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ε#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) Ǽ夲ʸǡRitt ˸ؾνפǤ drift ήˤˤޤȤĤᤤȤƤ롥drift ϡ#685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]) ȡ#686. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (2) ([2011-03-14-1]) Ǥ夲Τ褦뤳ȤǤ롥üԸĿͤϼοδ֤ĶƸѲ³褦ȤưŤʤɤäƤʤϤʤΤˡʤĶƤȤפʤѲΤ줽ΤΤüԤĶۤȤ̿äƤ뤫Τ褦ʿΤϤʤ Ritt (215) ΤȤФǼȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
[S]ince individual speakers are normally not aware of the long-term histories of their languages and have no reason to be interested in them at all, it is difficult to see why they should be motivated to adjust their behaviour in communication or language acquisition to make the development of their language conform to any long-term trend.
ФRitt (215) ϸüԤˤĤƤ3Ĥ뤳ȤDzǤȽҤ٤롥
First, . . . the case can be made that even though whole language systems do not represent historical objects, their constituents do, because they are transmitted faithfully enough among speakers and thereby establish populations and lineages of constituent types which persist in time. Secondly, when speakers make choices among different variants of a linguistic constituent, they are not completely free. Instead their choice is always limited (a) by universal constraints on human physiology and (b) by socio-historical contingencies such as the relative prestige of different constituent variants. Since it would be against the self-interests of individual speakers to resist them, their choices can be expected to reflect physiological and social constraints more or less automatically. Thirdly, a speaker never chooses among isolated pairs of constituent variants. Instead constituent choice always occurs in the context of actual discourse, where any constituent of a linguistic system is always used and expressed in combination with others.
ƶä٤ȤˡüԤϾ嵭˴ŤưˤơŪҲŪʵȤƵǽƤˤʤȤ (215--16)
In such interactions between constituents the role of speakers will be restricted to responding --- unconsciously and more or less automatically --- to physiological and social constraints on their communicative behaviour. In other words, speakers will not figure as autonomous, active and whimsical agents of change, but merely provide the mechanics through which linguistic constituents interact with each other.
ΥǥˤСüԤϡġθܤߤȤΩƤƤͥåȥΤʤư롤ŪӼҲŪʵǽͿ줿ȤȤˤʤ롥üԤѲμΤǤϤʤǤȤϡ controversial
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
#1231. drift ѲѤΰѤ4 ([2012-09-09-1]) εǡRitt ʸ˿줿ʸǤɸ˷Ǥ꤬ͻ뤬ɮԤ٤ϤƹŪǵǽŪǤ롥
Ritt ϡѸ Homorganic Lengthening, Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening (MEOSL), Great Vowel Shift ϤȤĹ첻2첻ޤϢưƤ첻̤Ωβʤɡ첻ˤޤĤѲ첻ζ (strengthening of vowels) Ȱ礷ФơҲ̤ΩβáҲ첻ҲξüʤɤμλҲˤޤĤѲֻҲμ岽 (weakening of consonants) Ȱ礷ľǯˤ錄Ѹ첻ˤ첻ζȻҲμ岽ħŤȤʤ顤طʤˤ븶Ū褦ȻߤΤ褦ŪĬήϤФ drift ήˤȤƸڤ졤˸ؤˤƤθưϤϺ1ĤȤʤäƤ뤬Ritt ϰճʤȤ˲Ȥ롥ϡѸĹդƤ "rhythmic isochrony" "fixed lexical stress on major class lexical items" (224) Ǥ롥
ΤƤ褦ˡѸˤ "rhythmic isochrony" 롥褽ȼ夤Ȥߤ˸뱤 (foot stress) γơ褽ƱĹäȯȤˤꡤ¿βޤޤ뱤ӤǤϳƲûȯ졤դ˲ʤӤǤϳƲϤäĹȯ롥ˡѸˤ "fixed lexical stress on major class lexical items" Ȥ֤֤˴ؤ붯¤ꡤϼۤΤ˼ĥɬפ롥ơ2Ĥθ§ˤꡤ֤ƱǤǤŪʰ֤ˤäĹѤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤĹûΩ˵ǽȤϸ¤ʤ֤Ȥʤ롥ä˱ѸλҲǤǤĹûΩεǽô (functional load) ϤȤ礭ʤäΤǡΩϽѸ˾üʻҲμ岽ˡ첻ǤǤĹûΩϵǽô̤礭ä˾ü뤳ȤϤʤषΩݻ礹ؤȿʲû첻Ĺ첻κΤˤ뤿ˡԤд˲Ԥĥ˸Ԥ2첻ȯãơԤȤν̤ޤä2Ĥθ§ȡüȯ첻ζפϡߤ˻٤礤ǤʥѥȤʤäƤä줬ɸФ Ritt εǽŪʲǤ롥
ѤˤĤޤޤ줿褦ʴ롥¿ε䤬⤫Ǥ롥⤽ѸǤϤʤ rhythmic isochrony ۤɤޤǤ˶ǤʤΤ¾θˤ롤뤤ۤ drift ӤȤˡƱ褦ѤΤǤεǽô̤ŪǤϤʤ¾Ū˷פˡϤΤ٥ŽƤ褦첻Ѳ̤λǤϤʤˤˡˤΤϤʤ
Ritt εϤष¿䤤Ƥ֤褦˻פ뤬οΰյϡ˿줿褦ˡdrift Ū褦ȤȤˤΤȻפϤ礤ŪˤʤΤεǡ
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
ޤ1400εƤ褯Ƥ뵭Ĵ٤Ƥߤ̩ˤеڡΥڡӥ塼ǤΥǤ롥100̤ޤǤεФĥäåοϡڡӥ塼
̤ˤϡؤѸؤΰŪäΤ¿ޤޤƤ롥Ūü뤬ʬǤνפʳǰѸȥ˴ޤ൭ܸߤε¿Ƥ褦
500٤ޤǤγǥϡɤ
#968. ѸˤեѸμŪƻ ([2011-12-21-1]) ǡ˸زˤлθȯɽ˴ϢƵƱȯɽ˴Ťл˸ء1˴ƤʸȴʸǤϡܥ֥[2011-12-21-1]εȤޤФ꤬Ȥޤ
лϤʸǡ(1) ѸθŪ Native Agglutination (NA) Latinate Fusion (LF) Ȥʬ롤(2) NA LF θΩϡRA ʴطŪŪʷƻ QA ʼŪɾŪʷƻˤΰ̣ΩȳͰפ롤(3) ̻Ū RA QA ؤȿܤ뷹롤3ĥƤ롥ꡤȤ櫓 (3) ̻Ū˴ؤƤϡлθȯɽ˿ȯơܥ֥Ǥ Farsi ʸȤʤ #1099. Ҥηƻɾηƻ ([2012-04-30-1])#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤 ([2012-05-01-1])#1193. ե˶줿Ѹθܡ ([2012-08-02-1]) Ǿ
RA QA ؤοܤȤˤĤơлϤ "a compensatory strategy for semantic strategy for semantic bleaching of QAs" (23) Ȱ֤Ť"a general linguistic change from the marked to the unmarked" (23) ȤȤ館Ƥ롥˶ᤤ1Ѥ롥
In my opinion, what underlies the diachronic shift and the synchronic mechanism is a familiar transition from the marked RA to the unmarked QA. The central member of the adjective is what I call the 'evaluative', which can be fundamentally expressed as a certain point in the 'good/bad' scale. Since adjectives on this scale typically undergo 'semantic bleaching' and their meanings easily get watered down, language has to find some way to compensate for the bleaching and ensure the diversity of evaluatives. In my view, the categorial shifts from RAs to QAs are best to be considered one of the compensatory strategies for this semantic bleaching. (34--35)
RA ɾӤӤ QA ؤȿܤƤ椯ϡ#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤 ([2012-05-01-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡʸѲȤƼ롥طʤˡ¸ QA "semantic bleaching" ꡤδַˤĤ RA QA ꤹ뤳Ȥ˴ؤơϰۤʤäͤäƤ롥̣ŪɺˤĤǤ QA ȤȤϡ̣ drag chain ƤȤȤˤۤʤʤ㤨С#660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨ ([2011-02-16-1]) ǵեѸƻϡѸƻΰ̣ŪɺˤĤȹͤ뤳ȤǤΤ뤤ϡ#1193. ե˶줿Ѹθܡ ([2012-08-02-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 -ness -ity ζ⡤Ԥɺηͤ drag chain ȤǤΤɤޤΰѤľǡܸΥƻȥʷƻʷưˤδ֤ݤ˿Ƥ뤬ܸˤǤϡ˴Ťʷƻ줬̤줿Τϡ¸Υƻ䴰뤿äȤʺƣp. 121--22ˡ¸Υƻ줬̣Ūɺδַ뤿äȤʹʤդäС¸ QA ϡ¿ϴܸǤꡤ̣ŪɺƤȤϡषޥϤ٤ƶѤ뷹ʴϢع¤γƵȡˡ
̣ŪɺˤĤ drag chain ꤹΤǤϤʤޥϤγϤǤѶŪ˲ΤȤͤĤޤ push chain βꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤdrag chain push chain ɬȿΤǤϤʤξȤ˺ѤȤȤ⤢ˤ衤̤Ȥ͡ɾŪʷƻ줬Ѥơ"the diversity of evaluatives" (35) Ƥ뤳ȤϳΤ
ФˤĤơʤǤϤʤˡҰ˵ޤ礦
Koshiishi, Tetsuya. "Two Types of Adjectives and the History of English Word Formation." ˸ء1桤2012ǯ23--38ǡ
Farsi, A. A. "Classification of Adjectives." Language Learning 18 (1968): 45--60.
