hellogѸ˥֥     η     η     ǿ     helhub (The HEL Hub)     ڡ     ɽ    

hellogѸ˥֥ / 2020-03

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

2020-03-31 Tue

#3991. ʤˡˤϿ;ѲʤΤǤ (2) [oe][verb][subjunctive][inflection][number][person][sound_change][analogy][sobokunagimon][conjugation][paradigm]

ε ([2020-03-30-1]) ˰³ɸˤĤƤˤ򤵤ΤܤäƤߤޤ礦ƤޤȤСѸβˡ˿;ѲʤΤϡεȤʤűѸ³ˡǤľˡ٤п;ѲǤꡤεʿ;ѲѸˤ -n ξüˤ꼺Ƥޤä顤ȤȤˤʤޤǤ⤦Ƨ߹䤦Ƥߤޤ礦űѸȤʳˤƤľˡ٤³ˡο;ѲäȤΤϡäɤͳˤΤǤ礦
űѸƱ²ΥޥɤθŤߤƤߤޤȡ³ˡˤľˡƱͤʣʿ;ѲäȤ狼ޤѸ to bear Ϣʤư³ˡߤο;ѲɽʥޥˤLass (173) ȤȤ˰Ѥޤ礦Go ϥȸ졤OE ϸűѸ졤OIc ϸťɸؤޤ

   (iii) Present subjunctive. The Germanic subjunctive descends mainly from the old IE optative; typical paradigms:

(7.24)
GoOEOIc
sg1baír-a-iber-eber-a
2baír-ai-s   "ber-er
3baír-ai   "ber-e
pl1baír-ai-maber-enber-em
2baírai-þ   "ber-eþ
3baír-ai-na   "ber-e


   The basic IE thematic optative marker was */-oi-/, which > Gmc */-ɑi-/ as usual; this is still clearly visible in Gothic. The other dialects show the expected developments of this diphthong and following consonants in weak syllables . . . , except for the OE plural, where the -n is extended from the third person, as in the indicative. . . .
   . . . .
   (iv) Preterite subjunctive. Here the PRET2 grade is extended to all numbers and persons; thus a form like OE bǣr-e is ambiguous between pret ind 2 sg and all persons subj sg. The thematic element is an IE optative marker */-i:-/, which was reduced to /e/ in OE and OIc before it could cause i-umlaut (but remains as short /i/ in OS, OHG).


鼨ΤϡŤޥǤ³ˡǤľˡƱ褦˴ʿ;Ѳꡤɽ6åȤΤˤȼθäƤȤȤǤŪ˸Ť褯ĤƤȤ뺸Υȸ줬ŵȤʤޤȤűѸǤϤȤȤʣʿ;Ѳ餫λñ㲽ޤ
Ǥϡ餫λȤϲǤ礦ΰѤǤ⿨Ƥޤ1ĤˤϤϤ겻ѲͿƤޤűѸˤˤơȸθ˼तθ첻Ҳ˼岽üȤȤޤη̡³ˡߤñ bere ؤȼ̤ޤ³ˡߤʣϡ3;Τθ˴ޤޤƤ n ʥȸθ baír-ai-na 򻲾ȡˤ (analogy) ˤä12;Τؤ礷 beren ȤѤʣޤޤ嵭ϡʶѲưΡ³ˡߤˤĤƤǤ³ˡǤ褦ѤޤѲư⤪褽Ʊ褦ʲ򤿤ɤޤ (Lass 177) ̤ȤơűѸǤΤȤƿ;Ѳ³ˡηϤǤäΤǤ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-15-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-30 Mon

#3990. ʤˡˤϿ;ѲʤΤǤ (1) [oe][verb][be][subjunctive][inflection][number][person][sound_change][sobokunagimon][conjugation][3ps][paradigm]

ѸβˡǤϡƻʸߤȲˤľˡˤߤ褦ʿ;Ѳߤޤ󡥲ˡߤǤϿ;Ρʤӿˤˤ餺ưϸΤΤǤˡǤ;Ρʤӿˤˤ餺ŵŪ -ed ǽľˡƱ֤Ѥޤ
äȤ⡤ͤƤߤľˡǤ3;ñߤ -(e)s ٤ǤΤǡѸǤϿ;ѲŪ˵Ȥޤbe ưϿ;ѲʣǤľˡˤƤϿ;Ρʤӿˤ˱Ƹ߻Ǥ is, am, are ̤졤Ǥ were, were ̤뤫ǤˡˤƤϸ߻ǤѤ be Ѥ졤ȤʤѤ were ѤޤʸǤϲˡ If I were you . . . ʤ If I was you . . . Τ褦ǽǤʸˡǤ were Ѥ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤˡbe ưᤰüˤĤƤϡ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1])#3284. be ưü ([2018-04-24-1])#3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1])ˤ򻲾Ȥ
󡤱ѸˤδҤȤƤΤϡʤˡˤϾ嵭̤;ѲڤߤʤΤȤǤˡŪˤ³ˡ (subjunctive) ȸƤФΤǡϸԤѸȤäƤޤѸ to love ʱɽˤϢʤűѸư lufian ο;ѲɽʺɽˤįƤߤޤ礦

űѸ lufianľˡ³ˡѸ loveľˡ³ˡ
????????????????????????????????????????
߻lufielufiaþlufielufien߻lovelovelove
2人称lufast2人称
3人称lufaþ3人称loves
lufodelufodenlufodelufodenlovedloved
2人称lufodest2人称
3人称lufode3人称


űѸǤ³ˡľˡ٤п;ѲäȤʬޤºݡʰ̣Ǥο;ѲϤʤˤѲäΤߤǤñʣȤζ̤ǰƬˤ̣ǤΡֿ;ѲפͤСűѸ³ˡǤϸѸȰۤʤꡤΤȤ¸ߤޤ߻Ǥϼ줬ñǤ lufieʣǤ lufien ǤǤϼ줬ñ lufode, ʣ lufoden Ȥʤޤñ -n դΤʣȤʤäƤޤʸǤˤäñʣ̤ƤΤǤ
θ塤űѸ줫Ѹˤơʣ -n ϼޤꡤäȾäƤޤ̤Ȥơʣñ˰߹ޤ褦ˤƹ줷ƤޤäΤǤ
ʾޤȤᤷ礦űѸư³ˡˤϡˤä -n ̵ͭѤ٤Ǥ;Ѳ¸ߤƤȤޤ -n ѸˤƼ岽üˡˤ餺Ʊη֤Ѥ褦ˤʤäȤȤǤѸβˡ˿;ѲʤΤϡǯۤˤäȵäʲѲη̤äΤǤ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-15-1] [2020-03-31-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-29 Sun

#3989. űѸǤȿŪˤϲˡѤ줿 [oe][subjunctive][conditional][tense]

ѸǤϡߤλ¤ȿФβɽ魯Τˡʤ뤤ǫɽȤơˡΤʤưβˡѤΤ§ǤǤ would, should, could, might ʤɤβˡưѤΤŵǤʲʸ򻲾ȡ

(1) If he tried harder, he would succeed.
(2) If we caught the 10 o'clock train, we could get there by lunchtime.
(3) If I were you, I'd wait a bit.

ޤλ¤ȿФβɽˤϡΤʤǤưβˡλѤǤ would/should/could/might have + PP ηΤŪǤ

(4) If she had been awake, she would have heard the noise.
(5) If I had had enough money, I could have bought a car.
(6) If I had known you were ill, I could have visited you.

ŪˤߤȡΤ褦ȿŪʸϸűѸ줫餢ޤѸȰۤʤΤϡűѸǤȿ¤ɽ魯ˤ餺Ĥޤ嵭 (1)--(3) Τߤʤ餺 (4)--(6) Υˤ⡤ӤƲˡʸűѸѸǤ³ˡˤѤƤȤǤĤޤꡤѸǤȤβˡⲾˡλ⡤űѸȻפ³ˡѤۤʤȤȤǤ⡤ˤƤƱͤ˲ˡwould ʤɤˡưǤϤʤˤѤȤȤդɬפǤ
űѸ⤷ Traugott (257) ꡤ2ĤȿŪʸȡˤĤƤβѤƤޤ

   The past subjunctive is . . . used to express imaginary and unreal (including counterfactual) conditionality. In this case both clauses are subjunctive. Since no infexional distinction is made in OE between unreality in past, present or future, adverbs may be used to distinguish specific time-relations, but usually the time-relations are determined from the context. Example (219) illustrates a counterfactual in the past, (220) a counterfactual in the present:

(219) ... & ðær frecenlice gewundod wearð, & eac ofslagen wære (PAST SUBJ), gif his sunu his ne gehulpe (PAST SUBJ)
   ... and there dangerously wounded was, and even slain would-have-been, if his son him not had-helped
                                                                                                                 (Or 4 8.186.22)
   ... and was dangerously wounded there, and would even have been killed, had his son not helped him

(220) Hwæt, ge witon þæt ge giet todæge wæron (PAST SUBJ) Somnitum þeowe, gif ge him ne alugen (PAST SUBJ) iowra wedd
   What, you know that you still today were to-Samnites slaves, if you them not had-belied your vows
                                                                                                                 (Or 3 8.122.11)
   Listen, you know that you would still today be the Samnites' slaves, if you had not betrayed your vows to them


ʾꡤűѸǤ⸽ѸƱͤȿŪˤϲˡ³ˡ˲ѤƤȤǧǤޤѸޤǤˡȿ¤λؤƤߤʤΤʤΤˤäƲˡȲˡλȤʬʸˡȯãꡤˡư줬Ѥ褦ˤʤʤɤѲϤޤȿŪɽ魯Τ˾Dzˡ³ˡ󸽺߷ѤȤϱѸˤ̤ѤäƤޤ󡥱ѸϸűѸӤơȿ¡󸽼¡̤¸ˤɽΤˡ߻ǤϤʤλäƤΤǤ

Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. Syntax. In The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 168--289.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-15-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-28 Sat

#3988. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ6֥󥰤οפ򽪤ޤ [asacul][notice][slide][link][old_norse][lexicology][loan_word][borrowing][contact][history]

#3977. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ6֥󥰤οפΤ ([2020-03-17-1]) ǤΤ餻褦ˡ321ڡˤ15:15?18:30ˡī㡼󥿡ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻6󥰤οꤹֱԤʤޤʥ륹ҤΤʤDzȿۤޤޤϻ֤Ķ᤹ۤɤμ򤤤ޤ꤬Ȥޤ
ֺ¤Ѥ饤ɻ֤Ƥޤʲ˥饤ɤγƥڡؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤޤ

1. Ѹˤȸ츻6 ֥󥰤ο
2. 6󡡥󥰤ο
3. ܼ
4. 1. 󥰻
5. Viking θ츻
6. 󥰤Υ֥ƥ罱
7. 2. ѸȸťΥɸδط
8. 3. ťΥɸ줫Ѥ줿ñ
9. ťΥɼѸ
10. ťΥɼѸβŪħ
11. ĤŪʸťΥɼѸˤĤ
12. 󥰥ɤ̾θťΥɸ
13. Ѹ̾θťΥɸ
14. ťΥɸ줫ΰ̣
15. 4. ťΥɸθðʳؤαƶ
16. ʤѸθϡּưŪפʤΤ
17. 5. ܿǻ̩
18. ܿμΥǥ
19. ޤȤ
20. ʸ

418ڡˤ15:30?18:45ͽꤷƤޤʿʥ륹αƶޤޤۤǤˡ֥ΥޥȥΥޥīפꤷơ1066ǯλαѸ˾ΰյͤޤܺ٤ɤ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-08-1] [2022-03-12-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-27 Fri

#3987. ťΥɸαƶ (2) [old_norse][contact][syntax][word_order][phrasal_verb][plural][link]

#1253. ťΥɸαƶܡ ([2012-10-01-1]) ǵ󤲤ꥹȤˡDance (1735) 򻲾ȤĤܤɲäƤ¾ڤԤ벾Ȥ٥Ǥ롥

(1) the marked increase in productivity of the derivational verbal affixes -n- (as in harden, deepen) and -l- (e.g. crackle, sparkle)
(2) the rise of the "phrasal verb" (verb plus adverb/preposition) at the expense of the verbal prefix, most persuasively the development of up in an aspectual (completive) function
(3) certain aspects of v2 syntax (including the development of 'CP-v2' syntax in northern Middle English)
(4) the general shift to VO order

嵭 (1) ˤĤƤϡ#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1]) ǴϢ˿ƤΤǡ⻲ȡ
(2) ˤĤƤϡϢơ#2396. ե󥹸줫ζμѤФ뿵 ([2015-11-18-1]) 򻲾ȡ
(3), (4) 츽ݤȤ櫓 (4) 礭ʲǤ롥ˤĤƤرѸˤDz򤭤ۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡؽ2011ǯˤ54ǤƤ롥˰ʲε碌Ƥɤ

#1170. ťΥɸȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-10-1])
#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1]) Ϣܵؤľܥפ
#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1]) Ϣܵؤľܥפ
#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])

Ǹ˥ꥹȤ˲äΤ˺Ƥ⤦1Ĥιܤä

(5) the spread of the s-plural

ϡ伫Ȥܺ٤ƤǤ롥ܤ Hotta

Dance, Richard. "English in Contact: Norse." Chapter 110 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1724--37.
δ졡رѸˤDz򤭤ۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ١ؽ2011ǯ
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-08-1] [2022-05-30-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-26 Thu

#3986. űѸȸťΥɸܿξ¿ͤʣä [old_norse][contact][sociolinguistics]

űѸȸťΥɸܿˤĤƤϡܿɤΤ褦˥ǥ벽뤫Ȥ꤬Ĺ餯Ƥܥ֥Ϣפʵ󤲤Ƥ

#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ס ([2012-07-19-1])
#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1])
#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])
#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) ([2012-09-28-1])
#3001. ʤűѸϸťΥɸִʤäΤ ([2017-07-15-1])
#3972. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation ([2020-03-12-1])
#3980. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation (2) ([2020-03-20-1])

ܿ˴ؤ Thomason and Kaufman 񤬽Ǥư衤Ū˸ܿˤ "contact-induced changes" (or "borrowing") "shift-induced interference" 2ΥפȤƤꡤűѸȸťΥɸܿˤĤƤ⤽δƸƤʤƤ2ؤʬˤĤƤϡ#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#3968. ܿ2סimitation adaptation ([2020-03-08-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
Τ褦͡ʥǥ벽ˡʤǡɤ줬äθܿθ¤ǤФƤΤФ Dance (1727) λŦ˼򷹤

It is worth stressing that when scholars refer to "the Anglo-Norse contact situation", this must be understood as shorthand for a long period of contacts in diverse local settings. It would have encompassed the widest possible variety of interactions, from the most superficial (trade, negotiation) to the most intimate (mixed communities, intermarriage), and every shade of relative political/cultural "dominance" by one group of speakers or the other. Accordingly, one should be wary of assuming that all the (putative) effects of this contact arose from a single type of encounter (or a series of encounters on a simple chronological cline of intensity), even if historical distance has effectively turned them into one cluster of phenomena.


