ŵŪ˥ꥹѸǤϡarm far ʤ첻 r ( postvocalic r ) ȯʤ ( non-rhotic ) Ȥ롥ϥꥹѸ̤ƤϤޤ櫓ǤϤʤåȥɤ䥢ɤǤ r ʹ뤷¤ϥɤǤ rhotic ϰΤۤѤȤƤϹʲϡarm ȤŪʬۤɤϿޤǤ ( Trudgill, pp. 25--28 )

ɥȤ˸äƤ non-rhotic ϰ褬äƤ뤬䥹åȥɤ˶ᤤμդǤ rhotic ȯʹ롥Ͽ (r) ǼƤ뾮Ǥϡñ rhotic non-rhotic ۤʤϰǤ롥
ȤȤϥɤǤ⤹٤Ƥϰ r ȯƤֻ <r> ĤäƤ뤳Ȥ⤽Τ褦˹ͤΤǤ롥Ȥ250ǯۤˡɥն r æȤѲΥɥնȯͤγؤȾ˹ꡤϤθä˥褦˳礷ƤäŤϺݼŪζܤˤ֤Ĥ뤳ȤǸ®ٻߤߤʬۤ˻äƤ롥ϰ r ĤäƤ뤳ȡޤˤä r ȯ̵ͭۤʤϰ褬뤳ȤϡŤȤŪˤŪˤ쵤Ÿ櫓ǤϤʤ˿ƩƤäȤ롥ɱѸˤ r æϸóȻ ( lexical diffusion ) ΰȸäƤ
ɥɸ।ꥹѸ줬 non-rhotic Ǥ뤫֥ꥹѸᥤɱѸnon-rhoticפȤƤޤ줬ΤǤ뤳Ȥ狼षѤǤߤ¤ꡤꥹѸ줢뤤ϥɱѸϤɤ餫Ȥ rhotic ǤȤ¤⤫Ӿ夬äƤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ѸνưˡΤʤǤȤ櫓ݤʤΤ shall will Ǥ롥ʸˡǤϤνưλȤʬƤꡤʸˡŵŪʹܤȤ롥Υ롼ꤷΤ17εʸˡ John Wallis Ǥ롥Wallis ( 1616--1703 ) ϡ1653ǯ˽Ǥƥˤʸˡ Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae ΤʤǡΤ褦ʻȤʬ꼰˻ޤDZƶϤݤ³Ƥ뤳Υ롼 The Wallis Rules ȸƤФƤ ( Brinton and Arnovick, p. 370--71 )
| to promise: | to question determination/obligation: | ||
| I will (go) | We will (go) | Shall I (go)? | Shall we (go)? |
| You shall (go) | You shall (go) | Will you (go)? | Will you (go)? |
| He/she/it shall (go) | They shall (go) | Shall he/she/it (go)? | Shall they (go)? |
| to predict: | to question prediction: | ||
| I shall (go) | We shall (go) | Will I (go)? | Will we (go)? |
| You will (go) | You will (go) | Shall you (go)? | Shall you (go)? |
| He/she/it will (go) | They will (go) | Will he/she/it (go)? | Will they (go)? |
űѸθä¿ޤǤ˼ƤޤäƤ뤳ȤϡѸˤǤ褯ˤ롥طʤˤϡäѸʹߡ줫Ѹ줬̤ήä֤Ȥаޤ롥ǤϡŪ˿ǤȡűѸäΤɤΤ餤ޤǤ˻䤨ɤΤ餤ѤƤΤͤˤʤͤBrinton and Arnovick (165--66) ˷ǺܤƤΤǾҲ𤹤ʿͤεˤΥ Cassidy and Ringler (4--7) ˰ѤƤ J. F Madden and F. P. Magoun, Jr Ǥˡ
űѻǤκ1,000ΤȾĶۤɤθ줷˻ĤäƤʤ
űѸäκ100Τ76%˻ĤäƤ롥
űѸˤä100%ֻ82%̾80%³75%˻ĤäƤ롥
ٸ䵡ǽۤɻ¸Ψ⤤ȤȤϡθ췲뵡ʤ¾줫μѸִˤȤˤդ˸СƸ̾졤ư졤ƻ졤ˤƱͤפȤС䤨οŪäȤͽۤǤ롥
űѸθäޤǻ¸ƤǤ⡤̣֤ܸۤűѸΤޤޤǤȤݾڤϤʤin, word, fæst "fast", nū "now" ʤɤϰ̣֤ۤܤΤޤޤǼѤƤ뤬brēad "bit" ( not "bread" ), sellan "to give" ( not "to sell" ) ʤɤϰ̣ѲƤ롥ޤűѸΰ̣֤¤줿Ѱ ( register ) ǤΤʤ館Ƥ륱⾯ʤʤ㤨СűѸ gāst ֺפΰ̣ϡѸǤ the Holy Ghost פȤꥹȶѸȤƸŪĤäƤ˲Ūʰ̣ϡͩפǤ롥
⤷˸űѸ̣ѰѲФƱȤߤʤʤȤΤǤСűѸäλ¸Ψ㤯ʤ뤳ȤǯĶ֤ΤʤǤϡѲʤȹͤ٤⤷ʤ
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Cassidy, Frederic G and Richard N. Ringer, eds. Bright's Old English Grammar and Reader. 3rd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971.
ε[2010-07-19-1]˰³Vendryes θѤ⤦Ĥΰݿ̵ǡ֤椯Ϥή䤨ơפȤݤǤ롥
The construction of a written language marks a stopping-place in the development of language. The forms crystallize and ossify, losing the elasticity natural to life. It is an illusion, however, to imagine that language can ever be arrested. What gives this impression of arrest is the fact that an artificial language is superposed on the natural one; the discrepancy between the two, slight at first, becomes increasingly greater in the course of time, until eventually the contrast becomes so marked that there is a break. This creation of written language may be compared to the formation of a film of ice on the surface of a river. The ice borrows its substance from the river, it is indeed the actual water of the river itself---and yet it is not the river. A child, seeing the ice, thinks that the river exists no more, that its course has been arrested. But this is only an illusion. Under the layer of ice the water continues to flow down to the plain. Should the ice break, one sees the water suddenly bubble up as it goes gushing and murmuring on its way. This is an image of the stream of language. The written tongue is the film of ice upon its waters; the stream which still flows under the ice that imprisons it is the popular and natural language; the cold which produces the ice and would fain restrain the flood, is the stabilizing action exerted by the grammarians and pedagogues; and the sunbeam which gives language its liberty is the indomitable force of life, triumphing over rules and breaking the fetters of tradition. (275--76)
ǤϡŪʽդȼäդ¿ȿΤǤʤ顤ξԤΤȤʤäƸȤƤȤѤ̤ĥäɹȤβήήȤǹߤ̤Ƥ롥ϤˤäƸ경줿ɹؤϿήˤ빿˸Ư뤬ɹβοήΤΤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤषɹ줿֤ȿήΤۤȤФͭͤѻΤǤꡤưɹβǤƤΤȤ¾ξ˱ơɹʤ뤳Ȥ⤢СɹϤƤʤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢
ȤǤСƥϤޤǴɹĥäȹͤ롥ѸϤȤɤɹ⤫ǤɸѸϤäȤߤΤɹĥäƤ뤬¤ϤβήȤä
[2010-06-01-1]εǿ줿ŪʡָȤŴϤǤꤹ벹٤ϲפȤ䤤פФ롥
Vendryes, J. Language: A Linguistic Introduction to History. Trans. Paul Radin. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1925.