ƣ س⡡ܸˡ١īҽŹ1995ǯ
#1389. between θ츻 ([2013-02-14-1])#1393. between Ū۷֤˭٤([2013-02-18-1])#1394. between ΰ۷֤ʬ̻ۤŪѲ ([2013-02-19-1]) ³ơ LAEME Ѥ̻ŪѲʬۤĴ̤𤹤롥
Helsinki Corpus ˤ̻ŪĴ ([2013-02-19-1]) ξƱͤˡ¿ΰ۷֤ޤȤäơʳˤ첻ΰ㤤̵뤷2ʹߤλҲʤȡ⤷и첻ˤμȤ߹碌ܤlexel "between" ꤷƼФȤˡ241ĤΥȡȾȡ̤ʶʬ[2012-10-10-1]ε#1262. The LAEME Corpus ɽ (1)פǺѤΤƱˡǡȡʲǽǯ̡̤ν̤Ǥ롥
| PERIOD | nn | n | ne | x | xe | xn | xte | hn | he | tn | tx | txn | txe | ths | s | e | yn | zn | Sum |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C12b | 18 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 28 |
| C13a | 23 | 4 | 19 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 9 | 14 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 85 |
| C13b | 20 | 3 | 23 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 64 |
| C14a | 5 | 13 | 28 | 9 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 64 |
| Sum | 66 | 21 | 72 | 24 | 7 | 9 | 4 | 10 | 14 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 241 |
| DIALECT | nn | n | ne | x | xe | xn | xte | hn | he | tn | tx | txn | txe | ths | s | e | yn | zn | Sum |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | 0 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 15 |
| NEM | 14 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 |
| NWM | 7 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 37 |
| SEM | 14 | 20 | 9 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 52 |
| SWM | 31 | 1 | 26 | 7 | 5 | 7 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 84 |
| SW | 0 | 0 | 16 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 24 |
| SE | 0 | 0 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 15 |
| Sum | 66 | 21 | 72 | 24 | 7 | 9 | 4 | 10 | 14 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 241 |
ǯϤФΤޤ˺Ƥǯܥ֥Ǥ1Ⱦ˼夲ϤǤ롥14ˡAmerican Dialect Society ˤ 2012ǯ The Word of the Year ɽ줿ޤ Twitter Υܥ hashtag Ǥ롥#263. 1990ǯ2009ǯޤǤαѸήԸޡ ([2010-01-15-1]) Ǹ褦ˡ2009ǯ WOY twitter ΤΤäȤ碌ƹͤȡοǥαƶϤ礭Ƽ´롥θϼΤ褦롥
Hashtag refers to the practice used on Twitter for marking topics or making commentary by means of a hash symbol (#) followed by a word or phrase.
ޤΤۤ͡ޤߤƤ뤬MOST USEFUL μޤ -(po)calypse, -(ma)geddon (hyperbolic combining forms for various catastrophes) MOST CREATIVE 礫ϡgate lice (airline passengers who crowd around a gate waiting to board) MOST UNNECESSARY MOST OUTRAGEOUS 2ƤΤϡlegitimate rape (type of rape that Missouri Senate candidate Todd Akin claimed rarely results in pregnancy) MOST EUPHEMISTIC Ǥϡself-deportation (policy of encouraging illegal immigrants to return voluntarily to their home) MOST LIKELY TO SUCCEED 礫 marriage equality (legal recognition of same-sex marriage) LEAST LIKELY TO SUCCEED 礫 phablet (mid-sized electronic device between a smartphone and a tablet) ڤ YOLO (acronym for "You Only Live Once," often used sarcastically or self-deprecatingly) ޤǯοȤ ELECTION WORDS 礫ϡbinders (full of women) (term used by Romney in the second presidential debate to describe the resumes of female job candidates that he consulted as governor of Massachusetts) Ф줿
¾ĿŪˤ MOST CREATIVE ΥΥߥ͡Ȥ˵ä alpacalypse (the Mayan apocalypse predicted for Dec. 21, 2012 (alpaca + -lypse)) ⤷ΥΥߥ͡ȸʤɡܤץ쥹ɤޤĤƤήԸоݤμޤˤĤƤϡAll of the Words of the Year, 1990 to Present ڤӡܥ֥ woy εȡ
ٸΤˤߤطİˡˤϡŪ˷ǥ (family_tree) Ⱦǥ (wave_theory) Ƥ롥ԤȤΤϷˤäɽ蘆² (language_family) ȤͤǤꡤԤȤΤ (linguistic_area Ǥ롥ξԤΩˤĤƤϡ##999,1118,1236,1302,1303,1313,1314 ʤɤγƵǼ夲Ƥºݤˤϡ#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) ǵ褦ˡξǥΩطȤϡߤ䴰٤طȤۤŬڤߤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤŪˤϤޤƤʤΤǤ롥
ǥϡξǥäʷͻ礵褦Ȼߤη̤ȤƤ줿⤬³ʿեǥ (punctuated equilibrium) Ǥ롥
³ʿեǥΤ餳˻ФäƤ뤬ǤפȻפսĹ˰Ѥ褦
ܽǻϤ벾ΩƤ強ǯ˥ɥåȥɤϤȯɽʪؤˤ³ʿ (punctuated equilibrium) Ȥǥ̼οʲˤѲΤʤĹΰȡ٤Ū®ʼʬȷѲˤäħŤִȤ벾ͤ˿ȯ졤ιͤȯãȵƤϤƤߤΤǤ롥ˤʬδ֤ʿվ֤ݤƤϰˤϡ¿Ρ褦ʥȿĤäȹͤ롥ǤϤɤνĤ¾νĤξˤȤ櫓礭ϤĤȤȤϤʤ줾줬ʬθޤäƤθϡŪʿդݤĤĹ֤ˤ錄äƸŤäƤޤäŻ߾֤ä櫓ǤϤʤĬδΤ褦ˤäꤷѲܤϤäɤ餫ȤоʤΤʿդˤˬ졤Ѳ롥Ǥ乿ʤɤμҳˤΤ⤷ʤƻȯޤ̤ȯãϤؤΰưǽˤβɡˤȯã佡ŪάˤҤ줿Τ⤷ʤʿվ֤ˤ뤳Τ褦ǤϡˤƸ֤˺Ūѳפ⤿餹Ȥʤ롥Τ͡νĤϳĥꡤʬꤹ롥η뤬ŬѤǤΤϤΡĹʿմδ֤˶ޤäƤ뤴ûǴʤΤǤ롥
οǤϡʿմδ֤ˡƱϰ¸ߤۤʤ֤˼θħŤ뷹ꡤĹ֤ƤǤϤ뤬Ĥζ̤θ˼«롥ƳĥʬħŤǴˤϡĤζĸ줫ʬơϢο줬ȯãΤǤ롥
βεȷӤĤˤϤĤβǽͤ롥Ĥϡ줬ѤˤäȡĤޤǯʾ⤫äƤۤοɴθ侯ʸˡܤ䤷ƤȤäˡ̤ȯãθ줫鸶Ūʸˡ˾⤷Ū졤ƶŪˤȿʲƸλѤˤʤ롤ȤΤιͤڽϤȤϰ㤦οʹ֤Ūꤷ֤Τʤ褷ǧΡãǽϤ䤷ƤäȻפϻʤäΤǤϤʤˡʤ餫ǴˬƸ줬ȯΤȹͤ롥βϤʤ˵뤤¿ʬΤˤϡŪʸդҤȤषäƤʣʤ餤ʬȯãޤ˸ȸƤ٤ΤǤäΤǤϤʤȻפƼˤޤĹʿմϤޤ롥 (4--5)
ԤϡΰѤθǡ2ǯäˤοɴǯϳʤǴǤꡤǥǤ褯ʬäƤΤȼĥ롥ޤǥǤĸΤȤ館ˤĤƤϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Ǵ˲ĹŪʿմδ֡ϰο͡ŪĴ¤ݤä褹롥θħޤ¿ʸŪȵڤ롥Ʊϰθϸߤ˻̤äΤȤʤäƤθϰĤζ̤θ˸äƼ«䤬ơμ«ˤȤηطʤǸǴˤäüܤ䤱Ƥ (129)
ǥħŤγĥʬȤǰ˴ŤơӸؼԤϤФĸǴ˵®ʬηޤ줿ΤǤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤʤ¿ʬǤϤʤǴĹʿմδ֤˴ַŪ˶ޤΤǡĸô²λϤޤϤǤʿմߤ롥ĤޤꡤĤθǸ֤μ«ޤ줿֤²βϤȤʤäΤȻפºݡĤθ²ϤäĤθ줫ޤФ櫓ǤϤʤΤǤϤʤ (138)
ǸˤĤƤϡ#736. ѸΡֵפʣ ([2011-05-03-1]) Ǥ⾯줿Ǥ롥
ǥϡȥꥢϤȤνΥեɥˤäθ˴Ť³ʿեǥꤽʲǤƤȿڤۤǽȤǤϡιɾ Nostratic ² ([2012-05-16-1]) ȰۤʤʤǤ⡤ФΩǥȾǥȤ礭ʸˤΥѥʤΤʤ礷褦Ȥˤ϶롥
ǥ˴ؤƤϡIIIϡַǥϤɤޤͭפǤ롥
ǥR. M. W. ظζ˴١ȽŹ2001ǯ
2ȤƱѸؽݤɸȤѸѼ (the target variety of English) ϡۤȤɤξ硤"Standard English" ɸѸˤϤΤˤ "the Standard variety of English" ɽǤʤ¸ߤΤȻפǤ롥#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1]) ǸȤꡤvariety ȤǰΤޤʤΤ顤the Standard variety λؤΤƤȤʤ餶ʤȤϼǤ롥#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) εͽ̤ۤꡤɸѸʤѼޤ fiction Ǥ롥
fiction Ǥ뤳ȤˡɸѸꤹ뤳Ȥˤϰ̣롥Ȥ⡤Τ褦Ѽ¸ߤƤդʤСѸؽɸŪ⡤Ѹ츦оݤޤ餺«ʤ㤨СQuirk et al. Ѹ쵭ҤΥåȤȤƤΤ "the common core" ȸƤǤΤǤꡤɸѸפȻؼƤΤ礭Ťʤ[2009-12-10-1]ε#227. ѸѼΥǥפȡˡޤǯELF (English as a Lingua Franca) ȤǰΩѸΥǥ˴ؤ (model_of_englishes) WSSE (World Standard Spoken English) ʤѼоȤ夬äƤʤǡɸѸȤ̤ʤ