ξܿϻŪˤŪˤ¿ͤäΤǤꡤ1Ĥʿͤ뤳ȤˤդʤФʤʤȤåθܿǥ벽褦ȤʤС֤ȤǥκפȤǥꤹΤŬڤ⤷ʤ

Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Dance, Richard. "English in Contact: Norse." Chapter 110 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2nd vol. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1724--37.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-08-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-25 Wed

#3985. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (3) [mood][verb][terminology][inflection][conjugation][subjunctive][morphology][category][indo-european][sobokunagimon][latin]

2֤ε ([2020-03-23-1], [2020-03-24-1]) ˰³ɸεˤĤƵޤƥʸˡѸ modus ˤĤĴ٤ƤߤȡȻפȤޤOED mode, n. θ츻˼Τ褦ʸڤޤ

In grammar (see sense 2), classical Latin modus is used (by Quintilian, 1st cent. a.d.) for grammatical 'voice' (active or passive; Hellenistic Greek ĦάȦŦҦς ), post-classical Latin modus (by 4th-5th-cent. grammarians) for 'mood' (Hellenistic Greek ἔæʦ˦ɦҦς ). Compare Middle French, French mode grammatical 'mood' (feminine 1550, masculine 1611).


Ĥޤꡤmodus ϸŵΥƥǤŪʡˡפΰ̣ѤƤΤΡŵƥǤϤष̤ưʸˡƥ꡼Ǥ֡ (voice) ΰ̣ѤƤȤȤˤʤޤʸˡƥ꡼ɽ魯Ѹ췲ƱƤ뤫Τ褦˸ޤϤɤ򤹤Ф褤Ǥ礦
¤ voice ȤѸ켫Τˤ褦ʻ𤬤ޤ#1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸˤơvoice ϸŪʡ֡פΰ̣Ѥˡ̤ưʸˡƥ꡼Ǥֿ;Ρ (person) ɽ魯Ȥ⤢ޤ̾ʸˡƥ꡼Ǥֳʡ (case) ɽ魯Ȥ⤢ޤ˥ƥѸ򸫤Ƥߤޤȡ֡פɽ路Ѹ1Ĥ genus ޤθϸ gender ȯŸ̾ʸˡƥ꡼Ǥ (gender) ̣ȤʤäƤޤ
ʾ夫鸫ƤΤϡդѸ췲κƱŪˤϤäȤȤǤͤƤߤСߤǤư̾ʸˡƥ꡼ɽ魯Ѹ󤷤Ƥߤȡˡ (mood) (aspect) (voice) (gender) (case) ʤɡ鸫Ǥϰ̣ȽȤޤ󤷡ʤΤ褦ѸܸǤѸǤˤƤƤΤʤΤ¿Ȥ˵դޤŪʬ䤹Τϻ (tense)(number); (person) 餤ǤϤʤǤ礦
Ѹ mood/mode, aspect, voice, gender, case ܸΡˡסס֡ססֳʡפʤɤϡաʤȯݡˤΡˡס¦̡סּ٤̣롤̣ŪˤϤʤ¤ʷ̾ȤäƤ褯kind, type, classּסַספʤɤȸƤ褤ʪǤȤȤϡϤޤصŪʬ̾ˤ˲餫ѶŪʰ̣ǽ餫ɤ߹ޤƤ櫓ǤϤʤäȤǽޤ
ޤȤޤ礦2֤εǡˡפֵʬפ뤤ϡ֥⡼ɡפȤߤ򼨤ƤޤβϡѸεȤ餤ɬƤޤmode ϸ츻ȤƤϡˡ٤̣̾ˤϤѶŪʰ̣ϤۤɴޤޤƤʤäȹͤ뤫ǤҤ٤ȤϤޤѸεȤεǤäơդǤˤ衤䤿ˡֵʬפ֥⡼ɡפȤѶŪʰ̣ɤ߹Dzᤷ褦Ȥ뤳ȼΤ꤬櫓ǤϤޤ󡥼ºݤΤȤŪˤСˡסֵʬס֥⡼ɡפȤϤʤոƤΤǤϤʤȡ伫ȤפäƤޤ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-24 Tue

#3984. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (2) [mood][verb][terminology][inflection][conjugation][subjunctive][morphology][category][indo-european][sobokunagimon][etymology]

ε ([2020-03-23-1]) ˰³ˡ (mood) ˤĤƤǤεϡmood mode Ϥˡפΰ̣Ѥ졤ˡȤϡֵʬפǤ֥⡼ɡפǤ⤢뤫餽Ԥȹͤ줽˻פޤºݤˤϡξñϸ츻ۤʤޤmood mode ˤ̤פȤϽҤ٤ޤ츻ƱȤϸޤǤˤϾ𤬤ޤ
mode ͤޤ礦ñϥƥ modus ̤ޤƥǤ "manner, mode, way, method; rule, rhythm, beat, measure, size; bound, limit" ʤ͡ʰ̣ɽ路ޤ̤аĸ *med- (to take appropriate measures) ˤɤĤϡּʡˡʤ֤ˡפۤɤä褦ǤΥƥñϤθե󥹸 mode Ȥʤꡤ줬Ѹ mode ȤƼѤƤޤѸǤ1400ǯ˲ѸȤơ֥ǥʤΰפΰ̣ǽФޤ1450ǯˤϸؤΡˡפΰ̣ǤѤ졤ѸȤ夷ޤν OED ˤȰʲ̤Ǥmoode ȤֻѤƤ뤳ȤդƤ

mode, n.
. . . .
2.
a. Grammar. = mood n.2 1.
   Now chiefly with reference to languages in which mood is not marked by the use of inflectional forms.
c1450 in D. Thomson Middle Eng. Grammatical Texts (1984) 38 A verbe..is declined wyth moode and tyme wtoute case, as 'I love the for I am loued of the' ... How many thyngys falleth to a verbe? Seuene, videlicet moode, coniugacion, gendyr, noumbre, figure, tyme, and person. How many moodes bu ther? V... Indicatyf, imperatyf, optatyf, coniunctyf, and infinityf.


mood θ츻ҤȤƤߤޤ礦ߡֵʬࡼɡפ̣뤳αñϼѸǤϤʤűѸǤűѸ mōd ʿʬࡼɡˤѽиȤäƤ褯#1148. űѸ˭ʸϡ ([2012-06-18-1]) Ǥߤ褦˿ʣιǤȤѤƤޤ̤аĸ *- (certain qualities of mind) ˤɤĤ mode ȤϵۤˤƤ뤳ȤʬȻפޤ
ơ mood Ѹǡˡפΰ̣Ѥ줿ΤϡOED ˤ1450ǯΤȤǡʲ̤Ǥ

mood, n.2
. . . .
1. Grammar.
a. A form or set of forms of a verb in an inflected language, serving to indicate whether the verb expresses fact, command, wish, conditionality, etc.; the quality of a verb as represented or distinguished by a particular mood. Cf. aspect n. 9b, tense n. 2a.
   The principal moods are known as indicative (expressing fact), imperative (command), interrogative (question), optative (wish), and subjunctive (conditionality).
c1450 in D. Thomson Middle Eng. Grammatical Texts (1984) 38 A verbe..is declined wyth moode and tyme wtoute case.


ŤǤ礦c1450νФʸ˵󤲤 mode ΤΤƱǤĤޤꡤƥͳ mode ȱѸ mood ־ʰֻ moode ħŪˤˤäơʸˡѸȤƱѸǻȤФΥߥ󥰤ǡ㺮ˤʤäƤޤä褦ʤΤǤOED ϼ¤ΤȤֿפ mood, n.1 ȡˡפ mood, n.2 ̸ФȤΩƤƤΤǤԤθ츻 "Originally a variant of mode n., perhaps reinforced by association with mood n.1." Ȥ褦ˡɤϤ㺮ȲᤷƤޤ̣Ūˤϡֵʬס֥⡼ɡդȤơξñ줬ӤĤȹͤޤäơˡפֵʬס֥⡼ɡפȲ᤹븫ϡθ츻ŪƱͿƤΤΡΤȤ1450ǯˤ櫓Ǥͳ郎Ȥ⤤뤷ʤȤ⤤̯ʻǤ͡εǡˡפֵʬפ뤤ϡ֥⡼ɡפȤߤ᤬֤ʤʤޤǤƤϤΤΡ¤ϼäդ褦ʲפȽҤ٤ΤϡΤ褦طʤäǤ
ǤϡɸεФϲʤΤǤ礦ܤäơƥʸˡѸȤƤ modus ɤΤ褦ʰ̣礤ǻȤƤΤʬСˡ (mood, mode) οˤĤʤꤽǤεǡ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-23 Mon

#3983. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (1) [mood][verb][terminology][inflection][conjugation][subjunctive][morphology][category][indo-european][sobokunagimon]

ؤǤϡˡ (mood) ȸƤФưʸˡƥ꡼ (category) פȤʤޤ¾ưʸˡƥ꡼ȤƤϻ (tense) (aspect) (voice) ޤŪ˴طȤǤ̾ʸˡƥ꡼Ǥ (number) ; (person) ⤢ޤΥƥ꡼Ươưη֤ޤȤΤħǤκѤϡưγ (conjugation)뤤ϤŪˤưζ (inflection) ȸƤФƤޤ
ĸˡȤƤϡ#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) Ǥߤ褦ľˡ (indicative mood)³ˡ (subjunctive mood)̿ˡ (imperative mood)ˡ (optative mood) 4郎̤ƤޤäȸޥɤǤϺǽ3˽̸˸űѸޤǤˤϺǽ2ؤȽ󤵤Ƥޤʸˤ̿ˡΰˤĤƤϡ#3620. ̿ˡפǧָ᤺̿ˡפȤФ褤 (1) ([2019-03-26-1])#3621. ̿ˡפǧָ᤺̿ˡפȤФ褤 (2) ([2019-03-27-1]) 򻲾ȡˡˡűѸʹߡ³ˡϿΰӤéꡤޤǤ󸽼Ūʲɽ魯ɽƤϤޤѤʤʤäƤޤΤ褦ʻ𤫤顤αʸˡǤŪʡ³ˡפȤƤ³⡤ֲˡפȾΤΤŪȤʤäƤޤʤ뤤ϡֽˡפȤƤ̾򹥤ʸˡȤ⤤ޤˡ
ơѸˡȤƤϡľˡ (indicative mood) Ȳˡ (subjunctive mood) 2ζ̤ߤ뤳ȤˤʤޤΩܼϲǤ礦̤ˤϡǽŪ˥ǥեȤľˡФơˡüԤ̿Ф벿餫οŪ٤ɲ줿ΤȤޤ餫οŪ٤ȤΤۣʸǤ˿줿ǤʤС󸽼ŪʲפŵǤIf I were a bird, I would fly to you. ˤ벾ˡ were ϡüԤֻĻǤפȤ󸽼ŪʲοŪ٤äƤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ޤäƤߤСۥɤäƤ뤳ȤɸǤ
Ʊͤˡˡ߷ go Ѥ I suggest that she go alone. ȤʸˤƤ⡤üԤƬΤʤǴ˾ȤƤˤʤͤǤפȤ̿ꡤޤäƤʤ줫μ¤˵뤫ɤ狼ʤ̿Ǥ뤳Ȥư֤ˤäƼƤޤۤɥѥȤ϶ʤΤΡۥɤɸǤ
ˡפȤѸֿŪ١פȤⲿȤפ碌֤ɽǤѸȤƤ mood Ǥ顤üԤΡֵʬפǤȤȤ館Τ⤢٤ͭʲǤĤޤꡤˡȤüԤ̿ɤΤ褦ʡֵʬפǽҤ٤ƤΤʤƤϡŪʵʬסˤɸΤǤ롤ȤǤ뤤 mood mode ֥⡼ɡ֡פˤ̤ºݤξñȤѸȤƤˡΰ̣ѤޤΤǡüԤΡ֥⡼ɡפȸƤ褵Ǥˡϡۥ⡼ɤɸΤȤȤǤ
ˡˤĤƤϾ嵭Τ褦ʡֵʬפ뤤ϡ֥⡼ɡפȤ礭ְ㤤ϤʤȻפޤβϡѸˤ򿶤֤äƤߤȡʤʤޤǤƤϤΤΡ¤ϼäդ褦ʲȤȤʬäƤޤˤĤƤεǡ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-22 Sun

#3982. ťΥɸѸβŪħ [old_norse][loan_word][borrowing][phonology][cognate][doublet][palatalisation][link]

ɸȴϢơDurkin (191--92) 󤲤ƤťΥɸѸ󤲤롥󤬸űѸƱ졤󤬸ťΥɸƱʤĸѸ˼Ѥ줿ˡ󤬻ͤޤǤ˸ťɸǤθǤ롥Ȥ櫓β֤ӤƤ餤

OEScandinavianCf. Old Icelandic
sċyrta (> shirt)skirtskyrta
sċ(e)aða, sċ(e)aðianscatheskaði, skaða 'it hurts'
sċiell, sċell (> shell)(northern) skell 'shell'skel
ċietel, ċetel (> ME chetel)kettleketill
ċiriċe (> church)(northern) kirkkirkja
ċist, ċest (> chest)(northern) kistkista
ċeorl (> churl)(northern) carlkarl
hlenċelinkhlekkr
ġietangetgeta
ġiefangivegeva (OSw. giva)
ġiftgiftgipt (OSw. gipt, gift)
ġeard (> yard)(northern) garthgarðr
ġearwegeargervi
bǣtanbait 'to bait'beita
hāl (> whole)hail 'healthy'heill
lācnorthern laik 'game'leikr
rǣran (> rear)raisereisa
swānswainsveinn
(> no)naynei
blācbleakbleikr
wācweakveikr
þēahthoughþó
lēaslooselouss, lauss
ǣġ (> ME ei)eggegg
sweoster, swustersistersystir
fram, from (> from)frofrá


űѸȸťΥɸˤĤơĤħŪʲб⤫Ӿ夬äƤ롥ϡĸ줫ʬ줿˳ƸȼβѲ̤ȤƤβбǤ롥βѲܤƲվ񤭤褦 (Durkin 193--98)

(1) űѸǤ /sk/ > /ʃ/ äƤ뤬ťΥɸǤϵäƤʤ
(2) űѸǤ /k/ > /tʃ/ äƤ뤬ťΥɸǤϵäƤʤ
(3) űѸǤ /g/ > /j/ /gg/ > /ddʒ/ äƤ뤬ťΥɸǤϵäƤʤ
(4) űѸǤϥޥĸ *ai > ā äťΥɸǤϵäƤʤ
(5) űѸǤϥޥĸ *au > ēa äťΥɸǤϵäƤʤ
(6) ťΥɸǤ *jj > gg äƤ뤬űѸǤϵäƤʤ
(7) ťΥɸǤ *ui > y äƤ뤬űѸǤϵäƤʤ
(8) ťΥɸǤϸɡüűѸǤϾüƤʤ