[2010-07-03-1]εǡѲ켫ΤϿǤǤʤܤѤäƤ椯ȤȰʳβΤǤʤȤȤѸˤʤɤθˤȡѲ˰礭ή졤ɺή ( drift ) 褦˸뤳ȤϳΤϰηǤꡤŪŪ ( teleological ) ̣ŪǤϤʤˤĤƤϡĹ浭٤Ƭǡ֤椯Ϥή䤨ơ⡤Ȥοˤ餺ߤ֤ϡľäķӤơפȤɤޤꤿʤ
Vendryes ̾κǸʲΰ⡤ѲޤäȤꤷƤ롥ϸߤμҲŪʽװȲθŪʰ仺Ȥݤ蘆뤳Ȥˤäơή褦ѲƤΤȤ̵Ѥɤ롥϶ݿ
We can now see how the hypothesis of progress in language must be understood. Progress in the absolute sense is impossible, just as it is in morality or politics. It is simply that different states exist, succeeding each other, each dominated by certain general laws imposed by the equilibrium of the forces with which they are confronted. So is it with language. In the history of languages a certain relative progress can be observed. Languages may be adapted in a greater or lesser degree to certain states of civilization. Progress consists in the best possible adaptation of a language to the needs of the people using it. But, however real this progress may be, it is never definitive. The characteristics of a language are maintained just so long as the people speaking it preserve the same habits of thought; and they are liable to modification and degeneration, or to complete disappearance. It is quite wrong to think of language as an ideal entity evolving independently of men and pursuing its own ends. Language does not exist apart from the people who think and speak it; its roots go deep into the consciousness of each one of us; thence it is that it draws the sustenance enabling it to blossom in speech. But personal consciousness is only one of the elements of the collective consciousness whose laws are imposed upon every individual. The evolution of language thus constitutes only one aspect of the evolution of society: we should not see in it anything in the nature of direct advance toward a definite goal. The task of the philologist comes to an end when he has recognized in language the play of social forces and the influence of history. (359)
Vendryes, J. Language: A Linguistic Introduction to History. Trans. Paul Radin. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1925.
ε[2010-07-17-1]DZƤʸ <z> ꤢåȥɷϤο̾ˤĤƱѸ˾ <z> ˤޤĤ붽̣ä ( Scragg, p. 23 ) ɸλĤο̾Ϥ <z> ޤǤꡤȯϤ줾 /ˈdælziəl/, /məˈkɛnzi/, /ˈmɛnziz/ /z/ ȼäȯΤ/z/ ȼʤṲ̄ȯ⤢ΤǤ롥ԤϤ줾 /diˈɛl/, /məˈkɛni/ ʸߤǤϤۤѡ, /ˈmɪŋɪs/ ȯ롥
礦ɾ֤פʤΤ֤פʤΤȽ̤Ĥʤ褦ˡMenzies ֻǤ /ˈmɛnziz/ ʤΤ /ˈmɪŋɪs/ ʤΤʬʤȤʼºݤ˥åȥɤǤϳعƱ饹ˡĤΰۤʤȯ Menzies 뤳ȤȤˡ
ʤΤ褦ʾˤʤäƤ뤫뤿ˤϡѸֻΤɬפ롥űѸ衤"yogh" /joʊk, joʊx/ ȸƤФʸ <ʒ> ŸɽΤѤƤŪˤ [j], [x] ʤɤβб˲˱ <y> <gh> ִ뤳ȤȤʤä¿ӤʸǤ롥ѸǤδؤä <ʒ> ѸΰѤȯŸȼäƿष¾ʸִ뤳ȤȤʤää˥åȥɤǤϡȯб뤫ȤͳǤϤʤΤƤ뤫Ȥͳǡ<z> ФִȤʤä<z> ξʸɮΤפ⤫٤СΤ餫̾ʤɤ <ʒ> <z> νä̡ߤ <Dalziel>, <MacKenzie>, <Menzies> Ȥֻޤ줿
դˤФȤȤ <Dalʒel>, <MacKenʒie>, <Menʒes> ʤɤ֤ƤȤȤǤꡤ <ʒ> ɽϤ줾ͭŸ [j] ͭ [ɣ] ˶ᤤäȹͤ롥ȯΤޤߤޤǤȯŸƤΤ嵭ŪȽҤ٤ȯǤꡤ<z> ȼŪȯֻ <z> ڤؤäƤֻȯ ( spelling-pronunciation ) ȤȤˤʤ롥
ˤĤƤϡBBC ε Why is Menzies pronounced Mingis? ˤ⤷
ΤƤ뤬椨˺ѤκѤ̾ĤߤˤޤǻĤäƤƱͤȤƤϡ[2009-05-11-2]εǼꤢ "thorn" <y> 롥
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
[2010-05-05-1], [2010-05-06-1]ǥե٥åȤ <u> <v> ˤĤƽҤ٤ϱѸǺǤ֤ξʤ¸ߴʸ <z> ˤ롥
<z> ٤ʸǤ뤳Ȥϡ[2010-03-01-1]Ƿڤ줿BNC Word Frequency Lists lemma.num ˤ6318ñꥹȤ <z> ޤñȴФƤߤȡʲ36ΤߤǤ롥ʸΥޥʡ褯狼롥ʽɽϤΥڡHTMLȡ