λؼоݤª¸ߤΤǤ뤫顤ɸѸȤΤϻζȤTrudgill ϼΤ褦Ϳ
Standard English is that variety of English which is usually used in print, and which is normally taught in schools and to non-native speakers learning the language. It is also the variety which is normally spoken by educated people and used in news broadcasts and other similar situations. The difference between standard and nonstandard, it should be noted, has nothing in principle to do with differences between formal and colloquial language, or with concepts such as 'bad language'. Standard English has colloquial as well as formal variants, and Standard English speakers swear much as others. (5--6)
ɤɤۤªɤʤΤȤꤢϤդŶƤۤʤαѸѲƤ븽ˤơɸѸϤޤޤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman, 1972.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
줢뤤ֻ up ϡޥĸ *upp- ʥ op, ɥĸ auf, ťΥɸ uppˡ ˤϰĸ *upo ̤롥ϡֲءפǤꡤѸΡ־ˡפؤĤʤΤ̣ȤˡϢƥ sub 䥮ꥷ hupó ϵǤֲפơֲˡפθ뤳Ȥˤʤäsub- ʲ, super- ʾ, hyp(o)- ʲ, hyper- ʾ ʤɡ岼줿ȯãǤʴϢơ[2010-04-14-1]ε#352. ƥ /s/ ȥꥷ /h/ бڤ[2010-04-12-1]ε#350. hypermarket supermarketפȡˡʤѸ over Ʊ̤롥
Ѹˤ up б down ϡ츻ޤä̤ΤȤˤ롥űѸ of dūne (from the hill) Ǥꡤadūne Ƚ̤ޤäˡθƬ첻üơűѸˤ dūne ȤƸƤ롥Ĥޤꡤ졦ֻ down ϡƱ۵ȤƼˤ̸ФȤƵƤ̾ down ä˥ӤŬ뾮⤤ϡˤȡ츻ŪˤϴϢƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ˤ North Downs South Downs ȸƤФӤäƤ뤬 down Ǥ롥֤ȤϹ⤯ƾˤΤ顤줬 down ȤΤ̯ʤΤ

űѸ dūne ʵ֡ˤͳϤ餯ΦΥȸ *dūnom ʺ֡ˤˤꡤ˱ѸȤʤޤ衼åѽؤȼѤ줿ȹͤ롥ؼ줿֤եͳ dune Ȥơ18˺ƤӱѸäƤΤȤΰ̣ϡֺ֡פä
ʤĸˤޤ̤СѸ town down Ʊʸֺ֡פȡˤǤꡤ츻Ūˤ downtown Ȥ̯Ȥ߹碌Τ褦˻פƤ롥
夫褯狼ʤʤäǤ
#1389. between θ츻 ([2013-02-14-1]) ڤӺε#1393. between Ū۷֤˭٤([2013-02-18-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥbetween Ūʰ۷֤ʬۤHelsinki Corpus ǤäĴƤߤĴη̡ѥ between η֤Ȥ 97 types, 793 tokens ǧ줿ʲϤ97ΰ۷֤֡Ǥ롥
be-twen, be-twene, be-twix, be-twyen, be-twyn, be-twyx, be-twyxe, betuen, betuene, betuh, betuih, betuixt, betun, betux, betuyx, betwe, between, betweene, betwen, betwenan, betwene, betweoh, betweohn, betweon, betweonan, betweonen, betweonon, betweonum, betweox, betweoxan, betwex, betwi, betwih, betwihn, betwinan, betwinum, betwioh, betwion, betwix, betwixe, betwixt, betwixte, betwixts, betwne, betwoex, betwonen, betwuh, betwux, betwuxn, betwyh, betwyn, betwynan, betwyne, betwyx, betwyxe, betwyxen, betwyxte, bi-tuine, bi-twen, bi-twene, bi-twenen, bi-tweohnen, bi-tweone, bi-tweonen, bi-twexst, bi-twext, bi-twihan, bi-twixst, bituen, bituene, bituhe, bituhen, bituhhe, bituhhen, bituien, bituih, bituin, bituix, bitunon, bitweies, bitwen, bitwene, bitwenen, bitwenenn, bitweon, bitweone, bitweonen, bitweonon, bitweonum, bitwex, bitwexe, bitwien, bitwih, bitwix, bitwixe, bitwixen, bitwyxe
793η֤δǤޤȤƽפΤưפǤϤʤϸʳˤ첻ΰ㤤̵뤹뤳Ȥˤ2ʹߤλҲʤȡ⤷и첻ˤμȤ߹碌ˤäƽפ㤨С"nm", "nn", "x", "xt" Ȥפϡ줾 betweonum, betweonan, betwyx, betwixt ʤɤη֤ɽ롥ʲɽϡHelsinki Corpus ˤʬȤεʤä O1 ʸűѸ1ˤλ10ˤ̻ŪѲΤǤ롥
| nm | nn | n | ne | x | xe | xn | xt | xte | xst | xts | h | hn | hnn | he | s | e | i | Sum | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| O2 | 14 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 31 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 64 |
| O3 | 5 | 22 | 16 | 0 | 56 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 48 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 147 |
| O4 | 1 | 15 | 3 | 0 | 22 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 44 |
| M1 | 0 | 28 | 4 | 8 | 13 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 68 |
| M2 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 32 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 42 |
| M3 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 31 | 24 | 18 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 83 |
| M4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 11 | 25 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 56 |
| E1 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 66 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 25 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 108 |
| E2 | 0 | 0 | 23 | 44 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 31 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 104 |
| E3 | 0 | 0 | 54 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 77 |
| Sum | 20 | 67 | 125 | 200 | 156 | 25 | 5 | 72 | 15 | 4 | 1 | 82 | 8 | 1 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 793 |
#1389. between θ츻 ([2013-02-14-1]) εǡbetween θ츻between Ϣʤ֤Τۤbetwixt Ϣʤ֤ǧűѸѸˤϤ˰ۤʤ⸫줿
㤨СűѸ bitwih Ѹ bitwihe(n) Τ褦 h ĤΤǧ롥ϡűѸκƷ "two" ̣ȾǤгʷ *twîhn Τ褦 h ޤǤȤͳ褹롥Ѹ˸ -e(n) ϡbitwene(n) ʤɤη֤˴ŤDzä줿Τh ޤˤĤƤϡMED "bituhhe(n (prep.)" ȡޤbitweies Τ褦ʷ֤Ѹʸڤ롥ϡ嵭 bitwih ʤɤη֤°ʸä줿Τȹͤ롥MED "bitweien, bitweies (prep.)" ȡ
Τ褦ˡäѸˤϰ۷֤ҤᤤʬۤƤMustanoja (369) ˤФ줾δ֤˰̣ζ̤ϤʤäȤѸˤΩ֤ˤĤơMustanoja ΰѤä褦
BETWEEN(EN); BETWEIEN (BETWEIES); BETWIX(EN), BETWIXT, BETWUX); BETUH
Between(en), from OE betweonum, and betwix(en, betwixt, betwux, betwixen), from OE betweox (-ix, -ux), are both found throughout the ME period, as in betweien (betweies), which results from a contamination of between with the numeral tweien. Betuh, a continuation of OE betweoh (-uh, -ih), survives only in earliest ME. The -en forms occur mainly in the more southern parts of the country. There do not seem to be any noticeable differences in meaning between these words.