ѲˤϾΤĤΤ¿Τǡ嵭Ǥ٤Ƥ򤭤줤Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤΤäƤȸѸθ˴ؤ͡椬򤭤䤹ʤ롥Ϣ뵭󤲤Ƥ

#2730. palatalisation ([2016-10-17-1])
#1511. űѸ sc θ ([2013-06-16-1])
#2015. seek beseech θҲ ([2014-11-02-1])
#2054. seek beseech θҲ (2) ([2014-12-11-1])
#40. -ly ([2009-06-07-1])
#170. guest host ([2009-10-14-1])
#169. get give Ϥʤ /g/ äƤΤ ([2009-10-13-1])
#3817. hale θ캬ͥåȥ ([2019-10-09-1])
#3699. ʤ careless ȿФ *caremore ǤϤʤcareful ʤΤǤ ([2019-06-13-1])
#337. egges or eyren ([2010-03-30-1])

Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-21 Sat

#3981. űѸȸťΥɸüԤϸߤǽä [old_norse][contact][sobokunagimon]

ɸϡѸˤǤϸŤƤǤ롥ΤꤿΤȤϤ狼ʤȤɤǤ⤢롥
ε#3980. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation (2) ([2020-03-20-1]) Ǽ夲 Warner ϡξԤǤȤξǵʤƤ뤬󤳤ΤɤȤ꤬뤳ȤϽʬ˰ռƤ롥ºݡޤ͡ʰոФƤȤ˿졤ŵ󤲤ƤƤ (375) ⤷ʤΤǡʲˤβսѤƤ

How mutually comprehensible were the two languages? There is a range of views on this. 'The Englishmen and Northmen could easily understand each other in their own languages." says Björkmann (1900--2: 8), and Jespersen agreed. Haugen (1976: 138) writes that the languages were 'closely related and probably mutually intelligible,' Tristram (2004: 94) that 'with a little effort' speakers of Anglian and Norse 'were very well able to communicate in their everyday dealings.' Poussa thinks that 'communication between speakers of the different languages [would have been] possible, but not easy.' (1982: 27). Kastovsky (1992: 328--9) and Hansen (1984) think that mutual intelligibility was not high and that bilingualism would have been required.


Warner (375--76) ٻƤΤϼȤ Townend θ

This area has recently been carefully re-examined by Townend (2000, 2002) and his claim that the languages were 'adequately mutually comprehensible' is rather convincing. He reminds us that in the mid-to-late ninth century we are only 400 years from the common North-West Germanic attested in runic inscriptions in southern Scandinavia and Jutland; a dialect area whose language was 'largely uniform' (Nielsen 1989: 5), and in which 'the evidence of both dialect grouping and the runic language supports the notion of a North-West Germanic continuum which contained (in proximity) speakers of the antecedents of both Norse and English' (Townend 2002: 25). We should not think in terms of Late West Saxon and Icelandic, the common citation forms: the English dialect is Anglian, which is closer to Norse, and Icelandic is 400 years later. So, for example, the suggestion made by Kastovsky (1992: 329) and Milroy (1997: 319) that the suffixed definite article of Norse would have contributed to difficulty of communication is unlikely to be relevant, since this development is not recorded until the eleventh century (Townend 2002: 183 note 1; 198 note 15)


ʤ伫ȤΩ Townend Warner ˶᤯ִñƤβäǤФ褽̤ˤʤפǤ롥

Warner, Anthony. "English-Norse Contact, Simplification, and Sociolinguistic Typology." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 118 (2017): 317--404.
Björkmann, Eric. Scandinavian Loan-Words in Middle English. Halle: Niemeyer, 1900--02.
Jespersen, O. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 9th ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1938.
Haugen, Einar. The Scandinavian Languages: An Introduction to their History. London: Faber, 1976.
Tristram, H. "Diglossia in Anglo-Saxon England or What was Spoken Old English Like?" Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 40 (2004): 87--110.
Poussa, P. "The Evolution of Early Standard English: The Creolization Hypothesis." Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 14 (1982): 69--85.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
Hansen, B. H. "The Historical Implications of the Scandinavian Linguistic Element in English: A Theoretical Evaluation." Nowele 4 (1984): 53--95.
Townend, M. "Viking Age England as a Bilingual Society." Cultures in Contact: Scandinavian Settlement in England in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. Ed. Dawn Hadley and J. D. Richards. Turnhout: Brepols, 2000. 89--105
Townend, M. Language and History in Viking Age England. Turnhout: Brepols, 2002.
Nielsen, Hans Frede. Germanic Languages: Origins and Early Dialectal Interrelations. Tuscaloosa/London: U of Alabama P, 1989.
Milroy, James 1997. "Internal versus External Motivations of Linguistic Change." Multilingua 16 (1997): 311--23.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-20 Fri

#3980. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation (2) [contact][old_norse][koine][sociolinguistics][simplification][accommodation]

[2020-03-12-1]˰³Ƥꡥkoineisation ȤϡűѸȸťΥɸθ᤹ܿ뿷Ǥ롥᡼ȤƤϡײŪ˷Ƥ줿˥塼ξͤƤߤȤ褤ܤΤ˥˥塼󤬺졤ϤサԤäƤ롥ܸ͡餳ʹ뤬֤ФĤˤĤ (mixing) ġ¤Ρ֤ɤĤʬʿಽդȤñ㲽Ƥ椯ΰϢβ koineisation Ǥcf. #1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])#3150. ܿϸñˤ뤫ʣˤ뤫 ([2017-12-11-1]
koineisation ȤܤΤϡܿˤ礭ʱƶϤ Thomason and Kaufman ̤2ܿסʤ shift-induced interference contact-induced changes ΤȤۤʤ륿פȤ󼨤Ƥ뤫ʤ2ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#3968. ܿ2סimitation adaptation ([2020-03-08-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
űѸȸťΥɸܿ koineisation פǤܳŪƤ Warner ʸɤ󥰤Ϥ빥Ǥ롥Warner koineisation 򾧤ꡤξüԤưפˤȤϤʤ˸ߤ˽ʬǽäȤˤƤ롥ξǡߥ˥ˤüԤɤ accommodation selection Ż뤷 (344)

In ... koineization, English and Norse were both used in the same conversation. Speakers tend to accommodate to their interlocutors, so situations developed in which there was mixing of forms with considerable variation. Over time particular forms were selected, and they survived.


ϥԡɴȤǼ㴳ĤȤΤ⡤Kerswill ˤСkoineisation 2--3Τ˴λΤŵȤ뤫űѸȸťΥɸܿˤѲϰ̤ˤϤʤꥹԡǥ˵äȤ뤬ͿѲ¿ϡˤޤǤ®٤ˤϵڤФʤ
˴ؤơWarner ϸܿξˤäƤ koineisation λ֤뤳ȤƤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸ졦ťΥɸΥ̤ʣǴʥפ koineisation ʤΤǤϤʤȤͻ (351)

The speed of koineization depends on interaction within groups, and can also be slow .... Examples from new towns involve dialects which are quite close to one another, and groups that are relatively compact. Norse and OE are at the limits of mutual comprehension, which means that change is a much bigger job linguistically, and the English-Norse situation will have involved considerable socio-geographical variation and complexity across a period of time, reinforced by continuing inmigration of speakers of Norse in particular area, but as a series of situations involving communities of different sizes and cultural mix, speaking a series of koines which are at various removes from OE and ON, and which become dialects while still containing variation. All this took time.


Warner λ¾ΤޤȤȤʤäƤ1Ƥ (385)

So I believe that there is a coherent interpretation of the history of contact between English and Norse in which they are adequately mutually comprehensible. A (perhaps considerable) period of rudimentary dialect mixing and leveling was followed by an increase in interaction, by the weakening of distinctive elements of cultural identities of speakers of Norse and OE, and by a general willingness to disregard linguistic boundaries .... Then koineization, in which child peer groups especially in larger villages and urban areas may have played a focusing role in stabilizing variation, led to the amalgamation of English and Norse. This will have taken place at different times in different places: early in the Lindisfarne glosses, but considerably later in areas with a denser Norse population reinforced by immigration. Notice that this account includes a mechanism for simplificatory change and selection in the largely automatic accommodation which attends face-to-face interaction between speakers of similar linguistic systems, given appropriate social and psychological circumstances. So there is an apparently motivated connection between the linguistic situation (with its social and psychological components) and the overall type of outcome, and if my interpretation of this situation is appropriate, inflectional simplification at some level should reasonably (but not certainly) be anticipated.


Ǹ Warner ˤ koineisation Ȥ "a process of koineization (dialect mixing, levelling and simplification, driven by mutual accommodation and selection)" (393) ѤƤ

Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Warner, Anthony. "English-Norse Contact, Simplification, and Sociolinguistic Typology." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 118 (2017): 317--404.
Kerswill, P. "Koineization and Accommodation." The Handbook of Language Variation and Change. Ed. J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill, and N. Schilling-Estes. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004. 668--702.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-19 Thu

#3979. űѸʸڤťΥɸ줫μѸΥץ [old_norse][loan_word][lexicology][loan_translation]

ѸθäˤϸťΥɸ줫μѸ줬¿ޤޤƤ롥ϸťΥɸȤ󥰤8Ⱦʹߥ󥰥˿꽻11ޤĹ餯ѸüԤܿƤ̤Ǥ롥ܿλ濴ϤäƸűѸȤäƤťΥɸμѸ¿ºݤʸ˸ƤΤѸäƤǤ롥λֺݤˤĤƤϡ#2869. ťΥɸ줫μѤϸűѸǤäƤ⡤ʸڤѸ ([2017-03-05-1])#3263. ʤťΥɸ줫μѸ¿Ѹ˽ФΤ ([2018-04-03-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ
ȤϤ1100ǯʸڤťΥɸñ줬ʤ櫓ǤϤʤ츻ǧλˤäƿޤޤ¤ΤȤ100Ȥ⡤150Ȥ⡤185Ȥ⤤뵬Ϥdzǧ (Dance 1731, Durkin 179) θűѸθťΥɸѸħϡ¿Ѹޤ¸³ʤäȤȤȤϡѸˤĤäƤʤ櫓ǡꥹȤįƤԥʤΤ¿Ǥ⡤ޤǻĤäƤפʸʤ櫓ǤϤʤDurkin (180--82) ΥꥹȤΰįƤߤ褦
ޤ󥰤դȤʬθ줬Ωġbarþ, barda, cnear, flēge, scegð Ϥμ̾ǤʤŪˤɤΤ褦ؤΤɬ餫ǤϤʤˡ ΤΤؤˡhamele ʥˡwrang(a) ҡˡhæfen ʹ= havenˤʤɤ⤢롥
ˡ󥰤ȷӤĤ뷳ˡΧҲ񳬵顤ʾ˴ؤ줬󤬤롥marc ʽ̡ʾñ̤ȤƤΥޥ륯= markˡhūsting ʽ= hustingsˡhūscarl ʲȿáˡbryniġe ʺӤˡgrið ʿ¡ˡlagu ˡΧ= lawˡ(hūs)bōnda ʼ͡= husbandˡfēolaga ֡= fellowˤʤɡ
¾loft ʶˡrōt ʺ= rootˡscinn 桨= skinˡtacan (롨= take) ʤɽפʸޤޤƤ롥
ޤ굤Ťʤ (loan_translation or calque) ȤܤޤСä㤬󤬤롥æsċman ꡤ±ˡhāsæta ʤˡstēor(es)mann ʿ͡ˡwederfest ʰŷǽйҤǤʤˤϡ줾ťɸ askmaðr, háseti, stýrimaðr/stjórnamaðr, veðrfastr б餯ѤλǤϤʤȹͤ롥
μѸˤĤƤϡ¿ɬפ˱ ("need-based") ѤäȤäƤ褤Ӥơ#302. űѸΥե󥹼Ѹ ([2010-02-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Dance, Richard. "English in Contact: Norse." Chapter 110 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1724--37.
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-08-1] [2021-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-18 Wed

#3978. ̤Ƥ٤2Ĥ "Old Norse" [old_norse][terminology][germanic][variety]

ѸˤˤơָťΥɸפ뤤 "Old Norse" (old_norse) Ȥ̾ȤȤդʤФʤʤΤϡ̾2ĤΰۤʤؼоݤȤȤ
1Ĥϡ̥ޥ췲Τ¸ǸŤλȤƤθťɸ12ʹߡˤƱ췲ɽȤƻؤˡ⤦1ĤϡȤ櫓Ѹ˸ʸ̮ˤơ8ȾФ11ˤƱѸȤ륢󥰥ͤ쥤󥰥ɤܿ󥰤ؤˡǤ롥
2ĤλؼоݤϡޤäƻʤȤ1ʾۤʤ롥ޤŪˤԤϥɡԤ̥ޥ췲Τʤξ롼פˤޤΤΡ§Ȥƥ󥸥ʥӥȾǤ롥OED οǤǤϤѸκ򤱤뤿ˡԤʸȤǡ˶Ū "Old Icelandic" ȡԤʸʤȤǡˤŪ "early Scandinavian" ȸƤʬƤ褦θ̩ʻȤʬϳΤΤפѸˤʤΤǡʸ̮ΤǤС⤳ޤ̤ "Old Norse" ȸƤǤƤ⺹٤Ϥʤ̤ռƤɬפϤ
Durkin (175) Ū˻ŦƤ伫ȤϤޤ2Ĥ "Old Norse" ΤȤ̤ƤȻפŪ˶̤٤ȤʹƥϥäȤ

One important, albeit slightly arcane, initial question concerns terminology. Traditionally, the term 'Old Norse' has been used to denote two different things: (i) the language of the earliest substantial documents in any Scandinavian language, namely the rich literature largely preserved in Icelandic manuscripts dating from the twelfth century and (mostly) later; and (ii) the language that was in contact with English in the British Isles. In fact this is somewhat misleading, since English was in contact with the ancestor varieties of both West Norse (Norwegian and Icelandic) and East Norse (Danish and Swedish), but at a time earlier than our earliest substantial surviving documents for any of the Scandinavian languages, and at a time when the differences between West and East Norse were still very slight. Thus it is only rarely that English words can be attributed to either West or East Norse influence with any confidence. In this book I follow the terminology used in the new edition of the OED, using 'early Scandinavian' as a catch-all for the early West Norse and East Norse varieties which were in contact with English, and distinguishing this from 'Old Icelandic' denoting the language of the early Icelandic texts, and from 'Old Norwegian', 'Old Danish', 'Old Swedish' denoting the oldest literary records of each of these languages.