size, organization, recognize, realize, magazine, citizen, prize, organize, zone, seize, gaze, freeze, emphasize, squeeze, gaze, amazing, crazy, criticize, horizon, hazard, breeze, characterize, ozone, horizontal, enzyme, bronze, jazz, bizarre, frozen, organizational, citizenship, dozen, privatization, puzzle, civilization, lazy
<z> ĸΤǺѤ size Ǥ716̤Ȥ㤵ǡ1000̰äƤΤϤθǤ롥ƮƤΤ<z> ĤäƤ jazz puzzle Ǥ롥
<z> ʬۤˤĤƵŤȤϡꥷͳμѸ줬¿ȡ-ize / -ization(al) Ĥ뤳 ([2010-02-26-1], [2010-03-07-1]) ñ˸뤳Ȥ<z> Ѹ졤ä˥ꥷ줫μѸȴϢŤƤȤȤϡʸθǤ learned ʥ۵롥<z> ΤĶ꤬䡤ޤ٤㤵ȤطƤǡνɽˤϿ㤷Ƥʤñ <z> 褯и뤳Ȥ craze, daze, laze, maze, doze, assize, freeze, wheeze ʤɤڤ롥֤ɽ줬¿褦Ǥ롥
<z> ϸűѸˤ⤢ˤϤäElizabeth ʤɤθͭ̾ʤɤ˸¤졤ϤޥʡäűѸǤ /z/ ϲǤȤƤ¸ߤƤ/s/ ΰ۲Ȥ¸ߤƤ˲ʤΤǡбʸ <z> ѤɬפʤäȤȤͳΰĤǤ롥Ѹˤʤ <z> ¿Ѥե줫̤μѸ줬ήˤĤ <z> Ѥ뵡<v> ξȰۤʤꡤۤɰ̲ʤäǤ price prize ʤɤ minimal pair ֻǤ̤Ǥ褦ˤʤäΤϡ<z> ξʹΤ褦ϤޤǡǤ <s> /s/ /z/ ξɽʸȤƳƤꡤ㤨̾ȤƤ house ưȤƤ house ֻ̤Ĥ뤳ȤǤʤʤɤȤؤˤ⤫餺<z> ФФ뤳ȤϤʤ<z> Կ͵ϡShakespeare ǤڤƤ ( Scragg, p. 8 )
Thou whoreson zed! thou unnecessary letter! ( Shakespeare, King Lear, Act II, Scene 2 )
Shakespeare Ʊֻͤ˴ؿ Richard Mulcaster ([2010-07-12-1]) ϡ<z> Կ͵ϻΤˤȤˤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Z, is a consonant much heard amongst vs, and seldom sene. I think by reason it is not so redie to the pen as s, is, which is becom lieutenant generall to z, as gase, amase, rasur, where z, is heard, but s, sene. It is not lightlie expressed in English, sauing in foren enfranchisments, as azur, treasur. ( The First Part of the Elementarie, p. 123 )
Ѹˤ̤ơ<z> ӸӤȤϤʤ¸߰յǤʤ顤֤Ȥե٥åȤæĤäƤΤꥷѸ졤ä -ize / -izationư찮ñȤ¤줿ꥢ˻ٻפľޤΤ褦¸ߴ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
Mulcaster, Richard. The First Part of the Elementarie. Menston: Scolar Reprint 219, 1582. (downloadable here from OTA)
˹Ÿ pidgin creole ⤽ɤΤ褦ˤĤƤϡϤʤϤΥԥ䥯쥪줬ʤŪ˶¿ΤȤȤ碌ƽ⤬ƤƤ뤬Jenkins Todd ˴ŤƼäޤȤƤΤǡüŪˤޤȤƤߤ礭ʬơñ쵯 ( monogenesis ) ¿ ( polygenesis ) ס ( universal/synthetic theory ) λब롥Υå̾Τϡ䤬ˤ狼䤹ĤΡ
The independent parallel development theory ʲؼ¸
ԥ䥯쥪Τ褦ʺϤ줾ΩȯǺϡ褽̤ƥ衼åѤνեꥫνʤɤǤꡤҲʪ̤äƤΤǡǤäɤƤΤϼǤ롥Ĥޤꡤؼ¸ˤơ碌ʪ褦ʤΤǤꡤ¸ĶƤΤǤСȤ̡ξǼ¸Ƥ⡤ǤäʪϤ褽ƤȤȯۡ¿⡥
The nautical jargon theory ʺκ
衼åѤΰۤʤҤҳ˥ߥ˥Ȥȯã줬ȤˤʤäȤ⡥ˤСեꥫʤɤο͡ܤˡäƤߤǥ衼åѸפȤ뺮줬ǤäƤȤˤʤ롥ʤҳѸ濴Ȥä˭٤ǡθäˤȤʤäեꥫʤɤػޤ졤˸ϤθȺ٥衼åѤθɤΤƤӥ衼åѰʳθȺƤǤȹͤΤǡκȸƤӤ̤ҳä¿Υԥ졤쥪˸뤳Ȥٻ뺬ȤʤäƤ롥ðʳΩŪȯŸȹͤΤǡ¿ȤäƤ褤
The theory of monogenesis and relexification ʸԥ
礦ɰ줬ĤβŪʸ ( Proto-Indo-European ) ̤ȲꤷƤ褦ˡϤΥԥ졤쥪 Proto-Pidgin ȤǤƤ֤٤Υԥ̤Ȥ⡥ԥκͭϸϡ泤ǽʼΤԤζ̸Ȥʤä Sabir ȸƤФǤϤʤȤ롥줬15餤˥ݥȥ줫äơݥȥǤ Sabir Ȥʤꡤեꥫ˱Ф줿˥ݥȥϤꤨˤäơݥȥ Sabir ¾θˤäƸä֤졤Ѹ Sabirڥ Sabirե Sabir Sabir ʤɤѼ郎ޤ줿ݥȥ Sabir ˤäȤȤϡݥȥǤѼˤ⡤saber "know" pequeno "little; offspring" ʤɥݥȥͳ褹줬뤳Ȥ¬롥٤ƤΥԥ졤쥪ϡäִƤԥȹͤȤñ쵯Ǥ롥
The baby-talk theory ֤
̸⤿ʤüԤɤߥ˥ޤȤߤˤñȯʸˡäѤ뷹롥ϸդʤĻäȤά˻Ƥ롥θ줬ƱǤȤ֤˷ä뤫Τ褦˶٤ñ㲽줬ߤ˻ƤΤǤ롥⡥
A synthesis ñ㲽
ܿθǤϡŪʸάäñ㲽εǽưθ줬Ǥ褦ñ㲽βȷ̤ȤˤϡƸǽϤĥҥȤˤϡŪʸư߷ޤߤƤ ( innate behavioral blueprint ) Ȥͤˤ롥ϤΥԥȥ쥪ˤĤ input ȤʤäϰۤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤʡ¿ˡ process 뵡 bioprogram ȤƥҥȤŪʤʤ̡ˤʤΤǡʡñ쵯ˡ̤Ȥ output 褽Ƥȹͤ롥¿ñ쵯 ( synthesis ) סǤ롥
Todd, L. Pidgins and Creoles. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 1990.
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2009.