All the ME functions of these prepositions survive in present-day uses of between. In the sense 'among' between and betwix seem to occur somewhat more frequently in ME than today: --- þatt time þatt he come himm sellf Bitwenenn hemm to spellenn (Orm. 9422); --- the pitous joye . . . Bitwix hem thre (Ch. CT B ML 1115).
Ω֤϶ʹߤ˲äƤ椭Ǥϸ betwixt between ؤȴ˼«Ȥ뤬ɤΤ褦ʷаޤǼ«ΤHelsinki Corpus Ĵ٤Ƥߤ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ѸˤơƵ̾ (reflexive pronoun) ȤѸ줫۵Τϡ̾kill oneself turn oneself Τ褦ưưŪλؼоݤΤΤƱǤѤ롤üʿ;̾η֤Ǥ롥ˡ by oneself ʤɤ̤ȤС줬Ƶ̾ΤۤͣˡǤȹͤƤ롥behave oneself, pride oneself on, oversleep oneself Τ褦Ʊ褦˹ͤƤ褤Ĥޤꡤbehave, pride, oversleep ¾ưǤꡤŪ줬ƱΤؼ뤬椨˺Ƶ̾줬ѤƤΤȹͤƤ褤Τkill oneself ȤۤʤäƤ褦˴ʤ
¤ϡŪˤϡbehave, pride, oversleep ˸³Ƶ̾ϡгʡưľŪˤǤϤʤͿʤäĤޤꡤ"for oneself" "to oneself" ۤɤΰ̣ɽ路ưȤϤޤǴŪ˷ӤĤƤˤʤСưϤޤǼưȤѤƤȤȤѸ䤽θζѸ˻ޤǡƵ̾Ϸ֤Ȥ -self ȼΤȡ-self ȼʤñȤ¸ƤᡤѸ줢Ǥ⡤ñѤμϻ礫ʤٹϤͿʤκƵ̾ˡȿŪ (reflexive object) ȸƤǤꡤʸĤƤ (137--38)
Hie thee hence! Fare thee well! / I fear me that thou hast overreached thyself at last. ---H. R. Haggard.
I followed me close.---Shakespeare.
They knelt them down.---Scott.
Then lies him down the lubber fiend.---Milton.
I sat me down and stared at the house of shaws.---Stevenson.
Would it not be better to absent himself from the concert and nurse his dream?---Edith Wharton.
Behave yourself!---Joyce.
I to the sport betook myself again.---Wordsworth.
In this perplexity, he bethought himself of applying for information to one of the warders.---Ainsworth.
Aunt Winifred prides herself on her coffee.---Galsworthy.
They entered the vestibule and sat themselves down before the wide hearth.---H. R. Haggard.
She's not very ill any more. Console yourself, dear Miss Briggs. She has only overlaten herself.---Thackeray.
He started up in bed, thinking he had overslept himself.---Hardy.
⡤ФȤƤϤʤƵ̾줬ѤΤʬ꤫ͤФǤ롥ȯμưȺƵ̾줬㤬¿ˤĤƤϡ#578. go him ([2010-11-26-1]) ǿ줿̤Ǥ롥
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
ѸȥڥȸζϲŪˤϡʬŪǤȤޥϸθ캬ĸä¿ȤġθܤˤĤƻŦ뤳ȤǤŤߤ˶1ĵȤΤҲŪˤСñǤ롥θ lingua franca Ǥ롤ȤȤѸȥԥζҥ¯ƥζˤƤƱǤ롥
[2012-04-17-1], [2012-04-18-1], [2012-04-19-1]ε lingua franca ȤѸˤĤĴ٤ҲŪʸϤ餳Ѹȳǰˤ⤦ꤿWardhaugh (55) ˤСUNESCO lingua franca "a language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them" Ƥ롥Ǥϡθ줬ѤϰϤιˤĤƤϸڤƤʤΤǡʶƱΤǤΤѤƤ褦ʸξ lingua franca ȤȤˤʤ롥"used habitually" ˤ᤹СǵϳΤˤ lingua franca ̾ͤ
lingua franca ϤĤμʬ뤳ȤǤ (Wardhaugh 56)
(1) եꥫΥϥ쥢եꥫΥҥΤ褦˸ŪѤ "trade language"
(2) 奮ꥷˤ koiné ʥ͡ˤ衼åѤˤ¯ƥΤ褦˽̤ܿȤƤ "contact language"
(3) ѸΤ褦˹ŪѤ "international language"
(4) Esperanto ([2011-12-15-1]) Basic English ([2011-12-13-1]) Τ褦ʿˤ "auxiliary language"
(5) ʥξƱΤäƤ롤ʸˡȥեθäͻ礵̱²Ūǥƥƥôä Michif Τ褦 "mixed language"
ۤˤ嵭ƤϤޤС泤θ̸Ȥʤä SabirγϰDZƶؤ Arabic, Mandarin, Hindi γƸ졤19Ⱦ British Columbia Alaska ˤƹѤ Chinook Jargon ʤɤ롥
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ε#1389. between θ츻 ([2013-02-14-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡbetween among λȤʬϡѸθˡȤ̾Ǥꡤ¿ʸˡ仲ͽǿƤ롥̤˱ʸˡˤֻλȤʬäƼפǤ⤢ΤֻܼŪʰ̣뤳ȤοǤ롥Ǥϡbetween among Τ줾ħṬ̌Ȥϲ
ξֻγƼˡˤĤƤ OED ʬƾܺ٤˵ҤƤΤǡäɤΤ褤λͽȡbetween ϸŻ뤷among ϽŻ뤹ȤäħŦƤ뤳Ȥ¿Τ between 2ȤȷӤĤפʤΤ2ȤȷӤĤбǤ롥among ϡ2礭ʿȷӤĤ䤹ΤϳΤפʤΤ϶ŪʸġιȤȤΤȴϢŤȤȤ
⤷ among 3ʾפ̣ˡγˤȤƤĤΤǤСamong the soldiers ȤĤ˸Ŀͤդä *among the soldiers and John ȸºݤˤϸʤޤ*the relations among a, b, c, d, and e ʤɤȸ̤˹뤳ȤǤʤϽθ§ȿ뤫ȹͤ롥
դˡbetween 3ʾפŪ˼ͤȡˤϸ뤷ޤ2αĹˤȤ̣Ǥ3ʾǤ롥the divisions and conflicts between the various parts of Christendom, the fullest collaboration between all nations, a white and shining road between the singing nightingales, with long pauses between the sentences ʤɤ᤹ȡʤۤɤŪ3ʾǤ뤬ޤ2Ȥñ̤ĴȤȤ߹碌ܿǰƬ֤Ƥɤ롥
between Ū빽οȡߤδ֤δطˤĤơŪʴɵ椷ʥǥޡԤȤߤBolbjerg ʸ롥ۤŰŪ˰¸ between äʸϤʤϰפϤʤ¤ȤƤ롥˵Τޤ between ̣positive, negative, synthetic, analytic, midway, front, complex, reciprocity, interrelation ʤɤȤäȼѸȳǰȤơֻˡ줤ʬषΤǤ롥Ǿܺ٤Ҥ٤뤳ȤϤǤʤ (Bolbjerg 132) ˵Ƥ wires between the houses between the teeth ˤȤäơ6ĤˡޤȤ褦
| wires between the houses | between the teeth | |
|---|---|---|
| MIDWAY | "wires lying between the two houses" | "a fishbone between the teeth" (two) |
| FRONT | "wires (being extended) from one house to another" | "the distance between the teeth" (two) |
| RECIPROCITY | "wires connecting two houses" | "nip a cigar between the teeth" (one in lower, one in upper jaw) |
| TWO-ROW SYSTEM | "(overhead) wires (for tramcars) between two rows of houses" | "with a handkerchief between the teeth" (lower and upper jaw) |
| ONE-ROW SYSTEM | "wires between houses in a row (like railway carriages)" | "the interstices between the teeth" (lower or upper jaw) |
| ABSTRACT CONNECTION | "(telephone) wires connecting all houses individually" | "the similarity between the teeth" (types of teeth) |
Thus between, inherently dual in character, has the function of a feeler, i.e. it establishes a relation from one element to another or others individually. It cannot grasp a heap-like area, but must seek units one by one. It is a linguistic organ of touch built as a line. The feeler may act as a medium, as 'something between', i.e. an intermediate element with relations to either side. Or it may create a distance, or 'nothing between'. Finally it may function synthetically: feeling its way along by touching left and right, thus establishing a path between two rows of objects, --- or analytically: touching each of a number of objects individually or severally for examination.
Bolbjerg ʸɤǻʤˤޤȤȡbetween Ͽȴطֻ졤ʤֻǤꡤްդamong ϾֻǤꡤްդ롤ȤȤˤʤ
ǥޡˤϡ#1074. Hjelmslev θء ([2012-04-05-1]) Τ褦Ūʸؤ뤬Bolbjerg ⤽ʤˤѤǤ뤫Τ褦˻פ碌ʸä
ʤbetween ζ̡ʬۤˡˤĤƤϡ#1068. choose between war or peace ([2012-03-30-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Bolbjerg, A. "Between and Among: An Attempt at an Explanation." English Studies 30 (1949): 124--32.