̾ȤΤϤȤ˥ȥåǡդƤʤФʤʤ롥Ϣơ#3558. ȸ̾ε ([2019-01-23-1])#864. Ʒ줿̾ ([2011-09-08-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ

Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-17 Tue

#3977. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ6֥󥰤οפΤ [asacul][notice][old_norse][history][oe][anglo-saxon][borrowing][contact][loan_word][link]

321ڡˤ15:15?18:30ˡī㡼󥿡ɶˤֱѸˤȸ츻6󥰤οꤹֱԤʤޤݤϰʲ̤Ǥ

8Ⱦ󥰥ͤϥ󥰤νޤߤ̲ǤťΥɸȤƤ󥰤ϡθ奤󥰥꽻ޤϤǸťΥɸȱѸϷ㤷ܿ뤳ȤˤʤޤƸťΥɸαƶޤ줿Ѹϸäʸˡˤ礭ѼκפϸѸˤ⿼ޤƤޤ󥰤ʤä顤ߤαѸλѤϤʤΤǤϡ󥰤γưȸťΥɸˤĤƳѤĤġ̤ܿεФǡѸˤߤťΥɸθŪʰ仺ܤޤ


󥰤ťΥɸ (old_norse) ˤĤơܥ֥ǤϢ¿äƤޤʲפʵ˥󥯤ĥäƤޤ

#59. ѸˤˤťΥɸΰյ򶵤ä ([2009-06-26-1])
#111. ѸˤˤťΥɸȸťե󥹸αƶӤ ([2009-08-16-1])
#169. get give Ϥʤ /g/ äƤΤ ([2009-10-13-1])
#170. guest host ([2009-10-14-1])
#340. ťΥɸ줬ѸͿƶ Jespersen ɾ ([2010-04-02-1])
#818. 󥰥ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1])
#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])
#881. ťΥɸǤ͡ ([2011-09-25-1])
#931. űѸȸťΥɸζ޸κۡ ([2011-11-14-1])
#1146. ɥ衼åѸ²ηޡFortsonǡˡ ([2012-06-16-1])
#1167. ܿʿǤϤʤˤ㤷 ([2012-07-07-1])
#1170. ťΥɸȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-10-1])
#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ס ([2012-07-19-1])
#1182. ťΥɸȤθܿϤǤϤʤ ([2012-07-22-1])
#1183. ťΥɸαƶɾܻؤơ ([2012-07-23-1])
#1253. ťΥɸαƶܡ ([2012-10-01-1])
#1611. 깾ⳤ糤ء ([2013-09-24-1])
#1937. Ϣ -son ˤΤϸťΥɸͳ ([2014-08-16-1])
#1938. Ϣ -by ˤ̾ϸťΥɸΤΤ ([2014-08-17-1])
#2354. ťΥɸαƶŪե󥹸αƶʸŪ ([2015-10-07-1])
#2591. ťΥɸϤĤޤǥ󥰥ɤǻȤƤ ([2016-05-31-1])
#2625. ťΥɸ줫μѸ ([2016-07-04-1])
#2692. ťΥɸѸ˴ؤ Gersum Project ([2016-09-09-1])
#2693. ťΥɸѸס ([2016-09-10-1])
#2869. ťΥɸ줫μѤϸűѸǤäƤ⡤ʸڤѸ ([2017-03-05-1])
#2889. 󥰤ΰưθưϡ ([2017-03-25-1])
#3001. ʤűѸϸťΥɸִʤäΤ ([2017-07-15-1])
#3263. ʤťΥɸ줫μѸ¿Ѹ˽ФΤ ([2018-04-03-1])
#3969. ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ȸ졤ե󥹸줬Ѹ˵ڤܤƶӤ ([2020-03-09-1])
#3972. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation ([2020-03-12-1])
#3606. ֺ¡̲󥰤ȱѸס ([2019-03-12-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-28-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-16 Mon

#3976. Ѹˤˤ¤ΰյ [black_death][link][reestablishment_of_english]

ʥ륹 (COVID-19) ήԤƤޤ᤯֤©뤳ȤäƤޤѸ˥֥ļԤȤƤϡλ˵ڤ衼åѤˤ⤿餵줿ҲҤǤ (black_death) ˿ʤ櫓ˤϤޤ󡥤Ƥ夲뼡Ǥ
ȤϤȤϲ⤢ޤܥ֥ǤϡѸˤˤ¤ΰյˤĤƤǤ¿εǸƤƤޤʲ˥󥯤ĥޤΤǡҴϢ뵭򤴰ɤȤ櫓ϡ#3058. ֱѸˤˤ¤ΰյפΤޤȤ᥹饤ɡ ([2017-09-10-1]) Ǥϡ2017ǯ92ī㡼󥿡ɶdzֹֺ¡ˤưȱѸѲפ3Ȥơֹ¤ȱѸפܤβäƤˤȤŤƤޤå󥹤Τߤ򵭺ܤƤޤݥȤϲƤϤǤ

#119. ѸˤΤϥޥͥߤ!? ([2009-08-24-1])
#139. ¤ȱѸδطˤĤƺơ͡ ([2009-09-13-1])
#144. Υ40 ([2009-09-18-1])
#1206. 󥰥ɤˤѸˤ붵λϤޤ ([2012-08-15-1])
#2990. Black Death ([2017-07-04-1])
#3053. ¤ˤ鼫ͳ̱ء ([2017-09-05-1])
#3054. ¤ˤҲήưȽοʿ ([2017-09-06-1])
#3055. ¤ˤԤ̻ ([2017-09-07-1])
#3056. ¤ˤ͸ȵѳ׿ ([2017-09-08-1])
#3057. "The Pardoner's Tale" ˤߤ¡ ([2017-09-09-1])
#3058. ֱѸˤˤ¤ΰյפΤޤȤ᥹饤ɡ ([2017-09-10-1])
#3061. ѤѤȤǰȯˤĤơ ([2017-09-13-1])
#3062. 1665ǯΥڥȤ˴ؤ Samuel Pepys εϿ ([2017-09-14-1])
#3065. ԻԲ¡ء ([2017-09-17-1])
#3196. Ѹμפʽǯɽ ([2018-01-26-1])
#3212. ¡Ƨmemento mori ([2018-02-11-1])
#3780. Foley ˤɸѸȯŸפεҡ ([2019-09-02-1])

1348ǯ˽ƥꥹӲФ¤ϡ1066ǯΥΥޥˤ겼ƤѸϰ̤Τˤä礭äȤΤѸˤǤդˤС⤷¤ʤäСѸ϶ޤǤ˥󥰥ɤιȤƤϰ̤Ǥʤä뤤ϲȤƤä٤äȤˤʤޤϤ򤿤ޤСαѸŪŸʤä뤤٤줿뤤ϰۤʤȤäƤȤȤˤʤޤǤСɼԤγѸʤɳؤǤʤä⤷ޤ󤷡αѸ˥֥¸ߤʤä⤷ޤ
嵭ϱѸˤΰ̤Ȥ館ǤȻͤƤޤǹ¤ήԤ˾̾ʻȤƤޤˤ褯ΤƤˡθ̤յɾ䤹Ȥ¦̤⤢ΤǤϤʤȡʼơ˹ͤƤޤѸ (reestablishment_of_english) ߤϡΥޥľϤޤäƤꡤθäȤǤϤΤ¤˿ʤǤȤΤŪ¤Ǥ¤ϤΤ褦ʽδʷˡ14ȾФȤߥ󥰤֤򤫤ȤȤǤ礦¤ϱѸ˰äȤϤޤ¿װ1ĤäȤ᤬Ǥ礦
Ǥϡ¾¿װȤϲǤ礦ˤĤƤϡѸ˴ؤ reestablishment_of_english εɤǤФȻפޤΤʤǤȤ櫓פʵˤΤߡʲ˥󥯤ĥäƤޤ

#131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1])
#138. ¤ȱѸδطˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2009-09-12-1])
#139. ¤ȱѸδطˤĤƺơ͡ ([2009-09-13-1])
#706. 14ѸϽˡ ([2011-04-03-1])
#1207. Ѹν񤭸դ ([2012-08-16-1])
#1821. ե󥹸ȱѸ ([2014-04-22-1])
#2334. ѸȵIJȯŸ ([2015-09-17-1])
#3058. ֱѸˤˤ¤ΰյפΤޤȤ᥹饤ɡ ([2017-09-10-1])
#3894. ֱѸ˥ץ饹ޥʥ˹׸װפε⤷ä ([2019-12-25-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2021-01-01-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-15 Sun

#3975. ؤ⤦ɤ໳ܻˡ٤ܼ [toc][history][japanese_history]

ε#3974. ؤ⤦ɤ໳ˡ٤ܼ ([2020-03-14-1]) Ƨޤܻ˥С⤪Ϥ롥ŵϡؤ⤦ɤ໳ܻˡ٤ܸˤ˴ؤƤϡ#3389. ܸ٤ܼ ([2018-08-07-1]) 򻲾ȡΡɤĤǤСɤ




1ϡܤΤܤ
1 ʸλϤޤ

дʸ
ʸʸ
Ƚ¯
2 ̼Ҳ
ʸ
Ŵ
ȳ
2ϡ²Ω
1 λ
100;ι


2 ʯʸȯŸ
ʯ¤
¤ī
θ޲
Φο͡
3 粦ȹ²

̱
¤ȿ
ʩ
ƱΤȺ
ʯ
3ϡȤη
1 Ļε
ɲƬ
Ҥ

2 粽β
Ѥθ

Ṿī
3 Χ
Χ
δ
̱
4 Ļ˱ʸ


ο
5 ʿ
ڤγȯ

ȼҲѲ
6 ŷʿʸ
ˤϻ
ʸ
ʩ
ŷʿ
4ϡΧȤѼ
1 ʿ
¤Ԥ
Χ
2 Ρʸ
ʩŸ
ʸؤδ
̩ݽ
3 ²Ÿ
ƣƬ
μ
ȹ
ʿŷĤ
4 ݴ
ݴؤϰ
²
쥢ư
5 ʸ
ʸ
ڿ
Ѥ¯
6
ȯã
ȸ
ĤĹ
2
5ϡȼҲη
1 ʿ
γ

ʿαɲ
ʸ
2 ܤ
ʿ
ܤΩ
ȸȿ
̾Ƭ

3 Ĥ
ۤȤμ
²ΤहӤĤ
μȤ褤
4 ߤ¼
ȵ

Ƥ
5 ʸ
ʸؤο
ǰʩζ
Τꤳ
ʩȵʩ
ݽѤο
6ϡȼҲž
1ظŽ


Ȱ
2īư
ܤ˴
ο
ưοޤ
̾
3Įܤȴǰ
Į
γư
ǰ
3̻ʸ
դ̻ʸ
ưʸ
Ĥηǽ
7ϡ̾
1μҲ
¼η
ڰ
ܤư
Τ
Ԥ襤
¤ȴؽ
2컳ʸ
컳ȶշݽ
̱ʸݤή
ʸ
ʩΤҤޤ
3
̾о
ʬ

Į
ԻԤμ
3
8ϡγΩ
1衼åѿͤ
衼åѿͤ
Ŵˤ
ꥹȶΤҤޤ

ĿĹ
˭ý
Ϥ
Ȥг

ʸ
Į
ʸ
4ܤΩ
ܤγ
ܤο
īȻ

̱
ʬ
6ؤƻ
ȹʿ³
ضȺ
Ĺν
9ϡΰĮͤγư

ͳ
Ͻ
ʾβ
Ӱ
2Ȥȯã
Ϥγȯ
Ȥȹ۶
̾Ω
3Įͤηкѳư
ɾ

ͤȾ
Įͤγư
ʾȶͻ
4Ͻʸ
ʸ
ؤζδ
ȯã
ξ֡ᡦι
Ͻ
̱
10ϡư
1ݤβ
Ƚо
κƷ
ˡŵ
2ľ»
ľ°ռ
ܰϤγ
ɴ

ʿ꿮
η

4ŷݤβ
ˮ
ͺ
幩ȤΤФ

ʸ
ʸ
ӳή
ȿ
6
ؤº
ؤȯã
ȽŪ
4塦
11ϡȤΩ
1褿
ڥ꡼

̾μ
кѤκ
2ڷФ
ưɤ
Τºڷ
Ȥξ
뱿ưιޤ

3ݿ
ä
ܤ
ָ
4ᤶ
̱ʿ
ħʼȻ²
Ų
ݴطγΩ
5
Ĺ
Ŵƻ


ͳȸλ
عΤϤޤ
Ҥޤ¯

ܤؤ
̱İΩη

8ͳ̱ư
ޤ߱ư
ǯ
ͳޤΩ
䵼ˡ
ह̱ư
9IJ볫
ˡĴ
ˡ
IJ
12ϡΦŸȻܼ


īΩ

2ȶޡν
ǽ
ΩͧΩ
ν
3Ȥ襤
ĻѤƱ
Ϫ
Ϫ¾
ڹʻ
ΩΤФ
4๩Ȳ
ܤλȳ̿
¼Ѳ
ΤӤŴƻ
ŹȤȯã
5Ҳȯ
ϫƯ
­ǻ
ҲưΤ
6ۤȶ
ȼλ
ư
عȯŸ
ʳؤȯã
7ʸݤο
ʸ
Ѥȱ
ʹȯã
̱
13ϡ켡


󽽰׵
٥ꥢʼ
2̱о

̱ܼ
ʵư
3ʿ̱
դ
ޤҲư
4ݶĴλ
ѥʿ²
亮ȥ
ĴŸ
5
դΩ
ȼ°ݻˡ

6ԻԲ罰
ԻԲοʹ
ʸ罰
ο
ʸ
7椭ŤޤäĴ
Ѳ
ͻ

ؤȾ¶
ɥ
14ϡƬ


դ
Ϣæ
2ť¤襤
ŷĵ
ϻ
رĤη

ư
3ᤶ
ȯ
ο
Ȱ˻Ʊ
4ʿȯ
椭ŤޤäƸ
Ƴ


ɤΰ
Ѥ̱
ν
15ϡ
1Τ줿
Ϣ񷳤
󷳻̱粽
Ҳκ
ޤ
ܹˡ
2縢β
䤿
ž
ī
ʿ¾󡦰ݾ
Ϣ
ݼ顦׿Ω
3кĹ̿
кѤ˱
̿
ͳ̱ޤĹ
ʸ罰ȹݲ
4
¿˲ݼҲ

ݶϤǰ໤
ĹʿԶ
νȹݾ
ݹ׸55ǯ
β



̣ ʸɧĻ ԡˡؤ⤦ɤ໳ܻˡ١Ǽҡ2009ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-14 Sat

#3974. ؤ⤦ɤ໳ˡ٤ܼ [toc][history][world_history]