ѸˤĤƸȤ˺ƤϤʤʤˡpidgin creole 롥ܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤ꤢƤĤϰ˰뤳Ȥ¿⤽ΤϤŪˤ pidgin ȯŸ creole ǤƤꡤξԤϷޤȤǤȿƻҴطˤ뤫pidgin creole ˤĤƤϡ绨ĤˤäƸԤΤǹդ롥ȤơWardhaugh βѤ褦
A pidgin is a language with no native speakers: it is no one's first language but is a contact language. That is, it is the product of a multilingual situation in which those who wish to communicate must find or improvise a simple language system that will enable them to do so. . . In contrast to a pidgin, a creole, is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers. . . A creole, therefore, is a 'normal' language in almost every sense. (Wardhaugh 2006: 61-3 quoted in Jenkins 11)
Ȥƽȯԥ줬ҶˤäȤƳȥ쥪ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ȤƳ줿ξԤδ֤˸Ūʰ㤤ϤۤȤɤʤüԤɤλѤդƤ椯ȥ쥪ϼ˸ŪˤϤƤ롥䤬ƤϡǤʤ¾̾θӤۤɤʣʸηϤĸؤȯŸ롥äơ쥪ȥԥϡüԤ̵ͭˤäơ˸˸ηϤʣ̵ͭˤäƶ̤ȹͤƤ褤
ȤƤϾ嵭Τ褦Ǥ褤ŪˤϤˤޤƤϤޤʤ㤬롥[2010-06-13-1], [2010-06-14-1] ǿ줿 Cameroon Pidgin English 䡤¾ Tok Pisin ΤĤѼǤϡüԤҶβߤʤˡηϤʣƤƤȤ¤롥ҶüԤͿʤΤϥ쥪ǤϤʤȤˤʤ뤬̾Υ쥪Ʊͤ˸ηϤʣƤƤ櫓Ǥꡤΰ⤷¾Υ쥪ȤߤʤΤǤС̾ Pidgin Pisin ȤΤϺ
¤ˤϡԥ줬Ƥޤʤ쥪첽뤳Ȥ⤢С٥ԥȤưꤷƤ饯쥪첽뤳Ȥ⤢롥ޤԥȤưꤷȯŸƤ褦䤯쥪첽뤳Ȥ⤢롥Τ褦 creolisation ΥߥϤޤޤΤ褦ǡ⤽ⲿäơְסȯŸס֥쥪첽פȤߤʤΤ[2010-05-17-1]ǸȤꡤGuyanese Creole ظ ( acrolect ) αѸΤڤܤʤŪϢ³ΤʤƤΤƱͤˡԥȥ쥪ζܤޤŪˤϢ³ΤʤƤȹͤΤ
Wardhaugh, R. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 5th ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2009.
ε[2010-07-13-1]ǡѲθˤϸŪʤΤȸ쳰ŪʤΤȽҤ٤װߴطʣǤ롥ˤĤƤϻռƹͤ³ƤBrinton and Arnovick μΰɤǾä
Scholars generally agree that external causes of change are less important than internal causes; in fact, some argue that the external ones do not 'cause' change at all, but simply speed up changes already underway in the language, exploiting imbalances or weaknesses already present in the internal system of the language, and encouraging the choice of one variant form over another. This view may underplay the extensiveness of the changes brought about by external influences, which operate indirectly over long periods of time and are difficult to assess, but the argument is nevertheless a useful antidote to the popular view, which tends to attribute far too many changes to external causes. (59)
Ū쳰ŪξװˤĤơԤΤۤԤ "important" ǤȤƱդ褽Դ֤˹ߤȤΤľäƤΤ褦ʤȤϽʹषθ "the popular view" ˶ŪװϸѲξΩƤƤˤ쳰ŪװѲ©ߡͿ̤ΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ
ΤˡΰˤȤꡤǤ˸Ū˻ưƤѲܿʤɤγŪװˤ®ȤϡѸˤˤ¿롥㤨СѸθξüȤտ魯θ경ȤѸ˾礭ʸѲϡŪװˤäƻϤޤꡤťΥɸեȤܿȤ쳰Ūװˤä¥ʤ줿ȤΤŪ˼ƤǤ롥ξ硤Brinton and Arnovick θǤϡθѲװȤƤפʤΤϸŪװǤꡤ쳰ŪװϤޤǤ¥ʤȤˤʤΤθǤϡŪװѲʹԤƤ椯ΤΩƤƤˤ¼Ū˿䤷ʤΤϸ쳰ŪװǤȤˤʤ롥ƱݤΤĤβȤȤˤʤ롥
ΰոϡѲװˤĤƲä "important" ȤߤʤȤ˴ԸΤǤϤʤѲѰ۷ ( variants ) ¸ߤΤǤСѰ۷װפȤȤˤʤ롥ơѰ۷װˤϡŪʤΤ⤢и쳰ŪʤΤ⤢롥ɤξԤŪʽ٤¬뤳ȤǤΤʤȤ⤽ǸԴ֤ƱդȤϻפBriton and Arnovick ΰո˵Ǥ롥
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Ѳʤ뤫θˤĤƤ͡ʸ椬ʤƤѲ causation ˴ؤϡŪˤϸդεǤ롥뤤ϺƤѲѻڵ鲿ȿ¬롥¿ξ硤Τ褦˿¬줿θѲˤĤƤΤͭǤꡤ̤ѲŬѤꡤѲͽ¬ΤˤΩʤޤۤܤ٤ƤθѲˤƸϰĤǤϤʤʣθʣŪȤ߹蘆äƤȹͤ졤causation εǤϰΩˤ
Ūˤ¿θѲƤϤޤȹͤ뷹ϤꡤʬवƤ롥ʬФ꤬ʤŪƱդƤȻפΤϡŪ ( language-internal ) ʸȸ쳰Ū ( language-external ) ʸȤʬǤ롥Brinton and Arnovick ( 56--62 ) ˽äơɽŪʸվ褦ĤιܤˡϢ륭ɤܥ֥ؤΥդ
Language-Internal Causes
[ üԤ褽̵ռŪ ]
ease of articulation ( assimilation )
perceptual clarity ( dissimilation )
phonological symmetry ( [2009-11-27-1] )
universal tendencies
efficiency or transparency
[ üԤ褽ռŪ ]
spelling pronunciation ( spelling_pronunciation )
hypercorrection
overgeneralization
analogy ( analogy )
renewal
reanalysis ( reanalysis, metanalysis )
Language-External Causes
contact-induced language change ( contact )
extreme language mixture ( leading to pidgins, creoles, and bilingual mixed languages ) ( pidgin, creole )
language death ( language_death )
ŪʸˤĤƤϡüԤѲˤĤ̵ռŪʤΤռŪʤΤʬƤ뤬ռ̵ͭ٤ʤΤŪʴˤϤʤʤ
Ϣ뵭Ȥơ[2010-07-01-1], [2010-06-01-1]ε⻲ȡ
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
[2010-07-06-1]ε <oa> ֻȤδϢ Richard Mulcaster Ȥ̾˿줿ϱѸֻˤˤ뤳νʪҲ𤷤
Richard Mulcaster (1530?--1611) ϡMerchant-Taylors' School ιĹƸˤ St. Paul's School ιĹǤ16ȾΥɶ鳦νäǤ롥 Edmund Spenser λդǤ⤢äζ϶äۤɸŪǡդؤΩդȵͿꡤ褤դ˺ǯôˡդȿƤδط˴Ťꥭʤɡ250ǯˤ褦䤯̤˼뤳ȤˤʤϤŪưѸֻפˤؿϤᡤ1582ǯݼɤɽ The First Part of the Elementarie äʸˡϤä The Second Part ϽǤʤäˡ
16첻 ( Great Vowel Shift ) ʹǡֻȯЪΥ꤬ﲽϤƤ¿ؼ ( orthoepist ) ڽФ礭ʬƵɤݼɤʬƤɤϡʸ첻˸̩б褦ʸηϤܻؤɽ̾βˡʸʸλȤƤJohn Cheke (1514--57)Thomas Smith (1513--77), John Hart (d. 1574), William Bullokar (1530?--1590?) ʤɤɤɽŪԤǤ롥
ФơŪŪֻ˸경δĤФȤ븽¨ȤΤݼɤǡRichard Mulcaster ɮƬˡ1594ǯ Grammatica Anglicana P. Gr. ʤʪ ( Paulo Graves? ) 1596ǯ English Schoole-Maister E. Coote ʤɤŪɽϩϤˤؼŪǤ뤬ФݼŪʸϩȤ Mulcaster ֻȯΤޤɽȤϤʤȤۤäƤֻȯδطܼȴƤΤǤ롥̤ȤƤϡݼɤθŪϩȰȼԤ˻ٻ졤Coote ڤȤ⤢äơֻפ褻줿17ȾޤǤˤֻϤ褽Τ˸경ƤȹͤƤ褤18ˤ褬dzݼɤ Samuel Johnson ˤ A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) ˤꡤֻϤܸۤξ֤ظ경ѸֻηϤϤȤ⤫ȤơΥ졼ߤʪȤ Mulcaster αѸ˾礭äȤ
Mulcaster ϡɤϤĤϤ Elizabeth īλˡѸΩۤ˳οäԤäαѸФ뿮ȼϡ The First Part of the Elementarie μͭ̾ʸɽƤ롥
I loue Rome, but London better, I fauor Italie, but England more, I honor the Latin, but I worship the English.
Mulcaster, Richard. The First Part of the Elementarie. Menston: Scolar Reprint 219, 1582. (downloadable here from OTA)
Ѹ;ñ̾줬ƾΤ thou ȷɾΤ you ǸŪ˻ȤʬƤȤˤĤơϢ٤äƤ ([2009-10-11-1], [2009-10-29-1], [2010-02-12-1], [2010-03-26-1]) ζ̤1660ǯ餤ޤǤˤܾۤüyou ̲ߡĤƤοƾ thou ѤɽϡʸΤǤΤ߸벽ŪɽȹͤƤ褤ǤϡĤƤηɾ you βŪɽϲ餫ηǸѸ˻ĤäƤ
ŪǤϤʤ⤷ʤ̤οͤؤθƤӤ you ˡʲΤ褦ɽʹ롥ʸǻϤ졤ưϻ;ñǸƱ롥̾ you ȤƼ뤳Ȥ⤢Сhe she ȤƼ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤӤƤʤ
Your Majesty Ųסʷ
Your Excellency ֳղסȡλġʶʶʤɡ
Your Grace ֳղɲסʸߡʶʤɡ
Your Highness ²סʹ²
Your Lordship ֳղסʸߤΤ²綵Ƚʤɡ
Your Honour ֳղסȽʤɡ
Your Worship ֳղסʼȽĹʤɡ
Your ϤĤƤηɾΤ you νͭʤǤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ ( Svartvik and Leech, p. 211) Your Majesty εϥƥ vestra maiestas ̤ꡤޥ䥲ޥ˹äѸǤ15鸫뤬夷Τ17Ǥ롥
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
űѸ¿ζѲư줬λ˼Ѳʵ§ˤƤäȤˤơޤȤäƤȤˡcome ϸűѸ줫鸽Ѹ˻ޤǶѲԵ§ˤΤޤޤ welcome ϸǤϼѲʵ§ưˤʤäƤΤԻĤȤˤʤäΤˡñȹưѲϰפΤ̤Ǥ ( ex. come -- came -- come Ф overcome -- overcame -- overcomeget -- got -- got(ten) Ф forget -- forgot -- forgot(ten) ) welcome ϥɥĸ Willkommenե bienvenue ǤʬȤꡤwell + come ΤϤʤΤˡʤ *welcame ˤʤʤΤ
褷褦 welcome θ츻Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡ⤽ welcome θ츻פ㤤ƤȤʬäޤ wel ϡ well ǤϤʤ̾ will "desire, pleasure, will" б롥 come ϡư come ǤϤʤ "comer" ̣ OE ̾ cuma б롥OE cuma ȤϳΤư cuman "come" ͳ褹뤬ư줽ΤΤǤϤʤư̾͡ҿ͡פбȤΤääơwelcome OE ̾ wilcuma ˾ޤҿ͡Фˬԡפ̤ȤȤˤʤ OE ư -a ˲вƻĤäƤȤƤ welcome ϵŤǤˡҿͤ˸ä wilcuma! ȸƤӤȤ顤ȤƤΡ֤褦פΰ̣˷ƻȤƤΡ֤褯褿ޤ롤Фפȯã OE 鸫ˡǤ롥ճʤȤˡThank you ФȤƤ You're welcome 20ˤʤäƤ˿ɽǤ롥
ơOE ʳǤǤ wilcuma ˾ޤҿ͡פϡ˾ޤҿͤȤƷޤ롤褦ȰפȤ̣ưƤOE ŵŪư -ian ǤꡤΤ褦줿ưɬѲȤƳѤwilcumian ϡζѲư cuman "come" ȸ츻ŪˤϴϢŤʤ⡤ˤäƤǤưʤΤǼѲưȤߤϤΤǤ롥äơOE Ǥβ wilcumode줬 welcomed ȤƼѤƤ
ޤȤȡѸư come 궯Ѳưäwelcome ư̾줫ѲưäȤȤˤʤ롥衼åѤζ٤νб줬Τϡ줾Ωȯȹͤ⡤ߤδ֤˼Ѥäȹͤ롥
Ѹʻž ( see [2009-11-03-1] ) ˤϡ͡롥ư좪̾졤ƻ좪̾졤̾좪ư졤ƻ좪ư졤̾좪ƻ㤬Ū¿ƻ좪ưǤϡ?ˤפ뤤ϡ?ˤʤפΰդؤž calm, dirty, humble; dry, empty, narrow ʤɤ롥̣Ǥϡƥưβʬ -atus ͳ褹 -ate ¿μѸư⡤ƻ좪ưžȹͤ뤳ȤǤ ( ex. assassinate, fascinate, separate )
ȤDZʸƥȤɲˡƻӵȤѤƤ lower ưȤɤ߰㤨ȤǵŤΤӵη֤ưžȤΤǤϤʤ㤯פȤưžΤǤСӵǤϤʤΤޤޤ low ǤϤʤΤ¤ΤȤOED ˤưΤȤƤ low ϸߤǤѤ1200ǯ˸졤18ޤǻȤƤǡưȤƤ lower ϡֲפΰ̣17˽ƸƤ롥
ƻӵ餫ưž¾õȤ顤better פĤϸűѸ줫ȤƤ롥worse űѸ줫ưȤƻȤƤ19ѤȤʤäƤưĤƤΤžǤϤʤ13˽Ф worsen Ӥ褦ˡɤ佼ˡ ( suppletion ) ˤԵ§ӵפܤĤ OED ˰Ƥ椯ȡless ⸽ߤѤ13?17ޤưȤѤƤȤ狼ämore 14?15˻㤬ä
佼ˡˤӵϡб븶ȤηŪʷӤĤ夤Τǡ̸ĤθȤƸäΤʤϿƤ롤ĤޤòƤȹͤ롥㤨 better good ȤֲˤäΤǤϤʤgood ΩäȤϿƤ뤫餳ưؤžꤦΤǤϤʤդˤС佼ˡˤʤ̤ηƻ -er ӵ֤ϡ֤ȶӤĤƤΤǡžˤȤȤʤΤǤϤʤβΤ lower 㳰ȤʤäƤޤ
ͤƤߤȷƻ lower ñʤ low ӵǤϤʤȤ˵Ťlower ϡ֤㤤פȤ than ³Ǥʸ̤ΰ̣¾ˡ֡ʬ˲̤ΡסäפȤŪȯỴ̈äƤ롥Ԥΰ̣ǤνФ1590ǯǡκ lower low Ȥ̸ĤθȤƸòȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤlow lower Ϸ֤ -er ̵ͭˤ̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ뤬̣ξǤϾֵΥפȹͤ롥ϡžˤư lower 17˸ϤȤȻŪˤ礹褦˻פ롥
Ȥʤɤ ˡ§ ( Grimm's Law ) 첻 ( Great Vowel Shift ) ʤɤβѲ⤹ȡѤʵ䤬Ф롥ɤϿʤβ䲻ѲΤȤʬΤʤűѸȯ줳ǤꡤѸȯ줳ǤäȳοäƸΤ
ѲˤϲѲȤʤäƤΤ¿βϲβηϤǤ뤫ɤˤäƤ롥äơŲ˸ؤˤȤäƤؤפǤ롥οȤϴñǤϤʤŪʾڵѥΤ褦Ȥ߹碌ƿ餫ˤƤ椯Ȥ detective work Ǥ롥ǤϡŪʾڵˤϤɤΤ褦ʼΤΤΤBrinton and Arnovick (64) 6Ѥ롥
the statements of contemporary grammarians, lexicographers (dictionary makers), and other writers;
puns, word plays, and rhymes in the literature (though these must be used with caution, since the sounds of words entering into these combinations may not correspond exactly, as in slant rhymes and eye rhymes);
the representation of natural sounds in onomatopoeic words (though, again, caution is needed here because these words are at least partially conventinalized);
scribal variations and non-standard spellings that often reflect actual pronunciations;
the development of a sound in closely related languages; for example, we can use French, Spanish, and Italian to extrapolate the nature of a sound in the parent language, Latin;
the structure of the hypothesized phonological system, for we assume that such a system will be like modern sound systems in, for example, tending toward symmetry, pairing voiced and voiceless consonants or back and front vowels.
줾ɽĤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ
(1) ѻԤˤȯ˴ؤ
(2) ͷӤ䱤Χ
(3)
(4) ɸŪֻ
(5) ϢβѲ
(6) ء˴ŤѲΰŪʷ
(1) ϡ˶Ѹʹߤ˸ؼ ( orthoepist )ʸˡ ( grammarian )ؼ ( lexicographer ) ʤɤˤ쵭ҤͤˤȤΤǰ̤˿٤Ϲ⤤ȹͤ뤬ҴŪ description ǤϤʤѤκä prescription ȿǤƤ⤢ꡤ˼ƲᤷƤ褤ΤȽǤ⤢롥ϢơȤƱѸؤֿͤΤ˱Ѹʳθǽ줿ʤɤ⡤ѸεҴŪʵҤͿƤ뤳Ȥ롥(2) ϡϤѤͷӤʤɤǡľŪˤŪˤꤷȯΥҥȤͿƤ롥ΧϲΤߤʤ餺ΰ֤䲻ⶵƤ롥(3) ϡ̸Ū˵ȤƤ iconicity ⤤ȸưʪĤʤɤŵŪ onomatopoeia ֻ顤դȯꤹȤˡiconicity ⤤ȤϤ֥פ bow-wow֥åפ cock-a-doodle-doo ˰ۤʤΤդɬפǤ롥
(4) ϡɸŪֻΤʤѸ䡤ɸबΩĤĤäΤλŪʸʤɤɸֻޤȤ뤳ȤΤäѸˤơȯָƤǽ롥(5) ϡƱ²ǤβѲˤĤΩƤ狼äƤ뤳ȤСΩĤȤ롥ɤӤ뤳ȤǾڵηƤȤΤϡޤӸ ( comparative linguistics ) μפʺȤǤ롥(6) ϡͽۤ벻Ѳ̸Ūˤη̤ȤηϤ̸Ū˼Ȥäο両ڤΩġ
ƻ detective work η̡űѸѸβȤƤǤʾ塤տ뤳ȤϤǤʤ detectives ФƷɰդɽºŤ٤Ǥ뤳ȤϤޤǤʤ
Ϣơ֤ʤ֤ȯЪΥƤ椯ΤפˤĤơ[2009-06-28-2]εȡ
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ε[2010-07-06-1] <oa> ˡεꤢĤǤȤ <ea> ΤȤˤڤ줿ñĴ٤ƤߤʤȤ <ea> ˤĤƤϡֻ Flemish ⤿餵줿Ȥƣ (29) κϸĤʤäष<ea> ϸűѸͳֻ Anglo-French ͳ15αѸˤޤ졤ɸಽΤ Scragg (48) Ϥ
Scragg ˤȡ<ea> ֻϸűѸɸȤ West-Saxon ΤΤä줬12 Anglo-Norman ˼ޤ줿Anglo-Norman νդΦեˡΩ饤ɤǻȤФƤꡤä˽κ West-Saxon ֻȯãƤAnglo-Norman ˼Ѥ줿 <ea> ֻϡ15˸ʸθ줬 Anglo-Norman ѸؤȥեȤݤˡƤӱѸᤵ줿ɤɽνդ OE West-Saxon ME Anglo-Norman LME Chancery English Ѳʤǡ<ea> Ȥֻˤʤ館Ȥ¤̣
<ea> Chancery English ˼줿ˤ첻ܤ̤λäΤǡޤ /e:/ ȶ̤Ƥ /ɛ:/ ɽֻȤ <ea> ƤǤϤʤäθ夤 /i:/ ˼̤Ƥޤ <ea> Ʊ ( homophone ) ̤Ȥ̤ΤߤȤʤäƤޤäǤ⡤ˡ˳Τϰ̤ۤ夲Ƥ <ea> ϤäѤǤ롥űѸ줫鸽ѸˤޤǡļƤ⤪ʤ餤̣¸ߤäˤ⤫餺ιȤޤӤƤȤǡ<ea> ̿Ϥ
Ѹ ease, reason ФƸե aise, raison ȤۤϡԤ OE ȯ Anglo-Norman ͳȤ롼ȤäȤˤ롥ease, reason ȤñֻߤȤűѸΰϢʤ³դեѸˤ鸫ȤǤ뤳Ȥ˶̣Ф롥ʾηаޤΤäơ <ea> Ф븫ѤäʸűѸɤȤˤ⸽ѸɤȤˤˡ
people, jeopardy ʤɤ˸ <eo> ֻ⡤űѸͳ衤Anglo-Saxon ͳӤƤƱ˦Τ褦ˡ塤<ea> ۤɤϳΤϰ̤ۤƤϤʤ褦Ǥ (Scragg 49)
ƣ ʿֱѸ˹͡סسر227桤1959ǯ15--41ǡ
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
Ѹ <oa> ֻϡboat, goal, oat ʤɤΤ褦 RP /əʊ/ бΤ§Ǥ롥ME ޤǤ bot boot ֤뤳Ȥ¿äOE /a:/ ߿첻 /ɔ:/ ȡOE ³Ĥ /o:/ ȯ̤ŪǡѸˤ̤֤褦ˤʤä<oa> Ĺ첻ˡ<oo> ĤĹ첻ббĹ첻Ϥ줾첻 ([2009-11-18-1]) ˤäѲޤǤ moan moon Τ褦ȯֻΩ߽Фб첻ʻˤǤƱͤ <ea> <ee> Ωޤ줿 <ea> бĹ첻첻ܴüʿˤĤƤ[2009-11-19-1], [2009-11-20-1]ȡˡ
Τ褦 <oa> ֻ1570ǯΰȼԤϤΤϰӤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨жؼԤ Richard Mulcaster (1530?--1611) ϻѤƤʤб첻ɽ <ea> Ϥ⤦Ť Caxton ǤѤƤꡤAnglo-French <ea> ͳ褹ʤƤ켫Τ Old English ͳ褹) ȤФлŦƤ뤬 ( Salmon, p. 27 )<oa> ΤۤϤɤʤΤĴʬʤ16ˤʤäƤƳ줿ΤΤ褦Ǥ롥
꤬ˤʤäΤϡƣ (29) ˼Τ褦ʰäǤ롥
MEκǸˤʤȺΥ٥륮ޤ͢줿 ea, oe ε椬 deal boat Τ褦ʸ˻ȤϤ dead boot ʤϰäȯäƤˤ첻ȶ̤뤿Ǥä
פ Flemish ֻڤꤿΤȤǶ̣ΤϰŪ˸Ƥ뤳ȤǤϤʤ褦Ǥ롥ޤƤʤΤǡ³Ĵ
Salmon, Vivian. "Orthography and Punctuation" The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 13--55.
ƣ ʿֱѸ˹͡סسر227桤1959ǯ15--41ǡ
ε[2010-07-04-1]ǥ ( The Knights of the Order of the Garter ) ˿줿ĤϡΡֱεΡ ( The Knights of the Round Table ) ˤ줿 Edward III 1348ǯߤĤǡ¸ΤȤƤϥ衼åѺǸŤεġϹʲ26̾Ȥ뵳ƻŤͧΤǤʸߤǤƤˡ ( The Order of the Garter ) ƱĤİϤüȯ륤ɤκǹⷮϤǡ̾Ȥ꺸ӤѤ륬ʷαˤϤǤ롥
ʤȤ̾ĤȤȡΤ褦⤬롥ɴǯ ( Hundred Years' War ) 1347ǯ졼ΤᄀˤƧǥ륺٥͡ Joan, Fair Maid of Kent ) ˷αȤȤ֤餸Edward III ¹ˤơ Richard II ȤʤƤοͤ˾줬ĤΤȤEdward III α夲ʬκӤˤϤ Honi soit qui mal y pense ֤ȻפԤ˲ҤפȶεϤߤȤ Edward III εƻŪ٤ɾȽˤʤꡤǯߤ줿Ĥˡ֥פ̾Ϳ줿ΤȤäȤ⤳Ǥꡤɤޤǿ¤ʬʤե̤äɴǯϤ Edward III ֤פԤˤϲҤפȼĥΤ꤫⤷ʤʿpp. 111--13ˡ
garter θ츻ԳΤȸ gar "leg" ̤ΤǤϤʤȤƤ롥줬եäƻؾĤ jaret garet Ȥ֤ޤ졤Norman French ȯŸ gartier 14˱ѸäΤǤϤʤȤ
ϤˤĤƤϡѹΥȤꡤСꥹǺܤƤ롥
رѹ˻ŵ١罤ۡ1994ǯ
[2010-03-29-1]εǿ줿 Law French ˤĤơƣ (31) ⤦ʲΥեѸŪˡΧѸǤ뤬̲ƹȤ褦ˤʤä̾⾯ʤʤ
accuse ֹȯʹʡˤ, assize ֽȽ濳ʿˡ, cause ʾ١ʻˡ, court ˡȽ, crime Ⱥ, damage »ˡ, demesne ֡ʸ˴ŤϤΡͭ, dower ֲػ, fee ³, guile ֺά, just ָʡ, justice ֻˡʴˡȽʴˡ, petty ֡Ⱥ˷ʡ, plea ֡κǽΡۡ, plead ֡ʾٻ¤ʤɤ˿ΩƤ, property ֽͭ, puisne Ƚ, session ֳ, sue ʤ, suit ʾ١, summon ־, heir male ˻³͡, issue male ˻ҡ, real estate ư
¾ˡΧϢǤϡLe roi le veult ֲ˾ߤסʲ۲Ĥηʸˤ Le roi s'avisera ֲϤθʤסʲİƤκ۲ĤȤηʸˤȤʸȤƤɽߤǤĤäƤ롥ѹ ( great arms ) ʸ ( motto ) ȤƤ DIEU ET MON DROIT ϡֿȤ郎פ̣12Ⱦ Richard I ǻȤäͺӤͳ褹Ȥ졤15Ⱦ Henry VI λϤ˲ä줿ȤʲȡˡʤߤˡѹϤˤ HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE ȤʸޤƤꡤեǡ֤ȻפԤ˲Ҥפ̣롥1348ǯ˥Ĥߤ Edward III ȯͳ褹Ȥʿp. 409ˡѹ "The Royal coat of arms" ѹθ뤳ȤǤ롥

ƣ ʿֱѸ˹͡סسر١227桤1959ǯ15--41ǡ
رѹ˻ŵ١罤ۡ1994ǯ
ʸ嵭2018/09/29(Sat)Wikipedia SVGɤ
Aitchison (6--7) ˤȡѲФ͡٤ϻʬ롥
(1) Ѳϴʾ֤δǤ
(2) ѲϤΨŪʾ֤ؤδʿǤ
(3) ѲϿǤǤʤ
Ѳ̻ؤǤ (3) QǤ롥Ѳñ˸θɽƤǤꡤǤǤʤñ㲽ǤʣǤʤ¦̤ñ㲽äƤ褦˸Ƥ¾¦̤ǤʣäƤΤǤꡤȤƤθΨϤۤѤʤ ( see [2010-02-14-1] )
(1) (2) ΰոϤޤ˿դƤ롥(1) Ԥϡ줬ĤƤŪʾ֤֤ƤƤꡤ˵äƤѲϤ褽Ǥȹͤ롥ܤǤ⡤Ԥθդ졤ʸФпʹʤɤˤΤܤ뤬 (1) ιͤȴطƤ롥ꥹǤϡShakespeare ɽʸͤ줿16Ⱦ Elizabeth īդ꤬ѸβǤꡤʹߤۤλѤäƤƤΤȤͤäȤߤʤΤϿ͡ξʤΤ⤷ʤ
˱ѸˤĤơBrinton and Arnovick ϡ(1) ιͤޤ˹ԤϤäƤΤϼΤ褦ͳ뤫ǤȽҤ٤Ƥ (20--21)
Ťֶ֤ۤСؤò
ʸؤƴʳαƶӽѸ Americanisation ؤδʤɡ
ҲŪиʤ¤λ롤ܳȯؤƴʤɡ
ƥ䥮ꥷʤɤι٤˶ŪʸΤۤͥƤȤռä˱Ѹ϶ŪǤʤظѲ뤲ƤƤΤǡ
դνŻʽդäդ٤ƤޤѲʤΤǡͥƤȤȯۤˤĤʤ
(2) ˤĤƤϡ19ӸؼԤƤʲŪʸѤȿǤƤ롥ʪñ㤫ʣؤȿʲƤ褦ˡब̤ʸؿʲƤ褦ˡ⸶ϤΨŪʷ֤鸽θΨŪʷ֤ؤȿʲƤȤȯۤǤ롥αѸˤ֤ƤΥꥢڡѡǤ⡤Ѹˤˤޤñ㲽βʤɤؤơֱѸϸΨŪˡȤ䤹˿ʲƤȤ狼äפȤ괶ʤʤʲŪʸѤ̢䤷Ƥڵ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
εޤƤ롥ʤɤΤ褦ˡɤΥߥǥҥȤϸΤε˴ؤƤϡ衤ɴСʶǤ롥ޤʤ⤬Ƥ줿Ȥ⤢äơ[2009-12-14-1]εǤߤ褦˥եθز1866ǯˤεػߤۤɤǤ롥ʸ쵯ˤĤƤ[2010-01-04-1]ȡ
ϤλʪʤΤθؤζʽǤ֤ⷫ夲ƤŪʡֿפʤΤǡܥ֥⤽ηѾ˹줾̾դ⤷
the bow-wow theory
ưʪĤʤɤޤͤ ( onomatopoeia ) ȯã
the pooh-pooh theory
ˤޤäȯǽŪʶӤȯã
the ding-dong theory
βʤɤޤͤ ( onomatopoeia ) ȯã
the yo-he-ho theory
ĤƱȤȤȯݤ礤ȯã
the ta-ta theory
Ͽȿ꤬ȤȿǤ줿ΤǤ롥
the ta-ra-raboom-de-ay theory
ŪʲΤ٤꤫ȯã
Brinton and Arnovick (18--19) ˤФ⤬ʤΤϡҴŪդʤȤȤϤ˵ڤФĤθä˴ŤƤ뤫Ȥ(1) 줬ľ줫ȯãȤɤΤ褦˹٤˵ŪηϤؤʤ(2) ϸŪʷ֤ʣʷ֤ؤȯãȤϿ˻ĤǸŤθϸߤ٤äñʷ֤ͭƤ櫓ǤϤʤʣȤϡθ⸽θ½ϤʤϤǤ롥
ʳǤϸεˤĤƤ speculation ʳβϤʤ褦Ǥ롥Edward Vajda ˤ The Origin of Language ε⻲ȡ
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ѲϤۤȤɤξ硤ͰŪ椬ʤȤˤϼ˵äƤޤΤǤ롥ֻפѴʤɡ͡ռŪ˸褦Ȥ⤢뤬ɬ⤦ޤʤȤ¿Keller Τ褦ˡġοʹ֤ϸʤȤƤҲΤȤʤäƸѲ⤿餷Ƥ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥ơѲε䤹ʹ®٤⡤ҲˤäѲȹͤ롥
ѸѲФƤȻפϥꥹ濴ȤѸҲŪư¿Ҳäȸ롥ꥹϴ¿ꡤȤؤΦʸۼ⳰ӽФȤʤä¿η㤷ҲưФǤ뤫顤θ礭㤷ѤꤹȤΤ䤹
ȤȿФˡ̤˼ҲưʤȸѲ⾯ʤȹͤ롥ǤϸѲ˳װͤƤߤʲϡBrinton and Arnovick (16) ˵ƤװǤ롥
geographic isolation, which protects a language from foreign influence;
separation from the mother tongue, which leads to conservatism on the part of speakers who are reluctant to depart from tradition;
political and social stability, which eliminates the need for linguistic change to meet changing social conditions;
attitudes of ethnic and linguistic purism, which encourage the vigilance of speakers of a language against external influences and internal change; and
a strong written tradition.
Brinton and Arnovick Ϥ¾˸Ū侩 mass communication Ѳ˳װǤȤƤ롥ˡpurism written tradition Ȥط뤬ڡä˸춵ڤϼ ( prescriptivism ) ¥ʤ뤿ᡤѲ˳װΰĤȹͤ
ơװ¿碌ļҲŵ Iceland 롥Iceland äƤ Modern Icelandic ϡOld Icelandic λ夫Ū礭ѲƤʤ ( see [2010-04-20-1] ) ä˽դ˴ؤ¤ꡤѲ϶ϾǤ롥ϡIceland (1) Ū˸ΩƤꡤ(2) Scandinavia θϤ֤äƤ뤳ȤˤݼŪǤꡤ(3) ҲŪ˰ꤷƤꡤ(4) ѸѤ붯äƤꡤ(5) 11ĹդͭƤ뤳Ȥˤȹͤ롥
ǡѸ줬Ūû֤δ֤ѲűѸѸΥꥹҲͤƤߤ褦Ǥϡ(1)(2) ʤΦȤδطΩƤ ( see [2009-10-03-1] ) षΦΥʥޥɤƱ˦ˤΥޥͤȷ㤷ܿƤޤ(3) ˤưҲǤꡤ(4) ̱²ˤꤽ⤽ǤƤǤϤʤ(5) ΥޥͤΥե줬դɸȤʤäˡѸνդϤܼۤ줿Ѳ˳װڸʤΤǤ롥
ǤϡѸϤɤglobalisation ҲβưȤ¦̤ͤСѸǤϸѲ㤷Ȥǽͽۤ롥ǡޥǥδ䶵ڤȤ¦̤ͤȡѲ˳ȤǽͽۤǤ롥Ѳ¥ʺޤޤɤΤ褦ƯƤäȸäƤ
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
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