ʸˡǤϡbetween among λȤʬˤĤơԤϡ2ĤΤΤδ֡סԤϡ3İʾΤΤδ֡פΰ̣˻Ȥ٤ȤƤ롥ξԤζ̤εҤϡºݤλѤ˾Ȥ餷Ūʴ¿Խʬ٤§ȤƤͤ¿ε§εäΩĴפϡbetween θ츻ˤ롥츻 "by two" Ǥ뤫顤Ūˤ2ĤΤΤƤϤʤʤȤ櫓Ǥ롥
Ǥϡ⤦ܤ between θ츻ߤƤߤ褦űѸǤϡbetwēonum η betwēon ηȤäԤθȾ -twēonum Ͽ twā (two) ʣͿʷбԤθȾ -twēon Ʊʣгʷб롥Ԥηϡbetwēonan ʤɤΰ۷֤ȯãѸ bitwene(n) ȤʤꡤԤη˸¤줿Ѹ bitwen Ȥʤäμ岽ȾüˤꡤɤΤȤ15ˤ2ͻ礷 between Ϣʤ֤ΩĤޤꡤbetween ϡűѸ̤2η֤Ѹˤͻ礷̤뤳ȤǤ롥űѸ between the seas ʤɤιʸϡbe sǣm twēonum "by seas two" ȤƸ뤳Ȥ顤 "by" "two" ̡ŪǽôäƤȹͤ뤬"by two seas" Τ褦ܤ֤¤Ȥˡ1Ĥʣֻʬ (metanalysis) ˻äΤˡto us-ward to-ward us ΰʬϤ롥
ơbetween ˤϡŤᤫƱ줬롥betwixt Ǥ롥ϸűѸ betwēox ͳ褹뤬Ⱦ -twēox ̤ȡޥĸ *twa "two" + *-iskaz "-ish" ˤɤĤ2ĤۤɤΤΤδ֡פȤ褦ʡȤäΤűѸǤ betwux, betyx ʤɤΰ۷֤äѸǤ bitwix(e) ʤɤη֤ͥȤʤä1300ǯˡDracula ˸ whilst ([2010-09-17-1]) #739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ -t źä졤줬̲ʤѸθˡbetwixt and between ʤɤäĤϤäꤷʤˤȤ礬롥
Ѹˤ֤ʤɤϡMED "bitwēne (prep.)" "bitwix(e) (prep.)" ȡ
ʤƬ˽Ҥ٤ between among εŪʻȤʬˤĤơOED "between, prep., adv., and n." ϸ19ˤơŪʴʰոҤ٤Ƥ롥
In all senses, between has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than two. . . . It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally and individually, among expressing a relation to them collectively and vaguely: we should not say 'the space lying among the three points,' or 'a treaty among three powers,' or 'the choice lies among the three candidates in the select list,' or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower'.
Fowler's (106) Ǥ⡤Ūʶ̵̤뤳ȤƤ롥 (176) Ǥϡbetween 3İʾΤΤѤˡϼǧ뷹ꡤäƹǤϤηפȤ롥
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ
Ѹʸˡˡto ΰ̣μɽ魯ˡfor + ̾פ֤빽ʸ롥 for ϼȤʸˡŪʵǽôäƤˤ¼Ūʰ̣⤿ʤΤǡ"inorganic for" ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ롥for . . . to . . . ʸεȯãϱѸˤǤ˰ƤѸΤ褦ƱʸͳѤǤϥޥϤƤʤͳʻȤ "Hearne was no critic. A hasty and ill-natured judgment might conclude that it sufficed for a document to appear old for him to wish to print it." ʤɤʤ顤Zandvoort (265) inorganic for ޤʸˤĤƼΤ褦ɾƤ롥
Both in familiar and in literary style this construction has branched out in so many directions that not only has it become one of the most distinctive features of modern English syntax, but on occasion, too, one of those that may be employed to give to an utterance a somewhat esoteric turn.
ǼͳȸƤǤΤϡ"It is absurd for us to quarrel." Τ褦ŵŪˡΤߤʤ餺͡Ķ˸줦뤫㤨С"The rule was for women and men to sit apart." Τ褦ʼǤˡ"For us to have refused the loan would have been a declaration of economic war." Τ褦ʾ濫뤤Ϸ̤ˡ"She longed for him to say something." "I always wanted so for things to be beautiful." Τ褦ưθ֤ˡ"I am not afraid for them to see it." Τ褦˷ƻθ֤ˡ"There were cries for the motion to be put." Τ褦̾ȴؤäŪɽ魯ˡʤɡZandvoort (268) ϡinorganic for ΤˡηŪ˵ҤʸˡʤʤǡKruisinga ̤ιֵΡȤ˼ƤʷˤŪͤҤĤ仿
Prepositional Object and Stem with to.
Type: I shall be glad for you to help us. --- With regard to the facts of Living English it must be understood that the constr. is a supplementary one to the plain object & stem. the two are really parallel: a) the plain obj. & verbal stem are used with verbs; b) the preposit. object & stem is used with nouns & adjectives chiefly, and as a subject & nom. predicate, i.e. in practically all the other functions when a stem with to can be used at all. Finally the prep. obj. with stem is found with verbs, in a more or less clearly final meaning (see quot. in Shorter Acc.: pushing the glasses along the counter nodded for them to be filled).
"It is absurd for us to quarrel." ʤɤιʸεˤĤƤϡѸˤǤ "It is absurd for us | to quarrel." "It is absurd | for us to quarrel." Ȥʬ (metanalysis) ˤΤȤƤ롥Zandvoort (269) ϡΰʬϤǽȤʤ뤿ˤ for us absurd θ˸뤳ȤɬפǤꡤѸθǤϤξƤȤŻ뤹롥ɥĸ䥪Ǥϡ for us ʬϷƻ˸ΤǤꡤʬϤϤʤƱ²ȤӤ˴Ťιʸεˤ "the fixity of English word-order" (269) ȤޤɬפȤμĥϤ롥
Zandvoort, R. W. "A Note on Inorganic For." English Studies 30 (1949): 265--69.
16Ⱦ17ȾФˤơؼԤ䶵դˤѸֻפαưäդλϡ#441. Richard Mulcaster ([2010-07-12-1]) άҤĤޤǤ John Cheke (1514--57)Thomas Smith (1513--77), John Hart (d. 1574), William Bullokar (1530?--1590?) ʤɤȤɽ̾ΤȤ˵ŪʲפܻؤΤФ Richard Mulcaster (1530?--1611) ϴ¸ֻηϤ¤Ѥ벺ʲפܻؤ
ŪˡθֻɸಽϩϡMulcaster Τ褦ʲʲפ˱äΤȤʤäȤΤƤ롥Mulcaster ɤľŪˤθϩ˱ƶͿΤŪɾΤˤϲƤʤθ Francis Bacon (1561--1626) Dr Johnson (1709--84) ˤäƷѾ뤳Ȥˤʤ벺ϩʷϵ˹ȤȤϸ䤿ѤƤɸֻȤδطϤɤޤľŪʤΤ
ɾˤĤƻŦƤ٤ȤϡMulcaster ϡƥ䥮ꥷ˴Ť etymological respelling ʸʤɤԤʤäƤʤȤǤ롥Brengelman (351--52) Ѥ롥
Mulcaster omits d in advance, advantage, adventure, the c in victual, indict, and verdict, the g in impregnable and sovereignty, the n in convent, b in doubt and debt, h in hemorrhoids, l in realm, h in rhyme; he does not use th, ph, and ch in Greek words such as authentic, blaspheme, and choleric. Base-final t becomes c before certain suffixes---impacient, practiocioner, substanciall---and in general Mulcaster's spelling reflects the current pronunciation of words of Latin origin and in part their French spelling.
ѺǸˤƱեδŪֻ˽Ȥϡ1 Caxton ٤Ƥ礭ʰ㤤ϤʤȤˤʤ롥Caxton ΥեŪֻСactour; adjoust, adourer; adresse, emense; admiracion, commocyon, conionccion; publique, poloticque ʤɤ (Brengelman 352)
ɸֻˤߤ etymological respelling ˴ؤƤСϼȤ Mulcaster θλ塤17ˡؼԤμˤäƳΩ줿ȹͤƤ褤Brengelman (352) ϡ17 etymological respelling ѤͻҤEberhard Buchmann ʸ (Der Einfluß des Schriftbildes auf die Aussprache im Neuenglischen. Univ. of Berlin diss., 1940) ȤƤ롥
From the list of words Eberhard Buchmann assembled to show the influence of the written language on modern spoken English we can see some of the general rules seventeenth-century scholars followed in restoring Latin spellings: c is restored in arctic, -dict (indict), -duct (conduct), -fect (perfect); a is replaced by ad- (administer, advance, adventure); h is restored in habit, harmony, heir, heresy, hymn, hermit); l is restored in alms, adultery. Other letters lost in French are restored: p (-rupt) (corpse), r (endorse), s (baptism), n (convent), g (cognizance). Greek spellings (following Latin conventions) are also restored: ph in diphthong, naphtha; ch in schedule, schism; th in amethyst, anthem, author, lethargy, Bartholomew, Thomas, Theobald, to cite a few. Buchmann's investigation shows that most of these changes had been generally adopted by the beginning of the eighteenth century; modern pronunciation has adjusted itself to the spelling, not the reverse.