ޤDZѸˤܤˤʬ˴ؤơʽŪʿ޽ܼ򤤤ĤǤƤ#3430. ʪ졡ꥹˡʾ岼ˡ٤ܼ ([2018-09-17-1])#3555. إץȥ󡡱ѹˡʸػˡ٤Ρֱѹˡפܼ ([2019-01-20-1])#3556. إץȥ󡡱ѹˡʸػˡ٤Ρֱʸػˡפܼ ([2019-01-21-1])#3567. إꥹʸػ٤ܼ ([2019-02-01-1])#3828. ؿե󥹤ˡ٤ܼ ([2019-10-20-1]) ʤɤǤ롥
礭ʻˤܼ󤲤ƤȻפäΤǡؤ⤦ɤ໳ˡ٤˼äˤ路Ťߤˤϡ褯ǤʽܼŬΡɤĤǤСɤ



ϡʸε
νи
̡ܤγ
Ҳȯã
ʸν濴
ͼ̱²²
I
1ϡ --- η
1奪ꥨ
᥽ݥߥȥץȤ
̱²ư
ꥨȤ
ꥨȤμҲʸ
2奮ꥷȥإ˥
ʸ
ݥꥹΩ
ݥꥹȯŸ
̱δ
ݥꥹҲѼ
إ˥
ꥷθŵʸ
إ˥ʸ
3
ԻԹȥ
ޤгȯŸȼҲѼ
Ω
ο
ޤθŵʸ
ꥹȶΩ

ѥƥȥī
ʸ
5ɡθ
ʸ
ͤ轻
ۤȯ
ȤΩ
̥ɤ˱
ҥɥȤ
ν
6ȤΩ
Ω֡
ȯս
ҲȻ۳ȯã
ȤΩ
ȤμҲʸ

ͷҤ⾦
̱²ζ˴
II
2ϡ쥢 --- 쥢ˤ
1²ҲΩ
ʬȽ̱²ο򲡦ī
²ҲΩȤʸ
2ΧȤΩ
ΧȤΩưɡ硡
²ʸ
ܽμΩ
3ҲοŸ
ζ˴
νȤΩ
פο
Ҳ񡦷кѤȯŸ
̱ʸȯã
4̱²γư
ˤ

󥴥Ω

ήȸʸ
ܽư


ο˴


Ҳ񡦷кѤȯã
ʸȯŸ
衼åѤȤܿ
ܽư
󥴥
٥å
ī
٥ȥʥ

ΰ
3ϡ顼 --- ¿
1顼Ω
¸ԥϥޥ


2顼Ƥȳ
顼Ūʬ
ȤȼҲ

ץȡꥢνī
٥ꥢȾȥեꥫνī
ޥ
3顼ʸȯŸ
顼ʸÿ
顼ʸ¿
4ɡΥ顼
顼ඵ̤Υɻ


4ϡ衼å --- 衼åη
1衼åΩ
ޥͤư
ե󥯤ȯŸ

2̱²ưε
Ҳ
޶ȯŸ
2衼å
ӥ
ͤμΩ
3Υ衼å
Ȥαƶ
ԻԤȾȤȯŸ
ĸư
Ҳβ
衼åѽȯŸ
ꥹȥե
ɴǯ
ڥȥݥȥ
ɥĤȥꥢ
ʸ
III
5ϡ衼åѤη ---
1衼åĥ
泤Τ
ɹϩγ
ꥫΦؤã
ݥȥΥʽ
ꥫʸ
ڥˤ륢ꥫ
ܼλϤޤ

ͥ󥹤ȥҥ塼ޥ˥
餷Ѥʸ
ʳؤȵ
륿ȥν
ȥåγ׿

縢η
ϥץ֥륯Хե
ޥȥ衼å
ڥζȥե󥹤
Ω
ǯ
4縢γΩ
в
ꥹβȵIJ
ԥ塼꥿̿
̾̿Ω
եв
ڥ
5̿Υ衼å
ȥƬ
ץֶƬ
ե꡼ɥå粦ȼǯ
ѡʩο̱
ηкѥƥ
ݡʬ
ػ
Хå
6ϡƶҲγΩ --- ų̿פȡγ̿
1ꥫΩ̿
ꥹƿ̱
Ω
ˡ
2ե󥹳̿ȥʥݥ쥪
ե󥹵٤δ
ΩμΩ̿1ʳ
ưɡ̿2ʳ
Ω̿3ʳ
㥳ХɤȺۡ̿4ʳ
ܡ̿5ʳ
ե󥹳̿ΰյ
ʥݥ쥪Φ
ʥݥ쥪
3ȳ̿
ꥹλȳ̿
ܼγΩ
餷кѻ
ȳ̿ȵڤȲ

ݼȼͳ
ƥ󥢥ꥫȥꥷΩ
̿Ȥαƶ
ϫƯưȼҲ
̿ȥ衼å
ޥʸ
5ʥʥꥺȯŸ
衼åѤ
ߥ
β
ꥹͳȯŸ
ե

ɥĤ
ɥȯŸ
ӥޥ륯ιݴط
ꥫ罰ȯŸ
ʳؼʸ
7ϡư --- ȶ

ƽοʽ
Ƥб

顼б
ޥβ
ץȤμΩȺ
ӥȾư

3ɡ
ꥹΥɿʽ
1857ǯȿ
ο̱ϲ
4쥢ư
إ

ʿŷ
̳ư
ܤγ
īγ

쥢ι
IV
8ϡλϤޤ켡 --- ΰβ
1Ω󶯤ι
ȥ衼å
ƹ

ɥ

ꥫ罰
3̱ϻۤγ
եꥫʬեꥫ
ʿΤ쥢
4̱²ư
ˡưӳưѡĻ
γ̿ȶΩɰ̱̿Ω
ηȶʸس̿
ɡ̱²ư
̱²ư
5󶯤Ω㲽Ȼ񶨾Ω
Ϫ
񶨾Ω
ѡȤΩ
Х륫
פεѤʸ
20λϤޤ
6켡
ȯ
ɤο
ι
ﲼο̱ϡ°
̩
ν
9ϡ륵 --- ξ֤
1̿ȥ륵
̿

ɥij̿
륵Ω
Хȥ衼åѤγ̿
2Υ衼åѤȥꥫ
첤ο
ɥ͹
ꥹȥե
ꥢǤΥեΩ
ꥫ˱
ƥ󥢥ꥫ
Ϣˮ

亮ȥΩ
챿ưȸޡͱư
̿οŸ

ɤ̱²ư
ξ
4ȥեƬ
1929ǯζ
ơѤζк
ʥθϳ
륵桦亮ȥ
Ϣθޥǯײ
ȿե̱

5
ߥإ
ȯ
ȥ褫ʿ
Ϣ緳ȿ
ν
ʤȷ
10ϡ ---
1رĤΩȥեꥫо
ξرĤη
䤿
Ω
ڿ̱¹Ω
ī
ɱζ
ĥδ

ҲѲ
ư
֡եꥫư
ƥ󥢥ꥫư
2ƥưɤ¿
٥ȥʥ
ƽѼ

ξ
1970ǯʹߤΥեꥫ
1970ǯʹߤΥƥ󥢥ꥫ

32021
žफ
Ҳ
¿Ͳ륢

ϰʶ¿ȯ
ꥫ罰ư
кѤѲ
βʳء



ˡԽԡˡؤ⤦ɤ໳ˡ١Ǽҡ2009ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-15-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-13 Fri

#3973. إӥ奢ˡ٤αѸܼ [mathematics][toc][review][link]

ؤ˴ؤǯɽ޴աŵˤʤä褦ʡǤɤʪȤ˰ʤإӥ奢ˡ٤ɤ2009ǯθ The Math Book ˮǤ롥250γơˤĤƼ̿޷źƤꡤإͥˤ礫ʤ̥ϤˤϤޤäƤޤäܤθHP
ɤǤѸˤ⶯ʤäƤ⤷ʤȻפä250ΥɤˤĤƤϱѸǤܼñ˽롥ȤȤǡʲξǤܼޤȤƤߤ󤲤ΤǤϷݤʤΤǡܥ֥βεȰä줽ʥɤˤĤƤϡ󥯤ĥäƤءʤޤ༫ʳءˤ˴ϢءѸءѸˤˤĤƤϡޤ˼夲ƤΤǡ



1. ΥסAnt Odometer (c. 150 million BC)
2. 򤫤ĹࡧPrimates Count (c. 30 million BC)
3. ߤǿCicada-Generated Prime Numbers (c. 1 million BC)
4. ܡKnots (c. 100,000 BC)
5. 󥴽ùIshango Bone (c. 18,000 BC)
6. סQuipu (c. 3000 BC) (cf. #2389. ʸηϤεȯã (1) ([2015-11-11-1])#3838. ʸͭȤ⡤ʤ٤ʸʸĤ夲뤳Ȥϲǽס ([2019-10-30-1]))
7. Dice (c. 3000 BC)
8. ءMagic Squares (c. 2200 BC)
9. ץץȥ322Plimpton 322 (c. 1800 BC)
10. ɡѥԥ륹Rhind Papyrus (c. 1650 BC)
11. ¤١Tic Tac Toe (c. 1300 BC)
12. ԥ饹ȥԥ饹ѷPythagorean Theorem and Triangles (c. 600 BC)
13. ϸ롧Go (548 BC)
14. ԥ饹ĤPythagoras Founds Mathematical Brotherhood (530 BC)
15. ΥΥѥɥåZeno's Paradoxes (c. 445 BC)
16. ݷεˡQuadrature of the Lune (c. 440 BC)
17. ץȥΩΡPlatonic Solids (350 BC)
18. ꥹȥƥ쥹Ρإ륬Υ١Aristotle's Organon (c. 350 BC)
19. ꥹȥƥ쥹μؤΥѥɥåAristotle's Wheel Paradox (c. 320 BC)
20. 桼åɤΡظ١Euclid's Elements (300 BC)
21. 륭ǥΡغγ١ص١إȥޥ١Archimedes: Sand, Cattle & Stomachion (c. 250 BC)
22. ߼Ψ Сpi (c. 250 BC)
23. ȥƥͥΤդ뤤Sieve of Eratosthenes (c. 240 BC)
24. 륭ǥȾ¿ΡArchimedean Semi-Regular Polyhedra (c. 240 BC)
25. 륭ǥΤ餻Archimedes' Spiral (225 BC)
26. ǥ쥹ΥåɡCissoid of Diocles (c. 180 BC)
27. ץȥޥΡإޥȡ١Ptolemy's Almagest (c. 150)
28. ǥեȥΡػѡ١Diophantus's Arithmetica (250)
29. ѥåݥϻѷPappus's Hexagon Theorem (c. 340)
30. Х㡼꡼ܡBakhshali Manuscript (c. 350)
31. ҥѥƥλࡧThe Death of Hypatia (415)
32. Zero (c. 650)
33. 륯Ρǯä뤿ν̿١Alcuin's Propositiones ad Acuendos Juvenes (c. 800) (cf. #1309. ʸȾʸ ([2012-11-26-1])#2871. űѸΥ饤ǯɽ ([2017-03-07-1])#3820. ʤեå粦λޤǤ˳䤬षƤޤäΤ ([2019-10-12-1]))
34. =եꥺߡΡء١al-Khwarizmi's Algebra (830) (cf. #2918. ̤ΤΤΡפɽ魯 x ([2017-04-23-1]))
35. ܥߥġBorromean Rings (834)
36. إ˥饵󥰥ϡ١Ganita Sara Samgraha (850)
37. ӥȤͧθThabit Formula for Amicable Numbers (c. 850)
38. ػѤˤĤ(ɼ׻ˤĤƽϤʤ)١Kitab al-fusul fi al-hisab al-Hindi (c. 953)
39. ޥ롦ϥ䡼Ρء١Omar Khayyam's Treatise (1070)
40. =ޥΡζò١Al-Samawal's The Dazzling (c. 1150)
41. ФAbacus (c. 1200)
42. եܥʥåΡط׻ν١Fibonacci's Liber Abaci (1202)
43. ׾γWheat on a Chessboard (1256)
44. ĴµȯHarmonic Series Diverges (c. 1350)
45. ;Law of Cosines (c. 1427)
46. إȥѽ١Treviso Arithmetic (1478)
47. ߼ΨεȯDiscovery of Series Formula for Pi (c. 1500)
48. 桧Golden Ratio (1509)
49. إݥꥰե١Polygraphiae Libri Sex (1518)
50. Loxodrome (1537)
51. ΤΡإ륹ޥʡ١Cardano's Ars Magna (1545)
52. إޥꥪڥǥ١Sumario Compendioso (1556)
53. 륫ȡˡMercator Projection (1569)
54. Imaginary Numbers (1572) (cf. #2120. ƷϵǤ ([2015-02-15-1]))
55. ץ顼ͽۡKepler Conjecture (1611)
56. пLogarithms (1614)
57. ׻ܡSlide Rule (1621)
58. եޡΤ餻Fermat's Spiral (1636)
59. եޡκǽFermat's Last Theorem (1637)
60. ǥȤΡشء١Descartes' La Geometrie (1637)
61. ɡCardioid (1637)
62. п餻Logarithmic Spiral (1638)
63. ͱƴءProjective Geometry (1639)
64. ȥΥȥڥåȡTorricelli's Trumpet (1641)
65. ѥλѷPascal's Triangle (1654)
66. ˡʪThe Length of Neile's Semicubical Parabola (1657)
67. ˤViviani's Theorem (1659)
68. ʬȯDiscovery of Calculus (c. 1665)
69. ˥塼ȥˡNewton's Method (1669)
70. ꡧTautochrone Problem (1673)
71. Astroid (1674)
72. ԥΡ̵¾ϡ١L'Hopital's Analysis of the Infinitely Small (1696)
73. ϵ괬פΥѥ롧Rope around the Earth Puzzle (1702)
74. ˡ§Law of Large Numbers (1713)
75. 顼 eEuler's Number, e (1727)
76. 󥰤θStirling's Formula (1730)
77. ʬ۶Normal Distribution Curve (1733)
78. 顼ޥˤEuler-Mascheroni Constant (1735)
79. ˥ҥ٥륯ζϤꡧKonigsberg Bridges (1736)
80. 󥯥ȥڥƥ֥륯ΥѥɥåSt. Petersburg Paradox (1738)
81. ɥХåͽۡGoldbach Conjecture (1742)
82. ˥Ρز϶١Agnesi's Instituzioni Analitiche (1748)
83. 顼¿θEuler's Formula for Polyhedra (1751)
84. 顼¿ѷʬꡧEuler's Polygon Division Problem (1751)
85. νꡧKnight's Tours (1759)
86. ٥Bayes' Theorem (1761)
87. ե󥯥ءFranklin Magic Square (1769)
88. ˾̡Minimal Surface (1774)
89. ӥեοˡBuffon's Needle (1777)
90. 36ͤλδꡧThirty-Six Officers Problem (1779)
91. ۤδءSangaku Geometry (c. 1789)
92. ǾˡLeast Squares (1795)
93. ѷκޡConstructing a Regular Heptadecagon (1796)
94. ؤδFundamental Theorem of Algebra (1797)
95. Ρؿ͵١Gauss's Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801)
96. ʬٴThree-Armed Protractor (1801)
97. աꥨFourier Series (1807)
98. ץ饹ΡسΨβŪ١Laplace's Theorie Analytique des Probabilites (1812)
99. ѡȸꡧPrince Rupert's Problem (1816)
100. ٥åؿBessel Functions (1817)
101. Х٥åε׻Babbage Mechanical Computer (1822)
102. Ρʬʬ١Cauchy's Le Calcul Infinitesimal (1823)
103. ſ׻Barycentric Calculus (1827)
104. 桼åɴءNon-Euclidean Geometry (1829)
105. ӥؿMobius Function (1831)
106. Group Theory (1832)
107. ȷ㸶Pigeonhole Principle (1834)
108. ͸Quaternions (1843)
109. ĶۿTranscendental Numbers (1844)
110. ͽۡCatalan Conjecture (1844)
111. ιThe Matrices of Sylvester (1850)
???112. ???????????Four-Color Theorem (1852)
113. ֡Boolean Algebra (1854)
114. 󡦥ࡧIcosian Game (1857)
115. ϡΥաHarmonograph (1857)
116. ӥӡThe Mobius Strip (1858)
117. ۥǥåHolditch's Theorem (1858)
118. ꡼ޥͽۡRiemann Hypothesis (1859)
119. ٥ȥߤε̡Beltrami's Pseudosphere (1868)
120. 磻륷ȥ顼ؿWeierstrass Function (1872)
121. Ρإ㥤ˡ󥰤١Gros's Theorie du Baguenodier (1872)
122. եι桧The Doctorate of Kovalevskaya (1874)
123. 15ѥ롧Fifteen Puzzle (1874)
124. ȡĶ¿Cantor's Transfinite Numbers (1874)
125. 롼λѷReuleaux Triangle (1875)
126. Ĵ²ϵHarmonic Analyzer (1876)
127. åƥǥIå쥸Ritty Model I Cash Register (1879)
128. ٥ޡVenn Diagrams (1880)
129. ٥եɤˡ§Benford's Law (1881)
130. 饤ΤĤܡKlein Bottle (1882)
131. ϥΥ㡧Tower of Hanoi (1883)
132. եåȥɡFlatland (1884)
133. ͼΩΡTesseract (1888)
134. ڥΤθPeano Axioms (1889)
135. ڥζPeano Curve (1890)
136. ɻ淲Wallpaper Groups (1891)
137. ľꡧSylvester's Line Problem (1893)
138. ǿξProof of the Prime Number Theorem (1896)
139. ԥåPick's Theorem (1899)
140. ⡼꡼λʬMorley's Trisector Theorem (1899)
141. ҥ٥Ȥ23ꡧHilbert's 23 Problems (1900)
142. 踡ꡧChi-Square (1900) (cf. #696. Log-Likelihood Test ([2011-03-24-1]))
143. ܡ̡Boy's Surface (1901)
144. ΥѥɥåBarber Paradox (1901)
145. 󥰤Jung's Theorem (1901)
146. ݥ󥫥ͽۡPoincare Conjecture (1904)
147. åҡKoch Snowflake (1904)
148. ĥZermelo's Axiom of Choice (1904)
149. Jordan Curve Theorem (1905)
150. ȥ-⡼Thue-Morse Sequence (1906)
151. ֥饦ưBrouwer Fixed-Point Theorem (1909)
152. Normal Number (1909)
153. ֡Ρůؤȳڤߡ١Boole's Philosophy and Fun of Algebra (1909)
154. إץ󥭥ԥޥƥޥƥ١Principia Mathematica (1910-1913)
155. Ӷ̤Hairy Ball Theorem (1912)
156. ̵¤αInfinite Monkey Theorem (1913)
157. ӡ٥ХåͽۡBieberbach Conjecture (1916)
158. 󥽥Johnson's Theorem (1916)
159. ϥɥռHausdorff Dimension (1918)
160. ֥Brun's Constant (1919)
161. 롧Googol (c. 1920) (cf. #888. 캬ˤĤư͡ ([2011-10-02-1]))
162. ȥ̤Υͥå쥹Antoine's Necklace (1920)
163. ͡Ρإǥ١Noether's Idealtheorie (1921)
164. Ķ֤»ҤˤʤΨLost in Hyperspace (1921)
165. ǥåɡࡧGeodesic Dome (1922)
166. 쥯γդ̡Alexander's Horned Sphere (1924)
167. Хʥå-륹ΥѥɥåBanach-Tarski Paradox (1924)
168. Ĺʬ䡧Squaring a Rectangle (1925)
169. ҥ٥ȤΥɥۥƥ롧Hilbert's Grand Hotel (1925)
170. 󥬡Υݥ󥸡Menger Sponge (1926)
171. ʬϵDifferential Analyzer (1927)
172. ॼRamsey Theory (1928)
173. ǥGodel's Theorem (1931)
174. ѥΥChampernowne's Number (1933)
175. ̩ҥ֥ХBourbaki: Secret Society (1935)
176. ե륺ޡFields Medal (1936)
177. 塼󥰥ޥTuring Machines (1936)
178. եǥ٥륯Υ󥰡Voderberg Tilings (1936)
179. åͽۡCollatz Conjecture (1937)
180. եɤαߡFord Circles (1938)
181. ȯȯãThe Rise of Randomizing Machines (1938)
182. ΥѥɥåBirthday Paradox (1939)
183. ¿ѷPolygon Circumscribing (c. 1940)
184. ܡɥ֥إåסHex (1942)
185. ԥåάPig Game Strategy (1945)
186. ENIACENIAC (1946) (cf. #889. acronym 20 ([2011-10-03-1]))
187. ե󡦥ΥޥʿˡVon Neumann's Middle-Square Randomizer (1946)
188. 쥤ɡGray Code (1947)
189. Information Theory (1948) (cf. information_theory)
190. 륿׻Curta Calculator (1948)
191. 㡼¿ΡCsaszar Polyhedron (1949)
192. ʥåѹաNash Equilibrium (1950)
193. ΥѥɥåCoastline Paradox (c. 1950)
194. ͤΥޡPrisoner's Dilemma (1950)
195. 롦ȥޥȥCellular Automata (1952)
196. ޡƥ󡦥ɥʡοإ쥯ꥨMartin Gardner's Mathematical Recreations (1957)
197. ֥쥹ͽۡGilbreath's Conjecture (1958)
198. ̤¦ȳ¦Ҥä֤Turning a Sphere Inside Out (1958)
199. ץȥΥӥ䡼ɡPlatonic Billiards (1958)
200. ܥӥ䡼ɡOuter Billiards (1959)
201. ˥塼ΥѥɥåNewcomb's Paradox (1960)
202. ԥ󥹥Sierpinski Numbers (1960)
203. ȥХե饤̡Chaos and the Butterfly Effect (1963) (cf. chaos_theory)
204. Τ餻Ulam Spiral (1963)
205. Ϣ³βContinuum Hypothesis Undecidability (1963)
206. ѡåSuperegg (c. 1965)
207. եFuzzy Logic (1965)
208. 󥹥ȡ󥵥˥ƥInstant Insanity (1966)
209. 󥰥󥺡ץࡧLanglands Program (1967)
210. ץ饦ȡࡧSprouts (1967)
211. ȥեCatastrophe Theory (1968)
212. ȥ륹ξȤ餷ФʤTokarsky's Unilluminable Room (1969)
213. ɥʥɡ̡ȥޥޥɡDonald Knuth and Mastermind (1970)
214. ǡʶƱ桧Erdos and Extreme Collaboration (1971)
215. ǽδؿHP-35HP-35: First Scientific Pocket Calculator (1972)
216. ڥ롧Penrose Tiles (1973)
217. ѴArt Gallery Theorem (1973)
218. 롼ӥå塼֡Rubik's Cube (1974)
219. 㥤ƥΥᥬChaitin's Omega (1974)
???220. ????????Surreal Numbers (1974)
221. ڥ륳ηܡPerko Knots (1974)
222. ե饯롧Fractals (1975) (cf. #3123. ȥե饯 ([2017-11-14-1]))
223. եХFeigenbaum Constant (1975)
224. Ź桧Public-Key Cryptography (1977) (cf. #2699. Źؤȸء ([2016-09-16-1])cat('cryptology'))
225. å¿ΡSzilassi Polyhedron (1977)
226. ĥȥ饯Ikeda Attractor (1979) (cf. #3111. ȸѲ (1) ([2017-11-02-1])#3123. ȥե饯 ([2017-11-14-1]))
227. ѥɥSpidrons (1979)
228. ޥǥ֥硧Mandelbrot Set (1980) (cf. #3123. ȥե饯 ([2017-11-14-1])#3132. Źؤȸ (2) ([2017-11-23-1]))
229. 󥹥Monster Group (1981)
230. nλѷBall Triangle Picking (1982)
231. 硼¿༰Jones Polynomial (1984)
232. ¿ΡWeeks Manifold (1985)
233. ɥꥫͽۡAndrica's Conjecture (1985)
???234. ABC?????The ABC Conjecture (1985)
235. ɤ߾夲Audioactive Sequence (1986)
???236. Mathematica?Mathematica (1988)
237. ޡեˡ§ȷܡMurphy's Law and Knots (1988)
238. Хե饤Butterfly Curve (1989)
239. 饤缭ŵThe On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (1996)
240. ˥ƥѥ롧Eternity Puzzle (1999)
241. ͼءPerfect Magic Tesseract (1999)
242. ѥɤΥѥɥåParrondo's Paradox (1999)
243. ۥإɥβ衧Solving of the Holyhedron (1999)
244. ٥åɥꡧBed Sheet Problem (2001)
245. ꡦβ衧Solving the Game of Awari (2002)
246. ƥȥꥹNPTetris is NP-Complete (2002)
247. ŷͿؼԤλե롧NUMB3RS (2005)
248. åβ衧Checkers is Solved (2007)
249. 㳰ñ꡼E8õᡧThe Quest for Lie Group E8 (2007)
250. Ū貾⡧Mathematical Universe Hypothesis (2007)



Pickover, Clifford A. The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics. New York: Sterling, 2009.
ԥåСեɡˡ 顦帶 ʸˡإӥ奢ˡ١ȽŹ2017ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-12 Thu

#3972. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation [contact][old_norse][koine][prestige][sociolinguistics][simplification][semantic_borrowing][ilame][koineisation]

űѸȸťΥɸܿˤĤơܥ֥ǤϤطʤħ򤿤ӤӵƤ1ĤƶȤơθܿ koineisation ǤϤʤȤ롥koine koineisation ϤȤơϢܿɽ魯Ѹ졦ǰγˤϰƤꡤϲä koineisation ȸƤ֤ȤȤϤʤФʤʤʲδϢ뵭򻲹ͤޤǤ˵󤲤ƤΤΡϤΤ䤳ˤĤƤϿꤷʤǤ

#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])
#3150. ܿϸñˤ뤫ʣˤ뤫 ([2017-12-11-1])
#3178. ȳ̿ԻѼء ([2018-01-08-1])
#3499. "Standard English" "General English" ([2018-11-25-1])
#1391. lingua franca (4) ([2013-02-16-1])
#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1])
#3207. ɸѸȸɸಽ˴ؤ뤤ĤνѸ ([2018-02-06-1])

Fischer et al. (67--68) koineisation ˤĤƤ Kerswill 򻲾Ȥά˲⤷ƤȤޤȤƤݥȤ4Ĥ롥

(1) 23Τ˴λΤŵǤꡤȤ1Ǥⴰλ뤳Ȥ
(2) (mixing)ʿ (levelling)ñ㲽 (simplification) 3ʤ
(3) ܿ2ѼŵŪ˷³ʤ pidgin creole Ȱۤʤ
(4) 줫Ѽ郎ŪȤȤʤҿ櫓Ǥʤ

űѸȸťΥɸܿǰƬˡ(2) ˵󤲤Ƥ3ĤβˤĤ­Ƥ1βǤ뺮 (mixing) ͡ʥ٥Ǥߤ뤬űѸο;̾ΥѥΤʤ they, their, them ʤɤθťΥɸǤƤʤɤŵǤ롥dream Τ褦˷֤ϱѸỤ̄ϸťΥɸŪȤ̣ (semantic_borrowing) λʤɤ󤲤롥Ѹäδؤ¿θťΥɸñ줬ǤȤΤ⺮Ȥ롥
2βǤʿ (levelling) ϡʣä۷֤μबꡤ1Ĥη֤˼̤ƤѲؤűѸǤϷ se sēo, þæt ʤɳƼη֤˶ޤѸˤ þe ؿʿƤäǵäƤ뤳Ȥϡkoineisation 1ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
3βǤñ㲽 (simplification) ϡƻޤζ̤줿ꡤưѲ2饹̤ʤɡʸˡƥ꡼ζ̤ʤʤ褦ʥؤʸˡ (gender) ξü⤳ˤ롥
Τ褦ˤߤƤȡΤ˸űѸȸťΥɸܿˤϡ̣ħĤ롥 koineisation ȸƤ֤٤ɤѸȤȤʤ뤬ŦƤħˤǼǤȤ¿
Ϣơ#3969. ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ȸ졤ե󥹸줬Ѹ˵ڤܤƶӤ ([2020-03-09-1]) ⻲ȡ

Kerswill, P. "Koineization and Accommodation." The Handbook of Language Variation and Change. Ed. J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill, and N. Schilling-Estes. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004. 668--702.
Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-11 Wed

#3971. Ѳ multiple causation ƺƹ [language_change][causation][multiple_causation]

ɸˤĤƤϡ#3842. Ѳθʣ¿ ([2019-11-03-1]) ĥäεǤǤ͡ƤҤȤ Fischer et al. (31) ꡤݤȤƴϢսѤ򺣤θѲˤ multiple_causation ȥɤǤ뤳Ȥʬ䤹Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The current trend in theory formation is for this multifactorial view of causality to be formulated more and more explicitly. This is true both of models that accommodate multiple language-internal causes, typically with roots in the grammaticalization literature ..., and of models that seek to combine language-internal and language-external explanations of change ....


䤬ޤǸѲ "multiple causation" ˤĤƼĥƤΤϡѤκǸˤ褦˸ŪŪι碌ǰƬˤƤΤȤäʤۤɡѤȾФˤ褦˸ŪäƤ⤽ϰǤϤʤ㪴ŪǤȤȤ "multiple" ͤ뤳ȤǤ뤷ǤаѤǿƤʤ쳰Ū "multiple" ʤϤɤΥ٥ˤƤʣŪװȤƸѲβĩȤΤ򺣤ΥȥɤȤäƤ褤ѲˤȤʣʸݤ򤹤뤿ˤϡ¸μưϤȤʤоݤĩȤޤޤɬפˤʤäƤƤȤ
Fischer et al. (54) ΥХ󥹤μ줿򼨤1ѤƤ

Methodologically, it is most sound to give heed to and study quite a number of aspects of both an external and an internal kind, having to do with the type of contact, the socio-cultural make-up of the speech-community, and the state of the conventional internalized code that individuals in the community have developed during the period of language acquisition and beyond.


Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-10-14-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-10 Tue

#3970. 2Ĥγ --- 챿ѤȸǽϤΤ򼴤ˤ [generative_grammar][cognitive_linguistics][grammaticalisation][construction_grammar][linguistics][language_change]

θ礭2ĤʬȤС챿 (linguistic performance) Ż뤹ɤȸǽ (linguistic competence) Ż뤹ɤ2ĤȤʤ챿ѤȸǽϤΩϡѥ (parole) ȥ (langue) ΩȤäƤ褤E-Language I-Language ΩȤäƤ褤ɤ˱ѸȤۤʤ뤬褽褦ʤΤǤ롥
챿ѤŻ뤹ɤϡʸˡ (grammaticalisation theory) 乽ʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) ɽǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) Ǥ롥ǽϤ˽Ť򤪤¦ɽʸˡ (generative_grammar) Ǥ롥ξɤθѤ͡¦̤180ٰۤʤꡤԤΩƤȤäƤ褤Fischer et al. (32) ɽѤΩ⤫Ӿ夬餻Ƥߤ褦

 EMPHASIS ON PERFORMANCE/LANGUAGE OUTPUTEMPHASIS ON COMPETENCE/LANGUAGE SYSTEM
(a)product-orientedprocess-oriented
(b)emphasis on function (in CxG also form)emphasis on form
(c)locus of change: language uselocus of change: language acquisition
(d)equality of levelscentrality (autonomy) of syntax
(e)gradual changeradical change
(f)heuristic tendenciesfixed principles
(g)fuzzy categories/schemasdiscrete categories/rules
(h)contiguity with cognitioninnateness of grammar


Ѳ (language_change) ľŪ˴ؤ¦ (c), (e) ΤߤܤƤ⡤ξɤδ֤ΤΩ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Ūˤи챿ѳɤưŪǽϳɤŪȤȤˤʤꡤѲȤư֤򰷤ˤԤΤۤ褵ˤϤߤ롥

Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-09 Mon

#3969. ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ȸ졤ե󥹸줬Ѹ˵ڤܤƶӤ [contact][borrowing][sociolinguistics][latin][old_norse][celtic][french][celtic_hypothesis][prestige]

ε#3968. ܿ2סimitation adaptation ([2020-03-08-1]) Ƴܿ (contact) ʬ뿷ʽѸѤơѸˤˤƸܿμפʻ󶡤Ƥ4ΡʼҲ˸ŪƶӡоȤƤߤȤϤäƤ⡤ΥꥸʥǤϤʤFischer et al. (55) ޤȤƤƤΤƸƤˤʤ4Ȥϥƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ȸ졤ե󥹸Ǥ롥

Parameters (social and linguistic)Latin Contact --- OE/ME period and RenaissanceScandinavian Contact --- OE(/ME) periodCeltic Contact --- OE/ME period and beyond (in Celtic varieties of English)French Contact --- mainly ME period
(1) Type of language agentivity (primary mechanism)Recipient (imitation)Source (adaptation)Source (adaptation)Recipient (imitation)
(2) Type of communicationIndirectDirectDirect(In)direct
(3) Length and intensity of communicationLowHighAverage (?)Average
(4) Percentage of population speaking the contact languageSmallRelatively largeRelatively largeSmall
(5) Socio-economic statusHighEqualLowHigh
(6) Language prestigeHighEqualLowHigh
(7) Bilingual speakers (among the English speakers)Yes (but less direct)NoNoSome
(8) Schooling (providing access to target language)YesNoNo (only in later periods)Some
(9) Existence of standard in source/target languageYes/YesNo/NoNo/No (only in later periods)Yes/No
(10) Influence on the lexicon of the target language (types of loanword)Small (formal)Large in the Danelaw area (informal)Small (except in Celtic varieties of English) (informal)Very large (mostly formal)
(11) Influence on the phonology of the target languageNoYesYes? (clearly in Celtic varieties of English)Some
(12) Linguistic similarity with target languageNoYesNoNo


ƥѥ᡼ͤˤĤƤϡȤɽ ? դƤ뤳Ȥʬ̤ꡤ;Ϥ⤢ȤСFischer et al. ϥ֥ƥδظȤƤΥȸ줬˿ƤѸ˾ʤ̸ŪƶͿȤ֥ȸ첾 ("the Celtic hypothesis") ˾ʤ餺ͿƤ褦Ωˤϰ⤢롥
Τ褦͡ʥѥ᡼4αƶħŤƤߤȡơθ줫αƶ˸ŪǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥ơΤ褦¿¿ͤʱƶۤʤ˼ǤѸȤλƳǧ
Ѹ˱ƶͿƤӡоȤˤĤƤϡʲεɤ

#37. ֥ƥؿ5̱²θȤαѸؤαƶ ([2009-06-04-1])
#111. ѸˤˤťΥɸȸťե󥹸αƶӤ ([2009-08-16-1])
#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])
#1930. ȱƶθ줿ɥ衼åѸ²δطޡ ([2014-08-09-1])
#2354. ťΥɸαƶŪե󥹸αƶʸŪ ([2015-10-07-1])

Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-08 Sun

#3968. ܿ2סimitation adaptation [contact][borrowing][language_shift][terminology][sociolinguistics]

ܿ (contact) ʬह͡뤬 (borrowing) ȸˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ̤ˡΤƤ롥#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) ǤߤȤ褽Ԥ L2 θŪ L1 ذư븽ݡԤ L1 θŪ L2 ذư븽ݤ򤷤Ƥ褤
ΩϢưΤȤơimitation adaptation Ȥ̤ͤ롥ѸˤˤܿλͤƤߤ褦Ѹ͡ʸ줫ƶƤξˤϱѸ켫ȤϱƶμǤ뤫 recipient-language ȤȤǤ롥θϱƶθǤ뤫 source-language ȤȤǤ롥
ơѸüԡʽġˤŪ source-language üԡʽġˤ鲿餫θäȤγư (imitation) ȸƤФ롥source-language üԡʽġˤѸظ夹Ȥβ餫θѸػۤȤȤ뤬ˤȤäƤϱѸؤν뤤Ŭ (adaptation) ȸƤǤ褤ư̤γ٤ߤСξѸϱƶμǤϤΤΡɤ¦ѶṲ̄Ƥ뤫ˤꡤrecipient-language agentivity source-language agentivity Ȥʬ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϡ¦ dominant ȤˤؤäƤ
Van Coetsem ϤνǰӤĤƹͤFischer et al. (52) ڤơVan Coetsem θƤߤ褦

One important distinction is between 'shift-induced interference' or 'imposition' ... and 'contact-induced changes' (often termed 'borrowing' in a more narrow sense). Contact-induced changes are especially prevalent when there is full bilingualism, and where code-switching is also common, while shift-induced interference is usually the result of imperfect learning (i.e. in cases where a first language interferes in the learning of a later adopted language). To distinguish between contact-induced change and shift-induced interference, Van Coetsem (1877: 7ff.) uses the terms 'recipient-language agentivity' versus 'source-language agentivity', respectively, and in doing so links them to aspects of 'dominance'. Concerning dominance, he refers to (i) the relative freedom speakers have in using items from the source language in their own (recipient) language (here the 'recipient' language is dominant), and (ii) the almost inevitable or passive use that we see with imperfect learners, when they adopt patterns of their own (source) language into the new, recipient language, which makes the source language dominant. In (i), the primary mechanism is 'imitation', which only superficially affects speakers' utterances and does not involve their native code, while in (ii), the primary mechanism is 'adaptation', where the changes in utterances are a result of speakers' (= imperfect learners) native code. Not surprisingly, Van Coetsem (ibid: 12) describes recipient-language agentivity as 'more deliberate', and source-language agentivity as something of which speakers are not necessarily conscious. In source-language agentivity, the more stable or structured domains of language are involved (phonology and syntax), while in recipient-language agentivity, it is mostly the lexicon that is involved, where obligatoriness decreases and 'creative action' increases (ibid.: 26).


Ѹ졦ǰмΤ褦ˤʤ

imitation   vs   adaptation
recipient-language agentivity   vs   source-language agentivity
borrowing or contact-induced change   vs   shift-induced interference
full bilingualism   vs   imperfect learning
mostly lexicon   vs   phonology and syntax


ܿ෿˴ؤƤϡʲε⻲Ȥ줿

#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1])
#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])
#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])
#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1])
#2009. ؤˤܿġ2ѡѡ ([2014-10-27-1])
#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1])
#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1])
#2061. ȯäˤ봳Ĥȸˤ봳ġ ([2014-12-18-1])
#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1])
#2065. ʸμѼ (2) ([2014-12-22-1])
#2067. Weinreich ˤ촳Ĥηװ ([2014-12-24-1])
#3753. ʩˤ륱ȼѸӡоȡ ([2019-08-06-1])

Van Coetsem, F. Loan Phonology and the Two Transfer Types in Language Contact. Dordrecht: Foris, 1988.
Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-07 Sat

#3967. ѥѤ (3) [corpus][methodology][representativeness]

ɸˤĤƤϡʲεޤ͡ʵ˼夲Ƥ

#307. ѥѤ ([2010-02-28-1])
#367. ѥѤ (2) ([2010-04-29-1])
#428. The Brown family of corpora Ѿա ([2010-06-29-1])
#1280. ѥɽ ([2012-10-28-1])
#2584. ˱Ѹ쥳ѥɽ ([2016-05-24-1])
#2779. ѥϱѸ˸˻Ȥ뤱ɤ ([2016-12-05-1])

ѥѤѸʻˡ˸ϤޤޤˤʤäƤƤꡤسǤ뤵褦ˤʤä餳ѤˤäǧƤȤǤ롥ݤϤ褽֤Ȥʤ뤬ϱѸγ路 Fischer et al. (14) ꡤ4Ŧ褦

(i) there can be tension between what is easily retrieved through corpus searches and what is thought to be linguistically most significant; a historical syntactic case in point involves patterns of co-reference of noun phrases . . . ; these have been largely neglected because they involve information status, which is currently not part of any standard annotation scheme;

(ii) when a data search yields large numbers of hits, there may be a temptation to interpret corpus results merely as numbers, which is a severely reductive approach; in cases of grammaticalization, for example, changes in frequency may act as tell-tale signs . . . , but an exclusive quantitative focus will mean that one is ignoring the changes in meaning and context that form the core of the process;

(iii) the substantial amounts of data that can be collected from a corpus can also blind researchers to the dangers of making generalizations about the language as a whole on the basis of a partial view of it; this is a particularly relevant problem for diachronic research, because we only have very incomplete evidence for the state of the language in any historical period . . . ;

(iv) trying to achieve greater representativness by collecting and comparing data from various corpora can also be tricky: principles guiding text inclusion vary widely, there is little standardization in user interfaces, and they can require a significant time investment to learn to operate.


4θդĶСΤ褦ˤʤ롥

(i) ѥǿԤ䤹꤬Ūˤɬ̣ΤǤϤʤ⤷ʤդ٤
(ii) ŪʴŻ뤹븦ˤΩŪʴᤴƤޤ
(iii) ʥѥǤäȤƤ⡤ representative Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤʤ˸ؤˤ "bad-data problem"
(iv) ѥԻԤ䥤󥿡եԤΰտޤĤǡˡ򿴤ƽϤ٤

Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-06-20-1] [2022-10-12-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-06 Fri

#3966. ѸμפŪѲΰ [syntax][language_change][word_order][timeline]

Fischer et al. (4--6) ˱ѸμפŪѲΰɽ롥ѤʤΤǡ"Overview of syntactic categories and their changes" ꤵ줿ΰƸƤĤįǤ⡤ѸˤɤΤ褦꤬ΤĤ롥

Changes in:Old EnglishMiddle EnglishModern English
case form and function:genitivevarious functionsgenitive case for subjective/poss.; of-phrase elsewheresame
dativevarious functions/PP sporadicincrease in to-phrase; impersonal dative lostsame
accusativemain function: direct objectaccusative case lost, direct object mainly marked by positionsame
determiners:systemarticles present in embryo form, system developingarticles used for presentational and referential functionsalso in use in predicative and generic contexts
double det.presentrareabsent
quantifiers:position ofrelatively freemore restrictedfairly fixed
adjectives:positionboth pre- and postnominalmainly prenominalprenominal with some lexical exceptions
form/functionstrong/weak forms, functionally distinctremnants of strong/weak forms; not functionalone form only
as headfully operativereduced; introduction of onerestricted to generic reference/idiomatic
'stacking' ofnot possiblepossiblepossible
adjectival or relative clauserelative: se, se þe, þe, zero subject rel.new: þæt, wh-relative (except who), zero obj. rel.who relative introduced
adj. + to-inf.only active infinitivesactive and passive inf.mainly active inf.
aspect-system:use of perfectembryonicmore frequent; in competition with 'past'perfect and 'past' grammaticalized in different functions
form of perfectBE/HAVE (past part. sometimes declined)BE/HAVE; HAVE becomes more frequentmainly HAVE
use and form of progressiveBE + -ende; function not clearBE + -ing, infrequent, more aspectualfrequent, grammaticalizing
tense-system:'present'used for present tense, progressive, futureused for present tense and progr.; (future tense develops)becomes restricted to 'timeless' and 'reporting' uses
'past'used for past tense, (plu)perfect, past progr.still used also for past progr. and perfect; new: modal pastrestricted in function by grammaticalization of perfect and progr.
mood-system:expressed bysubjunctive, modal verbs (+ epistemic advbs)mainly modal verbs (+ develop. quasi-modals); modal past tense verbs (with exception features)same + development of new modal expressions
category of core modalsverbs (with exception features)verbs (with exception features)auxiliaries (with verbal features)
voice-system:passive formbeon/weorðan + (inflected) past part.BE + uninfl. past partsame; new GET passive
indirect pass.absentdeveloping(fully) present
prep. pass.absentdeveloping(fully) present
pass. infin.only after modal verbsafter full verbs, with some nouns and adject.same
negative systemne + verb (+ other negator)(ne) + verb + not; rare not + verbAux + not + verb; (verb + not)
interrog. systeminversion: VSinversion: VSAux SV
DO as operatorabsentinfrequent, not grammaticalizedbecoming fully grammaticalized
subject:position filledsome pro-drop possible; dummy subjects not compulsorypro-drop rare; dummy subjects become the normpro-drop highly marked stylistically; dummy subj. obligat.
clausesabsentthat-clauses and infinitival clausesnew: for NP to V clauses
subjectless/impersonal constructionscommonsubject position becomes obligatorily filledextinct (some lexicalized express.)
position with respect to Vboth S (...) V and VSS (...) V; VS becomes restricted to yes/no quest.only S (adv) V; VS > Aux SV
object:clausesmainly finite þæt-cl., also zero/to-infinitivestark increase in infinitival cl.introduction of a.c.i. and for NP to V cl.
position with respect to VVO and OVVO; OV becomes restrictedVO everywhere
position IO-DOboth orders; pronominal IO-DO preferrednominal IO-DO the norm, introduction of DO for/to IOIO-DO with full NPs; pronominal DO-IO predominates
clitic pronounssyntactic cliticsclitics disappearingclitics absent
adverbs:positionfairly freemore restrictedfurther restricted
clausesuse of correlatives + different word ordersdistinct conjunctions; word order mainly SVOall word order SVO (exc. some conditional clauses)
phrasal verbsposition particle: both pre- and postverbalgreat increase; position: postverbalsame
preposition strandingonly with pronouns (incl. R-pronouns: þær, etc.) and relative þeno longer with pronouns, but new with prep. passives, interrog., and other relative clausesno longer after R-pronouns (there, etc.) except in fixed expressions


Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-05 Thu

#3965. űѸʬ񤷤ͳ [oe_dialect][oe][dialectology][periodisation]

űѸʬˤĤƤϡ#1433. 10θűѸƥȤʬۡ ([2013-03-30-1]) ϿޤǤNorthumbrian, Mercian, Kentish, West-Saxon Ȥ줤ʬƤ褦ˤߤ뤬űѸͭιä𤬤ꡤºݤˤ¿ȤդƤɬפ롥Hogg (4) 3󤲤Ƥ롥

. . . it is important to recognize that it is open to several major caveats and objections. Firstly, it is well known that these dialects refer only to actual linguistic material, and therefore there are large areas of the country, most obviously East Anglia, about whose dialect status we cannot know directly from OE evidence. Secondly, the nomenclature adopted is derived from political structures whereas most of the writing we have is to be more directly associated with ecclesiastical structures. Thirdly, the type of approach which leads to the above division is a product of the Stammbaum and its associated theories, whereas modern dialectology, either synchronic or diachronic ... demonstrates that such a rigidly demarcated division is ultimately untenable. It would be preferable to consider each text as an 'informant', ... which is more or less closely related to other texts on an individual basis, with the classification of texts into dialect groups being viewed as a process determined by the purposes of the linguistic analysis at hand, rather than as some a priori fact. . . .