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.
#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1]) άҤ褦ˡѸֻηϤ礭ħϡ logographic ȤȤǤֻɽ魯ȤܻؤƤꡤˤɽ¿쾯ʤ쵾ˤƤ롥ħȤϴˤ䤫ʷȸƤ֤٤Τ⤷ʤŪΤʵҤǤ롥Brengelman (346) ϡħʤ극ʤŪΤɽƤ롥
The specific characteristics of the theory of English spelling which finally emerged were the following: Each morpheme ought to have a consistent, preferably etymological spelling. Each morpheme ought to be spelled phonemically according to its most fully stressed and fully articulated pronunciation (thus n in autumn and damn, d in advance and adventure), and the etymology ought to be indicated in conventional ways (by ch, ps, ph, etc. in Greek words; by writing complexion---not complection---because the word comes from Latin complexus).
פˡǥ٥ǤϼȤƸ츻ȤưӤɽܻؤǥ٥Ǥ (1) ƤȯбȤˤȡ(2) 츻餫ˤ뤿δ˽Ȥˡ˱äɽܻؤȤȤǤ롥ḽֻηϤħ褯Ȥ館ǤϤʤ
̣ȤˡˤǤ褯ȿǤƤΤϡĹƷ줷ѸǤ롥դˤСѸ˥ƥ䥮ꥷ줫μѸ줬äȤطʤä餳ħȯƤȤȤ⤷ʤ˴ϢơBrengelman 2ĤεҤɤǤߤ褦
Of all the improvements on English spelling made by the seventeenth-century orthographers, none was more important than their decision to spell the English words of Latin origin in a consistent way. Schoolmasters explained the process as showing the historical derivation of the words, but it did more than this: it showed their morphology. It is this development which makes possible a curious fact about English spelling: the longer and more bookish a word is, the easier it is to spell. No rules would lead a foreigner to spellings such as build or one, but he should easily spell verification or multiplicity. (350)
[E]nglish spelling began to be increasingly ideographic as early as the fourteenth century, and by the sixteenth, when the majority of readers and writers knew Latin, understanding was actually enhanced by Latinate spellings . . . . (351)
Ū˥ƥϱѸ¿¿ͤʱƶͿƤޤ1ġѸֻɸಽβˤƤ礭ʱƶͿƤȤȤ狼
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.
ε#1384. ֻɸಽ˹Τ17ؼԤȶա ([2013-02-09-1]) ޤ ##297,871,1312,1384 γƵǡȼԤֻɸಽ˹Ȥ뽾ؤȿƱͤˡɤˤǽΰȼ William Caxton (c1422--91) ֻɸಽ˹ʤäȹͤ٤Brengelman (337--39) ˵Ĥġ
(1) Caxton ϡȤư˱ơľε²ΤߤоݤȤư˲ʤ100ĶȯԤȤϤʤ
(2) Caxton ϼ餬¿Խ꤬ȤͤƤ⡤ȤΤΤô뵡Ϥۤ¿ʤäϤǤ롥
(3) Caxton ʤֻϰӤƤ餺եֻζƶƤ롥Malory Morte d'Arthur ǤСCaxton ϤषֻֻǰƤ롥
(4) Caxton ˤƽФñǤ顤ɸֻȤϰۤʤֻǰƤ롥ŪˤϡCaxton ˽ФΥޥϼѸ1384Τ170줬ߤˤޤǻĤäƤ뤬Caxton ֻȸߤɸֻȤפΤϡ170줦57ΤߤǤ롥פʤȾֻˤĤƤ⡤17˵ʲ줿ֻ§ӤơϢ³ʤ
(5) Caxton Ʊ塤ƱμܤֻӤƤߤȡξԤΤ variation ʬۤ礭ʰ㤤ʤ
κʤ顤Brengelman (339) ϡ"[I]t can hardly be true that Caxton had a major direct role in standardizing (not to mention regularizing) English spelling" ȷƤ롥
ʲդäBrengelman (336, fn 9) ǤϡϥɥĸˤƤȼԤդȯŸä˹櫓ǤϤʤȤ븦椬Ҳ𤵤Ƥ롥ȼԤϡ̤αƶˤäȯãս§äʽή̤ȤǽʳˤƹˤŪϤޤǴŪʤΤǤȤƤ롥
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.
Ѹ16--17ֻɸಽưȯ衤Ĭήطʤˤ15ȾΰѤƳäȤƤȤǯθˤȡѤƳľŪˤֻɸಽ˴ͿʤäΤǤϤʤȤǽ夬äƤε˴ؤƤϡ#297. ѤƳϱѸɸಽʤݤ ([2010-02-18-1]) #871. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ ([2011-09-15-1]) #1312. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ (2) ([2012-11-29-1]) Ǽ夲
Brengelman (333, 336) ˤȡȼԤֻɸಽ˹Ȥϡ餯20Ƭ George Philip Krapp ̤ꡤʹߤ¿θԤ˻ٻƤBrengelman ϡƱѶŪ˻ٻ뺬˳ष17ؼԤȶդϤˤȤ礭ȤơϤΤŸƤ롥ĹѤ褦 (Brengelman 354)
It thus seems clear that the extensive rationalization of English spelling which took place during the seventeenth century was the result of efforts by theoretical linguists and schoolmasters. There is no evidence at all that during the years when English spelling was being standardized the printing industry made any significant contribution to the process. The actual contribution of the printers to the evolution of English spelling seems to have been the following:
1. The elimination of most ligatures, abbreviatory symbols, and complementarily distributed letters. These spelling variants were eliminated in order to reduce the number of different sorts [type characters] constituting a particular alphabet.
2. Making possible the very wide distribution of texts exemplifying a particular selection of spellings. The English Bibles and Book of Common Prayer as well as certain school books issued by a very few publishing houses (a privilege granted by the King or Queen) may possibly have had an impact on the ultimate preference for certain spellings.
3. The reinforcement of modernizing, standardizing tendencies through the practice of bringing reprints and new editions into line with current spelling practice.
Thus English printers are seen to have played only an indirect role in the process of spelling rationalization that took place during the seventeenth century. In contrast, practically all of the spelling reforms urged by orthoepists and schoolmasters early in the century were adopted by authors during the middle years of the century. It is their effort which resulted in the vastly more rational spelling system that had become standard by the end of the century.
ֻɸಽΤϡȼԤΤ褦ʼ¶ȲȤäΤؼԤΤ褦ȤäΤ뤤ϡȼ路դǤϤ˸ȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤ
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.
[2013-01-05-1]ε#1349. procrastination פǡƥñ줬Ѹ˼ޤݤŬѤֲ§ˤĤơBloomfield ˵äƵε§ϡѸޤǤ˻ƥȤĹ̤̻ܿŪ˰ޤ졤Ū夷ΤǤ롥§ȤȾмȯãƤȸƤ褤⤷ʤռŪꤷ§Ǥ뤫Τ褦˲⤷Ҥ롥Thomas Blount Glossographia (1656) ǤGlossographia ޤ൭ȡˡBrengelman (353) ˡ Blount εҤޤȤޤäƤΤǡƸ롥
| LATIN | ENGLISH | EXAMPLES |
|---|---|---|
| -io | -ion | inquisition, ablution, abortion |
| -or | -or | agressor |
| -tura | -ture | abbreviature |
| -ista | -ist | agonist |
| -isma, -ismus | -ist | agonism, aphorism |
| Verb + o | -ate | abdicate, adumbrate |
| Verb + o (generally with long vowel) | -# | abduce, adjure, allude |
| Adj + is, us | -# | abject, abortive, angular, annual |
| -abilis | -able | arable |
| -ibilis | -ible | plausible |
| -us, -osus | -ous | abstemious, pernicious |
| Noun + a, um, us | -# | abysse, accent, alphabet |
| (rum, ra, rus) | -er | amber, alabaster |
| -ul- | -le | angle |
| -i + us, um, a, as | -y | arbitrary, anatomy, adultery, acclivity |
| -entia | -ency | adolescency |
| -ans | -ant | adjutant |
| -ens | -ent | adjacent |
(1) retain and Anglicize derivational endings; (2) delete purely inflectional endings; (3) leave prefixes and bases unchanged.
ε§˱ʤ㤬뤳Ȥ18ˤŦƤ뤬 (ex. explain, proceed, labour) Τ褦ʸϡǤ˼ˤƸ경ƤޤäƤΤ
ʤBlount ε§ϡ§Ū˸Ѹ Neo-Latin ¤ˤŬѤƤ롥Neo-Latin ¤ˤĤƤϡ#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ첽 ([2010-05-24-1]) ȡ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.
ѲɤΤ褦ˤȤ館뤫ȤˤĤƤϡѲγƵǰäƤ̾ʸʱѸ˳ؼ David Crystal (2) θѲѤΤƤߤ褦
[L]anguage is changing around you in thousands of tiny different ways. Some sounds are slowly shifting; some words are changing their senses; some grammatical constructions are being used with greater or less frequency; new styles and varieties are constantly being formed and shaped. And everything is happening at different speeds and moving in different directions. The language is in a constant state of multidimensional flux. There is no predictable direction for the changes that are taking place. They are just that: changes. Not changes for the better; nor changes for the worse; just changes, sometimes going one way, sometimes another.
Ѹˤܸˤ衤νִ֤ˤ⡤¿θܤۤʤ®٤ǰۤʤѲƤ롥"multidimensional flux" Ȥϸ̯Ǥ롥ޤѲŪŪ줿 (teleology) ϤʤȤˤ롥ŪˤϤäƤ˰㤤ʤŪ˰ݤ³뤳ȤϤʤʴϢ unidirectionality γƵȡˡŪȤϤäƤ⡤drift ȤƸڤ²ˤޤοΤ褦ˡǯȤĹˤ錄ְŪʡ⤢ˤϤ롥Τ褦˲餫ˤ衤줬ɤǤȤǤȤʹѤޤǤϤʤȤȤǧƤ褤Crystal Τ褦ˡ"just changes" ʤΤ
#432. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ ([2010-07-03-1]) ӡ#448. Vendryes ۩ָѲϿǤϤʤס ([2010-07-19-1]) ǤƱ褦ʵΤǡȤ
Crystal, David. "Swimming with the Tide in a Sea of Language Change." IATEFL Issues 149 (1999): 2--4.
ɸϡֲҲؤȤǤWardhaugh (15) ѤƤѸǡǯʬǤθ椬ƤȤWardhaugh ȤϡǤäƤ뤳Ȥ鼨褦ˡʬŪˤȤ館Ƥ롥
Wardhaugh (15) ˤСֲҲؼԤϡ츦̤ƼҲʿ߽Фᥫ˥餫ˤ褤Ҳ뤿ˤξ㳲ȤܻؤƤ롥δȤơFairclough van Dijk ̾Ƥ롥 "critical discourse analysis" ˤƽ뤵ƤΤϡ"how language is used to exercise and preserve power and privilege in society, how it buttresses social institutions, and how even those who suffer as a consequence fail to realize how many things that appear to be 'natural' and 'normal,' i.e., unmarked, are not at all so" Ȥ褦ʼҲǤ (Wardhaugh 15)
Fairclough (6) ϡμҲؤϼҲȸΤˤܼŪƧ߹ǤʤȽ롥
Sociolinguistics is strong on "what?" questions (what are the facts of variation?) but weak on "why?" and "how?" questions (why are the facts as they are?; how --- in terms of the development of social relationships of power --- was the existing sociolinguistic order brought into being?; how is it sustained?; and how might it be changed to the advantage those who are dominated by it?). (cited in Wardhaugh, p. 15)
ϡ¿ʬ˥ǥΤäҲؤȤäƤ褤ҲؤȾʬҲоݤˤƤʾ塤ҲؼԤϴ˥ǥ鼫ͳοȤǸԤʤȤϤǤʤ㤨СɤޤƤ Trudgill μҲؤγǤ⡤10Ϥʤɤ "interventionist" Ǥ롥ȤϤʤ뤳ȤˤꤹȡʳŪõ椬˸줫ͤʤˤդפ롥
Ϣơֲθءפ˸ڤ#1251. Ѹ쥪طʡ ([2012-09-29-1]) 䡤ʱѸȽä linguistic_imperialism γƵ⻲ȡ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Fairclough, N. Language and Power 2nd ed. London: Longman, 2001.
ε#1379. 2012ǯ٤Ф줿´ܡ ([2013-02-04-1]) ǡҲ (sociolinguistics) Τʤ macro-sociolinguistics ȸƤФ벼ʬ뤳ȤФΤ micro-sociolinguistics 뤤϶ sociolinguistics ȤȤˤʤ뤬ΩᤰäƤϻξ롥
Ԥ macro-sociolinguistics sociology of language ȤΤ褦ˡȤδϢǤߤҲˤĤƤγؤǤ롥СʤȤƼҲλȤߤ餫ˤȤݤǤ롥Ԥ micro-linguistics 뤤϶Ǥ sociolinguistics ϡҲȤδϢǤߤγؤǤ롥ϡҲȤƸλȤߤ餫ˤ뤳ȤŪȤƤ롥Wardhaugh (12--13) ˰ѤƤ Coulmas (2) ɽڤСΰ㤤ϼΤ褦˸ľȤǤ롥
[M]icro-sociolinguistics investigates how social structure influences the way people talk and how language varieties and patterns of use correlate with social attributes such as class, sex, and age. Macro-linguistics, on the other hand, studies what societies do with their languages, that is, attitudes and attachments that account for the functional distribution of speech forms in society, language shift, maintenance, and replacement, the delimitation and interaction of speech communities.
⤦Ūˤߤȡmacro-linguistics ȤƤϡLabov (30) Ҥ٤褦ˡΤ褦ʤΤWardhaugh, p. 13 ¹ˡ
[Macro-linguistics] deals with large-scale social factors, and their mutual interaction with languages and dialects. There are many open questions, and many practical problems associated with the decay and assimilation of minority languages, the development of stable bilingualism, the standardization of languages and the planning of language development in newly emerging nations. The linguistic input for such studies is primarily that a given person or group uses language X in a social context or domain Y.
Ҳؤٳ Trudgill micro-linguistics macro-linguistics Τ˶̤褦ȤԤWardhaugh ξԤΩˤϲŪCoulmas (3) ˻դʤ顤ΰƤ (Wardhaugh 13)
There is no sharp dividing line between the two, but a large area of common concern. Although sociolinguistic research centers about a number of different key issues, any rigid micro-macro compartmentalization seems quite contrived and unnecessary in the present state of knowledge about the complex interrelationships between linguistic and social structures. Contributions to a better understanding of language as a necessary condition and product of social life will continue to come from both quarters.
ؤҲؤȯŸӾǤꡤ줬Ȥ߹蘆äҲؤϤʤ餽Ǥ롥ȤäơҲؤξץѡظФƤϤʤȤȤˤϤʤʤषĤʤȤ˱٤ǤϤʤ̵˶̤褦ȤƳؼԴ֤ս㤬ФƤƤȤ⤢ꡤ micro-linguistics macro-linguistics ϴˤϢ³ΤȤȤ館Ƥۤ褤褦˻פ롥
ʤܸؤʬǤϡָ ȤʬȤ˰ޤƤΤθؤǤϤޤڤʤʬǤꡤmacro-linguistics °ΰȤƥˡ¸ߤǤʲƣۤpp. 259--60ˡ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Coulmas, F., ed. The Handbook of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.
Labov, W. "The Study of Language in its Social Context." Studium Generale 23 (1970): 30--87.
ƣ ɧ ɹ ԡܸ쳵١դ1989ǯ
ǯ٤⥼´ʸФ줿ǯ٤ϰʲ8ܤǤ롥ˤʬ̤¤٤Ƥߤ2009--2011ǯܥꥹȤ碌Ƥɤ (##1379,973,608,266)
(1) Ƭ in- un- κۤˤĤ --- Ƭ in- Ϥγ ---
(2) Ѹˤ clipping ˤ
(3) Semantic Prosody of Synonymous Verbs Meaning "To Keep in Mind"
(4) ư can ˤǽǽĤ3ˡ --- ŪƱ̻ŪѲδ ---
(5) Ѹäˤ뻰ع¤ȽŪͻ --- ƻ췲δ ---
(6) ݥƥ롦쥯ȥͥˤιͻ
(7) ޥȳع --- ȥꥢȤӤ ---
(8) ֱѸפϼºߤ --- Ѹ측Կ鸫ֱѸפ¸ ---
ǯ١ѥѤ´椬ƤȽҤ٤ǯ٤ (1), (3), (4), (5) 4ܤǥѥѤߤ줿ŪʸؤȤƷ֡졤̣áѤΥơޤ줾줢ǡ(6)--(8) ϼҲؤäˡ(7), (8) macro-sociolinguistics 뤤 sociology of language ȤʬǤꡤ´ΥơޤȤƤϡޤǤʤäƳƤ뼫ʬɤޤˤĤƹԤ뤫ȤȤƤȤ⤤뤬ؤٶˤʤäǯ٤´⡤variation ιȿ˴Ԥ
ε#1377. Gelderen ǡѸάǯɽ ([2013-02-02-1]) ޤᡤǶᡤѸǯɽˤäƤ##777,1368,1369,1377 ۤtimeline γƵ⻲ȡˡ
夲ƤΤϡǯʸŪǻʸŪǯɽФǯɽΤ褦ʤΤȤ⤷־õƤߤȤInfographic Showing the History of the English Language ʤڡĤˤѸˤγϽĹ1.5MBȽŤΤǡʲΤ褦˥åˤ륺Ȱưǽˤʤ뤤Υڡءˡ
ΥեեåäƤϡβˤ褦˰ʲΥȤȤѤȤ־ˤϡ餳ǯɽΥڡžäƤ褦
BBC British History in Depth: The Ages of English: #18. Ѹˤ饤dzؽǤ륵ȡ ([2009-05-16-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ΤƱ
Key Events in the History of the English Language: 켫ȤѸάǯɽ˾ܤĤƤ
Chronology of Events in the History of English: դαѸάǯɽ
Language Timeline: ǯñ̤ǤĤαѸάǯɽ
[2011-06-13-1] Crystal ǡ[2013-01-24-1] Fennel ǡ[2013-01-25-1]Υե㥯Ǥ˰³ѸǯɽϡGelderen αѸ˳ (313--17) ȴˤƤ⤽ǯɽ⡤٤ƱΡ㤦ΤįƤȡȯΤǤ롥
| 8000 BC | Hunter-gatherers move across Europe also into what is now the British Isles | |
| 6500 BC | Formation of English Channel | |
| 6000 BC | Shift to farming | |
| 3000 BC | Stonehenge culture | |
| 2500 BC | Bronze Age in Britain | |
| 1000 BC | Migrations of Celtic people to Britain begins | |
| 600 BC | Iron Age | |
| 55 BC--54 BC | Expeditions by Caesar | |
| 43 | Invasion by Claudius | |
| 43--47 | South and East England brought under Roman control | |
| 50 | London founded | |
| 70--84 | Wales, Northern England, and Scotland under Roman control | |
| 100--200 | Uprisings in Scotland | |
| 122 | Hadrian Walls begun | |
| 150 | Small groups of settlers from the continent | |
| 410 | Romans withdraw | |
| 450 | Hengest and Horsa come to Kent ('invited' to hold back the Picts) | |
| 455 | Hengest rebels against Vortigern | |
| 477 | Saxons in Sussex | |
| 495 | Saxons in Wessex | |
| 527 | Saxon kingdoms in Essex and Middlesex | |
| 550 | Anglian kingdoms in Mercia, Northumbria, and East Anglia | |
| 560 | Æthelberht becomes King of Kent | |
| 597 | Augustine missionaries land in Kent and conversion to Christianity starts | |
| 794 | Scandinavian attacks on Lindisfarne, Jarrow, Iona and subsequent conquest of Northumbria | |
| 865 | Scandinavian conquest of East Anglia | |
| 871--899 | Rule of King Alfred and establishment of the Danelaw | |
| 1016--1042 | Rule of King Cnut and his heirs | |
| 1042--1066 | Rule of King Edward (January 1066) | |
| 1066 | Death of King Edward (January 1066) | |
| 1066 | King Harold's defeat at Hastings and William of Normandy takes over (December 1066) | |
| 1066 | William (of Normandy) becomes king (December 1066) | |
| 1095 | First Crusade | |
| 1162 | Becket is murdered | |
| 1169--1172 | Conquest of Ireland | |
| 1204 | King John loses Normandy to the French | |
| 1282--1283 | Conquest of Wales | |
| 1290 | Expulsion of Jews from England | |
| 1315--1316 | Great Famine | |
| 1337--1453 | The 100-year War | |
| 1349--1351 | The Black Death, i.e. plague, kills one-third of the population | |
| 1362 | Statute of Pleadings (legal proceedings in English) | |
| 1381 | The Peasants' revolt | |
| 1382 | Condemnation of Wycliff | |
| 1476 | Introduction of the printing press by Caxton | |
| 1492 | Columbus reaches the 'New World' | |
| 1497 | Cabot reaches Newfoundland, Canada | |
| 1504 | St John's, Newfoundland, established as the first British colony in North America | |
| 1509--1547 | Reign of Henry VIII | |
| 1534 | Act of Supremacy, English monarch becomes head of the Church of England | |
| 1536 | Monasteries dissembled | |
| 1539 | English bible in every church | |
| 1550 | Population of England reaches 3 million | |
| 1558--1603 | Queen Elizabeth I | |
| 1600 | The East India Company is granted a charter | |
| 1607 | Settlement at Jamestown | |
| 1611 | The King James Bible (KJV) | |
| 1612 | English presence in Bermuda and in India | |
| 1620 | Pilgrim fathers establish colony in Plymouth | |
| 1624--1630 | War between England and Spain | |
| 1626--1629 | War between England and France | |
| 1627--1647 | Settlements on Barbados and the Bahamas | |
| 1629 | Charles I dissolves parliament | |
| 1642--1648 | First and Second Civil War | |
| 1649 | Charles I beheaded | |
| 1649 | Charles II becomes king | |
| 1649 | Jews officially admitted | |
| 1649--1655 | Cromwell conquers Ireland | |
| 1655 | English presence in Jamaica | |
| 1653--1660 | Cromwell is 'Lord Protector' | |
| 1660 | Charles II 'restored'' | |
| 1660 | Royal Society founded, to promote science | |
| 1670 | Hudson Bay Company active | |
| 1670--1679 | Colonization of West Africa | |
| 1688 | The Glorious Revolution | |
| 1689--1702 | Rule of William and Mary | |
| 1700 | Population of England is 5 million | |
| 1707 | Act of Union, uniting England and Scotland as the UK | |
| 1746 | Battle of Culloden; subsequent repression of Scottish Gaelic | |
| 1755 | Johnson's Dictionary | |
| 1759 | Wolfe takes Quebec for England | |
| 1760--1850 | Highland Clearances in Scotland, with resulting emigration and loss of Celtic | |
| 1763 | Trading in Basra, Iraq | |
| 1765--1947 | British rule over India | |
| 1773 | Boston Tea Party | |
| 1775--1783 | American War of Independence | |
| 1776 | American Declaration of Independence | |
| 1780--1789 | Colonies (of convicts) in Australia | |
| 1789 | French Revolution | |
| 1789 | George Washington first American president | |
| 1791 | British colonies in Upper and Lower Canada | |
| 1803 | Louisiana Purchase | |
| 1806 | British take over the Cape Colony in South Africa | |
| 1806 | Webster's Dictionary | |
| 1819--1824 | Malacca and Singapore occupied by the British | |
| 1820--1829 | Railroads in the US | |
| 1821--1823 | Irish famine | |
| 1830--1839 | Settlement of New Zealand | |
| 1834 | Slavery abolished in the British Empire | |
| 1842 | China cedes Hong Kong | |
| 1844 | First telegraph | |
| 1837--1901 | Reign of Queen Victoria | |
| 1853 | Gadsden Purchase | |
| 1853 | Japan opened to Western trade | |
| 1858 | Decision to start the OED | |
| 1861--1865 | American Civil War | |
| 1861 | British colony in Nigeria | |
| 1862 | British colony in Honduras | |
| 1865 | Abolition of slavery in the United States of America | |
| 1869 | Suez Canal opened | |
| 1876 | Telephone invented | |
| 1884 | Berlin Conference determines colonial power in Africa | |
| 1886 | Annexation of Burma | |
| 1890--1899 | Rhodesia and Uganda colonized in an attempt to control the Cape-to-Cairo corridor | |
| 1880--1902 | Boer Wars and British conquest of South Africa | |
| 1898 | American control over Hawaii, Philippines, and Puerto Rico | |
| 1898 | Hong Kong and Territories leased to Britain for 99 years | |
| 1901 | Death of Queen Victoria | |
| 1907 | Hollywood becomes a filmmaking center | |
| 1914--1918 | First World War | |
| 1916 | Easter Uprising, leading to Irish independence in 1921 | |
| 1918 | Women (over 30) get the vote in Britain | |
| 1920 | Kenya as British colony | |
| 1922 | BBC starts | |
| 1928 | OED appears (with supplement in 1933) | |
| 1931 | Statute of Westminster (former British Dominions de fact independent); British Commonwealth | |
| 1939 | photocopying invented | |
| 1939--1945 | Second World war | |
| 1942 | First computers | |
| 1945 | United Nations founded | |
| 1946 | Philippines independent | |
| 1947 | The independence of India and Pakistan; and New Zealand | |
| 1948 | Burma and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) independent | |
| 1949 | NATO founded | |
| 1950--1953 | Korean War | |
| 1951 | First computers | |
| 1960 | Nigeria becomes independent | |
| 1960 | World population reaches 3 billion | |
| 1961--1975 | Vietnam War | |
| 1963 | Kenya becomes independent | |
| 1973 | Britain joins European Union (confirmed in a 1975 referendum) | |
| 1980 | CNN starts | |
| 1984 | Apple PC | |
| 1990 | Native American Languages Act | |
| 1990--1991 | Gulf War | |
| 1990--1999 | Internet becomes major communication tool | |
| 1999 | World population reaches 6 billion | |
| 2000 | OED online | |
| 2003 | Iraq War | |
| 2003 | In Wales, 20% speak Welsh, up 2.4% in 10 years |
ȤʤɤǤλѤˡﴱ (speech organs) Ĵ (places of articulation) οޤǺܡؤ䲻ؤΤɤζʽˤǺܤƤ뤬ʲΥΥǤ O'Grady et al. p. 19 p. 23 ꡤ顼Ǥ Britannica "articulation: physical points of articulation" ꡥۤˤϡGoogle "vocal tract" դ̵οޤɤ



ʲ˼ʲﴱνѸƤ
| common name | scientific name | adjective |
|---|---|---|
| lips | labia | labial |
| teeth | dental | |
| alveolar ridge | alveolar | |
| (hard) palate | palatal | |
| soft palate | velum | velar |
| uvula | uvular | |
| upper throat | pharynx | pharyngeal |
| voicebox | larynx | laryngeal |
| tongue tip | apex | apical |
| tongue blade | lamina | laminal |
| tongue body | dorsum (back) | dorsal |
| tongue root | radical |
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2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
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2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
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2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46
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