ޤȤСűѸξڵ (evidence) ʬۤϰˤäƥХХǤ̤⾯ʤȡϰ¸ߤطʤˤμҲŪʻԾܤǤ뤳ȡ͡٤ܿäϤǤ뤳Ȥ3Ǥ롥ʬ褦ȤݤƬˤǤ뤳Ȥưפ򤵤롥ѤκǸƤ褦ˡűѸʬϡ̤θʬϤΤβιʪȤȤ館ƤΤǤ롥Ǥϡʬ (periodisation) ˤᤤȤ롥

Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. 1992. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-04 Wed

#3964. űѸ "digraph controversy" (2) [digraph][oe][spelling][phonetics][phonology][vowel][diphthong][typography][reconstruction][minimal_pair]

[2020-02-24-1] εǼ夲ˤĤ³ԤϤ롥
űѸ <ea>, <eo>, <ie> ֤32Ż (digraph) ϡ줾ŪˤûǤĹǤΤɽ路ƤȤ롥ĤޤꡤűѸǤƱ2Ż֤Ƥʤ⡤Ūˤϡû2첻פȡĹ2첻סʸʸǤϤФ1첻Ĺ (macron) դɽˤ̤ƤȤȤľ˲᤹С<ea> [ɛɑ], <ēa> [ɛːɑ], <eo> [eo], <ēo> [eːo], <ie> [ie], <īe> [iːe] Τ褦бطȲ򤷤Ƥ褵줬ŪˤʤäƤΤ⤿ǤϤʤűѸʸؤˤƺǤʣĿǤ롥
¤ΤȤĹû2첻ΤűѸνˤϳ경2첻ǤϤʤʤäƤޤǤϸαѸ첻ˤˤۤȤɱƶͿƤʤ櫓Ǥꡤ츫Ȥʤۤ礭ˤʤΤʬˤϸűѸβηϤ˴ؤˤȤɤޤ餺෿ŪʰյǤꡤ餳褬ҡȥåפƤΤʲMinkova (178--79) ˽äơ2첻Ĺûζ̤äȤȿФ󤲤Ƥߤ褦
ޤεˤҤ٤褦ˡ෿Ūˤä2첻Ĺûζ̤ϤޤǤ롥Τ褦ʤޤ첻ηϤ򡤸űѸΤ˺ƷƤ褤ΤȤ꤬롥Τ褦첻ηϤʤȤޤǤϤʤΤΡˤޤȤС⤽ⲾŪʺƷθȤƵ󤲤Ƥ褤ΤϡʤʤȿˤȿǤ롥
⤦1Ĥεϡ32첻Ȥ̤2첻 [ej] ϡäĹûζ̤򼨤ƤʤȤȤ˰͵򤹤롥츻ŪˤϤ2첻Ĺûζ̤򼨤ƤűѸǤϸ츻ŪˤĹϤ hēȝ (hay) ûϤ weȝ (way) äΩʤƤʤȤС32첻ˤĤƤĹûζ̤ϤʤäȤǽ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
3Ĥˡβˤ򻲾ȤƤߤȡû2첻פϤ䤬û첻ͻ礷ƤȤˤʤ롥Ĥޤꡤû2첻פ2Ż֤ƤΤǴ㤤䤹¤ϤȤ1⡼첻äΤǤϤʤŪ˹ͤȡĹ2첻פϼ¤2⡼̤2첻ˤʤΤǤϤʤ
Ǹˡ⤽2첻Ĺûζ̤¾ڤǾ (minimal_pair) ¤Ƥ뤳Ȥ¤ƤѻȡǤȤưۤʤȤˤ餺Ȥ⡤̤βˤ롥
ϰ¦Ҳ𤷤ˤʤξرĤơΩƤƷ㤷򷫤깭Ƥ롥2첻2첻٤

Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-21-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-03 Tue

#3963. ֱѸϻ֤ȤȤ˸űѸ줫鸽ѸѲפȤϲɤѲȤʤΤ [language_change][meme]

ɸϡѸǤʤȤܸǤⲿǤ褤ΤѤǤʤ񤷤Ǥ롥ֻ֤ФƸűѸ줬ѸˤʤäסŪ˸űѸ줫鸽ѸؤѲƤפȤΤŪʸջȤȤƼŪ˲ѤäΤȡΩߤޤäƹͤʤѸ줬ѤäΤȤäƤ⡤ѸβѤäȤΤѸʸˡäȯѤäΤȸ뤫⤷ʤѤäƤʤܤ¿롥⤽ѤäƤʤʬʤСʳȸʳѸȤƱθȤ¸ߤ³Ƥȼĥ뤳ȤϤǤʤѸˤѤäƤʬѤʤäʬΤȤȡָűѸ줬ѸˤʤäѤäפȤϡѤäʬˤΤܤȤȤˤʤΤ
ѸʸˡäȯѤäΤǤϤʤѤäΤϱѸäüԽĤθѤǤ롤Ȳ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥θϡ줽ΤΤǤϤʤüԤΤ֤ѲѤȤäƤ伫ȤϡθԤθ˿ƶᴶФƤ롥
ɤΤȤɸϡѸȤϲѲȤϲȤŪ䤤ؤȴԸ졤ԤϼθѲ˴Ѥ˽äƲ餫ФȤˤʤΤ
Ritt (37--38) ϡʪĤͤʤ "selfish sounds" θѤ˴ŤơѲ򼡤Τ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥ǫʲǤϤ롥

What is usually called 'Old English' represents a heterogeneous (yet most probably inherently ordered) pool of competences 'in' Old English. These competences will each have been different from one another, but will have shared a sufficient number of properties for making communication among 'Old English' speakers possible. 'Present Day English' represents another pool of competences, once again heterogeneous in an orderly way. Importantly, the mix of competence properties that characterises the pool constituting 'Present Day English' differs considerably from the mix of properties that characterises the 'Old English' competence pool. Some properties that can be found in one pool are absent in the other, and of those which are present in both some will be distributed differently. We assume that these differences are due to 'language change'. This implies that some causal link can be established between the 'Old English' competence pool on the one hand and the 'Present Day English' pool on the other. Most probably, such a link is established via behavioural and textual manifestations of language, as well as by competences of 'intermediate' stages of English. It is supposed that temporally later competences assume their characteristic properties by interpreting the textual output produced on the basis of earlier competences. Linguistic change happens because later competences do not always appear to assume quite the same properties as earlier competences. Thereby, the mix of properties that characterises the competence pool of a speech community is continually altered --- albeit only slightly --- as one new competence after the other assumes first its adult, and ultimately its final state. At the same time earlier competences are continually removed from the pool as the speakers who host them die. Over time, these processes may amount to such differences as those which distinguish 'Present Day English' from 'Old English'. This, then, is what we refer to when we say that 'Old English' has become, or changed into 'Present Day English'.


Ritt ϡָǽǤΰίޤ꤬ɼǤüԤ˴ƤפȤѤäƤ롥顤ѲˤĤƤäʸĤ˻ä "meme" ˸ΩƤ Neo-Darwinian ŪʸѤˤĤƤϡʲε⻲ͤˤ줿

#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1])
#1403. drift Ū Ritt λߡ ([2013-02-28-1])
#3215. ɡ󥹤ȸѲ (1) ([2018-02-14-1])
#3216. ɡ󥹤ȸѲ (2) ([2018-02-15-1])
#3217. ɡ󥹤ȸѲ (3) ([2018-02-16-1])

Ritt, Nikolaus. Selfish Sounds and Linguistic Evolution: A Darwinian Approach to Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2004.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-02 Mon

#3962. Early Middle English Quantity Adjustment θ [vowel][sound_change][phonology][phonetics][meosl][homorganic_lengthening][shocc][trish][drift][emeqa]

Ϣε Ritt ˰͵򤷤ʤ顤űѸ줫ѸˤϢ첻̤˴ؤѲ˾ƤƤŪˤϡ첻Ĺû˴ؤʲ4ĤѲǤ롥

ƱĹ (Homorganic Lengthening; homorganic_lengthening)
Ҳû (Shortening before Consonant Clusters; shocc)
3û (Trisyllabic Shortening; trish)
Ѹ쳫Ĺ (Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening; meosl)

褳첻ѲϤ줾ΩݤȤƲᤵƤε#3961. 3ûλ ([2020-03-01-1]) κǸǤ⿨줿̤ꡤ¤䴰Ūʴطˤꡤ1Ĥζή (drift) ȤȤ館ФƤƤ롥Ritt Ϥ Early Middle English Quantity Adjustment ȸƤǤ롥
2ĤĹˤĤƤϡ#3958. Ritt ˤѸ쳫Ĺθ ([2020-02-27-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ1ĤδؿȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥ƤθǤƤ

MEOSL Formula

2ĤûˤĤƤΩƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ûĹϸ䴰ŪǤꡤû¥ʤĶǤĹ졤εդޤǤ롥ȡûθϡĹθžФ褤ȤȤˤʤ롥Ritt (95--96) ε󤲤Ƥûθϼ̤ꡥ

Shortening Formula

      The probability of vowel shortening was proportional to
      a. its height
      b. syllable weight
      c. the overall weight of the weak syllables in the foot

      and inversely proportional to
      a. the (degree of) stress on it
      b. its backness
      c. coda sonority


ޤСĹûθȤ߹碌ơ礭1Ĥ Early Middle English Quantity Adjustment θΩƤ뤳ȤǤ (Ritt 96)

EMEQA Formula

Ritt βοĺϡΤ褦˲ĶȲѲδطΨȤư츫ߤΩѲӤĤƤߤˤ롥

Ritt, Nikolaus. Quantity Adjustment: Vowel Lengthening and Shortening in Early Middle English. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2020-03-01 Sun

#3961. 3ûλ [sound_change][vowel][phonology][phonetics][shortening][shocc][trish][compound][meosl][homorganic_lengthening][gvs][drift]

ε#3960. Ҳûλ ([2020-02-29-1]) ǿ줿 SHOCC (= Shortening before Consonant Clusters) Ȥ褽Ʊ⤦1Ĥ첻ûȤơ3û (Trisyllabic Shortening (= TRISH)) ȤѲ롥3ˤƶΤ1Ĺ첻ûȤΤ꼰ȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥

V [-long]/__C(C)σσ


Ritt (99--100) ꡤѸǤη֤ˤ󤲤褦Ѹη֤ӤǤΤΤߤ󤲤롥

heafodu PL'head'
cicenu PL'chicken'
linenes GEN'linen'
æniȝe PL'any'
ærende'errand'
æmette'ant'
suþerne'southern'
westenne DAT'waste (desert)'
deorlingas PL'darling'
feorþinȝas PL'farthing'
feowertiȝ'forty'
freondscipe'friendship'
haliȝdaȝ'holiday'
alderman'alderman'
heringes PL'herring'
stiropes PL'stirrup'
Monenday'Monday'
Thuresday'Thursday'
seliness'silliness'
redili'readily'
bretheren PL'brethren'
evere'ever'
othere ACC'other''
redeles PL'riddle'
boseme ACC'bosom'
wepenes PL'weapon'


ȤȤ3Фۤʣ3ˤʤäΡ̾ʣʤɤζ޸դ3ˤʤäΤˤ뤳ȤäˤꡤѸ south, holy, moon ʤɤ2첻Ĺ첻ĤΤФơʣ southern, holiday, Monday Ǥû첻ȤʤäƤͳ롥¾ζˤĤƤϡʲε⻲Ȥ줿

#1751. ʣ1Ǥβû̡ ([2014-02-11-1])
#260. ([2010-01-12-1])
#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])
#1750. bonfire ([2014-02-10-1])

֤εǡѸ쳫Ĺ (meosl)ƱĹ (homorganic_lengthening)Ҳû (shocc) ʤɡűѸ줫ѸϢ첻̤˴ؤѲ򰷤äƤ餬ߤ䴰طˤäȤܤͤ롥ˤСζή (drift) ϼλΡ첻ܡ (gvs) ˤĤʤäƤΤǤꡤˤ錄Ĺѥפ٤ȤȤʬ롥

#2048. ƱﲻĹĹIJû ([2014-12-05-1])
#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1])
#2063. Ĺ첻Ф¶ˡ ([2014-12-20-1])
#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻򶯲Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1])
#3916. 岻ζ̤첻Ѳδط ([2020-01-16-1])
#3914. Stenbrenden ۩첻ܤĹɺήΰˤʤס ([2020-01-14-1])

ʸ嵭2020/03/02(Mon)̾ϻ moon Ĺ첻ŦޤơΡָѸ south, holy, moon ʤɤ2첻ĤΤФơפָѸ south, holy, moon ʤɤ2첻Ĺ첻ĤΤФơפ˽ޤ꤬Ȥޤ

Ritt, Nikolaus. Quantity Adjustment: Vowel Lengthening and Shortening in Early Middle English. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-03-02-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

ǽ: 2026-07-01 06:06

Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow