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Carney (38) ˤȡgross ϡ<oss> ֻ /əʊs/ ȯͣαñǤȤºݤˤϡ츻Ʊ engross /əʊs/ äƤ뤬Ȥ⤫¾ <oss> ĸȰ褹뤳ȤϳΤacross, boss, cross, doss, dross, emboss, floss, gloss, goss, kaross, loss, moss, poss, toss ʤɤθϡ⥤ꥹɸȯ /ɒs/ ġ
ޤ gross θ츻Ĵ٤ƤߤȡŵƥˤϤʤäΥƥ grossum "thick, great" ʸڤ롥ťե gros 뤤 grosse ȤƸ졤η֤14˱ѸؼѤ줿ΰ̣ϡ礭פäѸǤϰ̣ȯã15ˤϡŪʡפܤʡפƤ롥
ˡֻȯˤäĴ٤Ƥߤߤüʴط˻äаޤϤ褯ʬʤäMED Ǥϡgros (adj.) ΰ֤Ȥ grosse groce äȵƤꡤOED ǤƱͤεҤ롥groce ֻĹ첻뤬줬 Carney (38) νҤ٤ƤȤ "a common medieval spelling" äɤϡξ˴ŤȽǤˡ路֤¸ߤϡ첻Ĺûɤ줬äȤ롥<oss> ֻĤۤȤɤθǤϡ첻û夤gross ˸¤äƤϤɤ櫓Ĺ첻졤첻ȤȤ
Ѹ Gross! ȴòС֤ҤɤǰפȤ¯ŪɽȤʤ뤬ѸǤ gross θ촶ƤäݤפȤŪɾȼΤä褦ʤ鴶𤿤äפȯ Gross! 첻Ĺ̤ˤʤ䤹Ȥ𤬡ĤƤ⤢äΤǤϤʤȹͤΤ speculation ˤʤ
ʤߤˡ̾ȤƤ Gross ϡCEPD17 ˤС/grɒs, grəʊs/ 2बȤԤȯϡĤƤ첻ĹûɤȿǤƤΤ뤤ϡͭ̾ȤƤ spelling pronunciation ȹͤ٤
Carney, Edward. "English Spelling is Kattastroffik." Language Myths. Ed. Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill. London: Penguin, 1998. 32--40.
Roach, Peter, James Hartman, and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2006.
ĸθζȻˤĤơ#637. 륬ʸĸ ([2011-01-24-1]) ڤӡ#1117. ĸθϤ Anatolia ([2012-05-18-1]) εǡGimbutas ξƻ Kurgan expansion hypothesis Renfrew ξƻ Anatolian farming hypothesis 줾쳵ѤĸʬλˤĤơԤϵ4ǯԤϵ6000--7500ǯ̤ȤƤꡤΩƤ롥
ε#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡˡѤøӸؤرѤߤ͡ȽƤ׳ؼԤϤȽͥ륮ؤơȹ٤ʼˡԤ߽ФƤǯǤϡGray and Atkinson ²87ˤĤ2449оݤˡʲʪؤΥǥ˴ŤƷ㤬롥
פäƤϾˤǤ褦ˡȤƤ뤫פǤ롥Gray and Atkinson θǤ¿ξȤƤꡤȷɾ뤿ˤϡΤɤǧƤ椯ɬפ롥Ȥ櫓ʪؤμˡΤޤӸؤ˱ѤǤΤɤʪȸϲȤܼŪɬפ[2011-07-13-1]ε#807. ޤʪޤפȡˡʾ꤬ѤƤꡤˤ Gray and Atkinson θŬڤɾ뤳ȤϤǤʤ̣ΤǡʤȤҲ𤹤ˤͤ롥ʲˡGray and Atkinson ʬǯΰƷǤ褦 (437)

οޤˤȡĸ줬 Hittite Ȥ¾θ췲2ʬ䤷Τ8700BP(=6700BC)Anatolia ȤŤϤȲǤ롥⤷ΤϡItalic, Celtic, Balto-Slavic Ƥ餯 Indo-Iranian ޤᡤΩäɤ®ʬƤ椯5--4ǯ˴ѻ뤳ȤϡŪˤ Kurgan expansion hypothesis 礹롥ȤȡξΩΤǤϤʤष䴰ΤȤª (Gray and Atkinson 438)
ˤҤ٤褦ˡηɾǤΩˤϤʤʲʪؤθ褫Ƹ׳ؤοˡȯȤ褦ˡ¾ʬϢƳغŪĩߤϥƥǤ롥
Gray, Russell D. and Quentin D. Atkinson. "Language-Tree Divergence Times Support the Anatolian Theory of Indo-European Origin." Nature 426 (November 2003): 435--39.
glottochronology ʸǯءˤϡꥫθؼ Morris Swadesh (1909--67) Robert Lees (1922--65) ˤä1940ǯ˳줿̻ؤ1ʬǤ롥μˡ lexicostatistics ʸ׳ءˤȸƤФ롥
ؤθˤСʸδŪƤɽ魯 (basic vocabulary) ϸ֤ǶͭƤꡤŪѲ䳰αƶǤˤñ췲Ȥ롥ĹŪˤߤСδøä⤤ִƤ椯ΤǤ롥ʣδϢδ֤ǶͭƤŪƱ (cognate) ƸˤưΤäȤ®٤ƱִƤ椯 (a constant rate of loss) Ȥθ줬ߤʬǯ®٤¬ȤΤglottochronology Ǥ롥餫˹ųؤǯ¬ˡ˥ҥȤƤ롥
glottochronology Ͼ嵭ΤΤޤ¿ξΩäƤ뤬Τ⤬㤷Ƚˤ餵ƤȤƤΤϼΤ褦Ǥ롥
(1) Swadesh δø (basic vocabulary) 100ʰʲ˷ǺܡˤϡˤʸȤäҲŪװˤѲˤäȤꤵƤ뤬ʸ˰¸ʤȸڤΤ㤨Сsun moon ϡʸˤäƤϽŪʰ̣դƤꡤΰ̣ˤʸǤϤʤ
I, you, we, this, that, who, what, not, all, many, one, two, big, long, small, woman, man, person, fish, bird, dog, louse, tree, seed, leaf, root, bark, skin, flesh, blood, bone, grease, egg, horn, tail, feather, hair, head, ear, eye, nose, mouth, tooth, tongue, claw, foot, knee, hand, belly, neck, breasts, heart, liver, drink, eat, bite, see, hear, know, sleep, die, kill, swim, fly, walk, come, lie, sit, stand, give, say, sun, moon, star, water, rain, stone, sand, earth, cloud, smoke, fire, ash, burn, path, mountain, red, green, yellow, white, black, night, hot, cold, full, new, good, round, dry, name
(2) ǯ¬Τ "a constant rate of loss" Ϥ٤ƤθƱǤǤΤʬ1000ǯä2Ǥ86%δøäޤͭƤȤ뤬ʬˤʬäƤ¿θǸڤȡΨƤϤޤʤ⤢롥⤷øäʬϤˤĤƾǤäȤƤ꤬СΨ˴ŤƷǯϡŤۤɡ礭ʸȼȤˤʤ롥
ʤʲΥդϡ2ǶͭƤøäΥѡơˤäơʬʤȤⲿˤäʬȤglottochronology ŪʥġǤ롥㤨С2֤7δøäͭƤСʬǯϾʤȤ1200ǯǤꡤ3䤷ͭƤʤСʬǯϾʤȤ4000ǯǤ롥

(3) cognate Ʊ˴ؤ¿꤬롥ۤʤ줫бȤܤ2Ĥθ줬 cognates Ǥȸ뤿ˤϡỤ̄ŪˤɤΤ褦ʾ郎ɬפ2δط cognates ǤϤʤ loanwords ǤȤǽˤΤǤϤʤӸؤǤⶦͭƤ̤̤ۤɡȽ̤ޤŤǤϡøäΤ٤Ƥθ줬ʸڤ櫓ǤϤʤӤ˾ڵη꤬ƤޤȤ롥
glottochronology ϡػ˾塤̣ФƤ줿ΤΡŪϡߤǤϡۤȤɤθؼԤˤäƵƤ롥
ʾ塤Crystal (333) ʤɤȤƼɮ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
ε[2012-05-27-1]Ǥϡ#1126. 衼åѤμˤ T/V distinction εפ⤷T/V distinction ˴ؤ뤫ĤƤεؤΥĥäѸˤ T/V distinction κ1ĤȤơѸʸ˿ƾ thou ȷɾ you Ωäݤˡʤ thou ǤϤʤ you Τ̲ۤΤȤ꤬롥T/V distinction βäˤĤƤϡѸμҲʿĬήƤȤ⤬뤬ˤȤƤ⡤ʤ thou ǤϤʤ you زäΤǤ롥ʿ "power semantics" ˴Ť T/V distinction ӽ¥ȹͤΤǤС"power semantics" θ you ڤΤƤ٤ǤϤʤäơthou űѸν2;ñ̾ǤꡤñΡ֤ʤפɽ魯ˤϤդ路ϤǤ롥ºݤˡ̱ʿܻؤե̿ˤϡήѤ vous ϴ졤tu Ѥ2;ñ̾Ȥƹޤ줿¤ (Brown and Gilman 264--65)
Ѹ줬 you ̲طʤˤϡҲŪͿƤΤǤϤʤȤ⤬롥1650ǯ˥ɤ George Fox (1624--91) ϻϤꥹȶΰɥե (The Society of Friends) ο̤¯ QuakersˤϡŪˡߤ thou Ѥäˤϡ̤˾岼ϤʤߤʿǤȤۤ˴ŤƤ롥ǤϡҤΥե̿ tu ΰ̲ȵˤƤȤˤʤ롥ߤǤ¿Υ̤ thou thee ѤƤꡤʤˤǤ thou ο͡ФƤ you ȤʬԤ⤤롥
ơ̤䡤ƱʿǤŪʿʿ (Leveller) ϡҲǤϾɤǤꡤŨդäƸ뤳Ȥ⤢äǡ¿ɤμҲϡ̤ɸ֤ʿξħȤ⤤ħŪ thou Ѥ줿ꡤϤΤǤϤʤsocial distancing κѤƯ thou äƤäȤ뤳ϡФбѸ˳Ǥ⤫뤬ȤƼƤ櫓ǤϤʤ1ĤβǽȤƤ뤳ȤդƤ
Brown and Gilman (266) 碌ƿƤ⤦1ĤװȤơ"a general trend in English toward simplified verbal inflection" 롥[2010-02-12-1]ε#291. ;̾ thou ξüưؤαƶפǤϡthou ξüѸζή˰첡äפȤ⤷Ȱ̴طϵդ⤷ʤȤȤˤʤ롥ưζή줬2;ñߤζ -(e)st ˤޤǵڤӡοȤȤˡб;̾ thou षȤڽ⤷ʤ
ˤ衤ɸ䤤ФȤ褦ϡޤƤƤʤ2;̾ you ؤΰܲϡѸ˾礭ʲǤ롥
ʸ嵭2013/06/30(Sun)solidarity ɽ魯Τ˥ե̿ǤϾҤΤ褦 T Ѥ̿Ǥ V ѤȤȤWardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010. p. 208 ˽Ƥ
Brown, R. W. and A. Gilman. "The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity." Style in Language. Ed. Thomas A. Sebeok. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT P, 1960. 253--76.
[2012-03-21-1]ε#1059. ϽŻ뤫ְռŻؿܤƤ T/V distinctionפ Brown and Gilman βŪʸŪ˾Ҳ𤷤Brown and Gilman ʸˤϡ衼åѤμפʸ T/V ζ̤Ƥаޡ֤ˡӡѸǤζ̤ӼȤθŪʻʤɤ˻꤬ФƤꡤ˻ɷŪͤǤ롥
ʤ衼åѤμפʸǡ2;̾ˤ T/V distinction ˡͭƤΤT/V distinction εˤĤƤϤĤ⤬뤬Brown and Gilman (255) ˤ뵭Ҥ˽мΤ褦ˤʤ롥
ΥƥǤϡ2;ñ̾Ȥ tu ΤߤѤƤ4ˡؤ̾Ȥơбʣ vos ̤Ѥ褦ˤʤäˤϽ⤢뤬Constantinople Rome Τ줾˹뤬ꡤʸ̤ʣäȤͿƤȤ롥Diocletian βפˤꡤκ¤ˤ2ͤƤŪˤ1Ĥ礵뤳Ȥˤʤä줫ι˸ƤӤ뤳ȤϡޤߤȤơ2ͤι˸ƤӤ뤳ȤƱȤ줿ΤǤ롥vos λѤϡδޤߤȤƤʣȿǤƤȤ롥
ޤ̤ˤС1ͤι뤬ʣȷӤĤ줿Τϡ̱ȹͤ줿ǤϤʤꥹ礬 "royal we" ѤΤƱǡϼؤ nos ȸäΤǤꡤб vos ǸƤӤ줿Τ⤦1ĤιͤȤơؼоݤñʣȤʸ̤οȤ̤ˡʸϤϤ⤽ʣ䤹ȤȤ롥Ǥ뤳Ȥʣϡiconicity ˤưפ˷ӤĤ줽
ʾΤ줫뤤Ȥ߹碌ˤꡤ2;ʣ1ͤιؤѤȯã䤬ơδѤϡΤߤʤ餺ϼ̤ŬѤ褦ˤʤäθȯãޥˤƤϡT/V distinction ϤۤηŪ˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤδ֡ˡɤ줬ߤ줿֤ǻ˺Ϥ뤬褽12--14ˡ"power semantics" ˴ŤηŪ T/V distinction Ω
ѸؤѸλ you thou ζ̤Ƴ줿ϢȤƤϡʲε뤤 personal_pronoun pragmatics դȡ
[2009-10-11-1]: #167. θ T/V distinction
[2009-10-29-1]: #185. Ѹˤȥɥĸˤˤ T/V distinction
[2010-02-12-1]: #291. ;̾ thou ξüưؤαƶ
[2010-07-11-1]: #440. ˻ĤɾΤ you
[2011-03-01-1]: #673. Burnley's you and thou
[2011-07-06-1]: #800. you ˤ ye ִ phonaesthesia
[2012-02-24-1]: #1033. ܸηɸȥ衼åѽ T/V distinction
[2012-03-21-1]: #1059. ϽŻ뤫ְռŻؿܤƤ T/V distinction
Brown, R. W. and A. Gilman. "The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity." Style in Language. Ed. Thomas A. Sebeok. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT P, 1960. 253--76.
ε[2012-05-25-1]ǡĸ *dhghem- Ȥñͥåȥhuman ʿʹ֡ˤȤ humus 忢ڡˤ礦 humble ʸʡʪȤȤˤʤ롥humility ʸ½ˤȤСŪȹͤ줬ʤ顤Τˤ⥭ꥹȶˤȤŤ humility ŤۤϤ롥Chaucer The Parson's Tale (ll. 474--82) ⶵĤǰѤ褦RiversideǤӺˡ
Now sith that so is that ye han understonde what is Pride, and whiche been the speces of it, and whennes Pride sourdeth and spryngeth,
now shul ye understonde which is the remedie agayns the synne of Pride; and that is humylitee, or mekenesse.
That is a vertu thurgh which a man hath verray knoweleche of hymself, and holdeth of hymself no pris ne deyntee, as in regard of his desertes, considerynge evere his freletee.
Now been ther three maneres of humylitee: as humylitee in herte; another humylitee is in his mouth; the thridde in his werkes.
The humilitee in herte is in foure maneres. That oon is whan a man holdeth hymself as noght worth biforn God of hevene. Another is whan he ne despiseth noon oother man.
The thridde is whan he rekketh nat, though men holde hym noght worth. The ferthe is whan he nys nat sory of his humiliacioun.
Also the humilitee of mouth is in foure thynges: in attempree speche, and in humblesse of speche, and whan he biknoweth with his owene mouth that he is swich as hym thynketh that he is in his herte. Another is whan he preiseth the bountee of another man, and nothyng therof amenuseth.
Humilitee eek in werkes is in foure maneres. The firste is whan he putteth othere men biforn hym. The seconde is to chese the loweste place over al. The thridde is gladly to assente to good conseil.
The ferthe is to stonde gladly to the award of his sovereyns, or of hym that is in hyer degree. Certein, this is a greet werk of humylitee.
ơߤʤϲӤǤ뤫ɤ줬ΤΤɤӤޤΤǤ礦顤٤Ϥɤ줬ӤκФߺѺǤΤ٤Ǥϸ½Ȳ¤ʤΤǤϡʬˤĤƤομ˼ʬηͤʬĹ˴ؤƤϡ줺ҸʤǤޤơ½ˤϻढޤĤϿθ½⤦Ĥϸդθ½ܤϹ٤θ½Ǥθ½ˤϻͼढޤĤŷοǼʬͤʤΤȻפȤǤ⤦Ĥ¾ͤΤޤʤȤǤܤϿͤ͡ʤͤȻפäƤƤ⡤˵ˤʤȤǤͤܤ϶ᤷޤʤȤǤդθ½ͤĤޤ䤫ʸոդΤؤ꤯ꡤǻפäƤȤοͤǤ뤳Ȥʬθդǧ뤳ȡ⤦Ĥ¾ͤΤФ餷ΤⲼʤȤǤ٤θ½ͼढޤ¾ͤΩƤ뤳ȤǤޤϺǤⲼ¤֤ȤǤޤܤɤո˴Ʊդ뤳ȤǤޤͤܤϻۼԤ뤤Ϥ⤤ϰ̤ˤͤη˴ǽȤǤޤΤˡϸ½礭ʹ٤Ǥ
ˤ parsonʶǤʺסˤ餷ⶵǤ롥humility, humiliation, humblesse Τۤˤ⡤meekness, not worth, attemper, lowest Τ褦Υɤ³ĸ *dhghem- ƻṲ̄ؤΰ̣ι̣臘ȤǤ롥
Ĺ إ٥ʪˡ١ҡ2002ǯ
ĸ "earth" ̣ *dhghem- ϤӤŷοФ롤ϤΡֿʹ֡ (L homo) Ϥ㤭ΤȤϢۤˤ㤤ͤ½ʡ (L humilis) դܤȤơ*dhghem- ñ췲ޤ졤͡ʷϩǸѸθäˤǤ롥
ƥ줢뤤¾Υޥ줫ѤΤϡäȤ¿бǤλҲ h ޤ h æ̵Ǥ롥ex. bonhomie, exhumation, exhume, homage, hombre, homicide, Hominidae, hominoid, homo, Homo sapiens, homunculus, human, humane, humane, humanism, humanist, humanistic, humanitarian, humanitarianism, humanities, humanity, humanization, humanize, humankind, humanly, humble, humbly, humiliate, humiliating, humiliation, humility, humility, humus, inhume, ombre, omerta, transhumance.
ꥷͳ褹ΤϡǤƬλҲ /kh/ <ch> ȤʤäƤʤƥͳ g ΤΤ⤢ˡex. autochthon, chamae-, chamaephyte, chameleon, chamomile, chthonic, germander.
ˡھ˴ؤѸ chernozem ʥΡࡤڡ, sierozem ʥࡤڡˡޤ zemstvo ʥॹȥܥεءˤϡбť z ķǤѤΤǤ롥Ʊ z zamindar ħ͡ˤϥڥ륷줫Ǥ롥
ǸˡѸ̤ΤȤƤ bridegroom 2Ǥ롥θϡ[2011-09-29-1]ε#885. Algeo ο쥽ʬ (3)פ 50 ǡfolk_etymology ָ̱츻ˤȤƵƤΤǡ*dhghem- ľܤθ츻ŪطϤʤŪˤϴؤäƤ롥űѸǡֿ͡פɽ魯͡ä1Ĥ *dhghem- ͳ褹 guma ä brȳd ʲֲǡˤ蘆äʣ brȳdguma ʲֲǤο͡ˡˡ̻ˤűѸ줫ѤƤ¾Υޥˤ⡤ bruidegomɥĸ BräutigamťΥɸ brúðgumi ʤɤƱ줬ǧ롥θűѸϡѸؤ bridgome ʤɤηǼѤ줿15ˤϰöѤ줿ˡ bride ֲǤΤߤʤ餺̻ɽ魯ȤѤ褦ˤʤäơ16ˤʤäΤʤ bridegroom ǡȤƽФ롥줬³ Shakespeare ˷Ѿ夷
15˸츻Ū bridgome äơ16 bridegroom аޤˤĤƤ¿2 -gome ŪӰ̣Ŭgroom ϡּԡפ̣ˤ -groom ִ줿Ȥָ̱츻⤬ͭϤbride ñȤǡֲ̻פɽ路¤ͤȡ-gome -groom ִǤϤʤbride ʲ̻ˤ groom ʼԡˤʣ礷ΤǤϤʤȤ⤢롥
ܵƤ캬ͥåȥˤĤƤϡ[2012-03-05-1]ε#1043. mind θ캬ͥåȥפ⻲ȡ
Watkins, Calvert, ed. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. 2nd Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
ѲθϤɤޤõ뤳ȤǤΤ뤤Ϥ⤽õ뤳ȤǤΤʤΤɤϡ˸ؤܼŪʵǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ causation γƵǴŪˤƤޤĤƤθѲθβϡθѲͽ¬ǽȤˤط뤬ε prediction_of_language_change Ǽ夲ƤϡѲθõ뤳Ȥ˾öŪʳؼԤѶŪʳؼԤΰո줾Ҳ𤷤Ԥɽ Postal (283) ϡѲ fashion ǤꡤȤոǤ롥
. . . there is no more reason for languages to change than there is for automobiles to add fins one year and remove them the next, for jackets to have three buttons one year and two the next.
Postal ˤСѲθõ뤳ȤǤʤΤǤꡤõäƤ⤷ΤʤΤǤ롥ǡSmith ϤιͤȽƤ롥ġθѲθϵŪˤϲǤʤ⤷ʤȤƸѲθϵǤϤǤ롥ơ˸ؤõ뤳ȤƤޤСǯɽ˽ϤƤޤȡȿ깭롥Smith ꡤ2Ѥ褦
. . . it is held here that an adequate history of English must attempt at least to take account of the 'why' as well as the 'how' of the changes the language has undergone; problems of causation must therefore be confronted in any historical account, however provisional the resulting explanations might be. (12)
Although it is not possible, given the limitations of the evidence, to offer absolute proof as to the motivation of a particular linguistic innovation, or to predict the precise development of linguistic phenomena, nevertheless a rationally arguable historical explanation can be offered for the kinds of changes which languages can undergo, and a broad prediction can be made about the kinds of change which are liable to happen. This seems a reasonable goal for any historical enquiry which seeks to go beyond the simple chronicle. (194)
Smith ϡѲϸŪӸ쳰Ūʣθʤ뤤ϾŪǡˤʣȤ߹蘆äȤǧǤꡤѶŪõꡤΤ˸ؼԤλŻȳοƤ롥Ѳͽ¬ (prediction_of_language_change) ˤޤƧ߹ڤꡤˤϰ⤢˰㤤ʤϳ Smith ΰո˻Ǥ롥ʤSmith ϻβդǤ
Postal, P. Aspects of Phonological Theory. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
Ĵθ (cooperative principle) Ȥϡůؼ H. Paul Grice (1912?--88) ˤäƤ줿ʬϤѸǡäˤŪãΩ뤿ˡäʹ꤬Ȥ˰ۤΤ˼äƤȤ̸§ؤäδް (conversational implicature) ʤΰ̣ʤŬڤΤȤˤؤ븶§ǡǯθȯŸ礭ʵȤʤäƤ롥Huang (25) ˷ǺܤƤ "Grice's theory of conversational implicature"
Grice's theory of conversational implicature
a. The co-operative principle
Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the state at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
b. The maxims of conversation
Quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.
(i) Do not say what you believe to be false.
(ii) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Quantity:
(i) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).
(ii) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
Relation: Be relevant.
Manner: Be perspicuous.
(i) Avoid obscurity of expression.
(ii) Avoid ambiguity.
(iii) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).
(iv) Be orderly.
Ĵθϡ4Ĥθ (maxim) Ԥ뤳Ȥˤäƽ餵ȸ롥4ĤȤϡθ̤θطθ֤θǤ롥ʹϡä꤬äˤƶŪǤ뤳ȡ嵭θ§ȸäƤ뤳ȤȤơäȯä᤹롥㤨Сä A "How is that hamburger?" ȤФʹ B "A hamburger is a hamburger." Ȥ롥B ȯäϤ켫ΤǤƱȿǤ̤ϥA B ĴθäƤȤΤȤ B θΰ̣ʲäδްաˤɤȤ롥ĴθΤȤǤϡB A μФ relevant ֤ƤϤǤ뤫顤A Ϥ֤ΥϥСϤʿޤʥϥСǤꡤʾǤʲǤʤפʤɤȲ᤹뤳Ȥˤʤ롥βạ̈ͭʤΤȤΩĤˤϡA ˤäδްդɤ꤬ɬפǤꡤɤäƤ B ŪǤȤɬפǤ롥ϻξԤǿ碌ΤǤϤʤޤǰۤλǤ뤫顤ϲäΰ̸§ȤƲꤹɬפ롤ȤȤˤʤ롥
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
ɸϡ[2011-02-06-1]ε#650. ˥ȥˡ§פǼ夲Dz⤷ظƶ (substratum theory) ФƤϰ⤢롥 Grimm's Law θŪˤϥޥ˸ҲܤθˤĤƤ¾Ҳ𤷤
substratum theory äƤƤŵŪˤСޥɤħŪʻҲܤϡȤƻӤƤꡤϤεӵĴ¥ΤȤ줿1901ǯ Meyer-Benfey ˤäƼĥ줿ΤǤ (Collitz 180) οܤܼŪ aspiration ٤ѲǤȹͤƤ Grimm ˤȤäƤƤߤ䤹ä⤷ʤ
θ塤1910ǯˡFeist Kauffmann ʤɤˤꡤ"ethnological grounds" β⡤ʤߤǤظƶ⤬Ф (Collitz 181) [2011-09-01-1]ε#857. ޥ²κħפǿ줿̤ꡤMeillet ⤽̾ΤʤƱٻƤ롥
Collitz 2ĤȽƤ롥ޤظƶΤʤͳȤƤϡظˡޥҲܸбҲ٤·äƤȲꤹΤ뤳ȤƤ롥ǤʤȤСظ줬 aspiration ٤ˤĤƤν۴ķäƤȹͤɬפꡤν۴ķϤʤΤȤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ظƶϡܼ˿ƤʤȤ櫓Ǥ (181--82)
Collitz Ϥɤ餫ȤлӵٻƤ롥ȤΤϡSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) Ūʬۤѻȡץɥġɥġ̥ɥĤ̿ʤˤĤƿܤδ٤㤯ʤäƤȤ¤뤫ޤMeyer-Benfey Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡƱͤλҲܤФ Armenian 䥢եꥫ Bantu Ǥ⡤ϻϤ˸ꤵƤȤ⤢롥
Collitz ϻϤӵΤߤǤȤϹͤƤʤ3ȤǤ⤤٤ΤȤơaspiration ؤΰŪĴȤʤ⡤͡ؤѲǽʤ餷ˤ "fashion" ƯͿƤȤƤƤ (183) Ĵˤ "increased refinement" 褦ȤΤ̾ȯã"fashion" ƯͿСθ¤ǤϤʤĴȯã⤢롤ȤΤ
. . . the phenomena generally designated by the term of Grimm's Law are plainly the outcome of a tendency towards vigorous articulation, the impression of vigor being effected partly by using an abundant amount of breath, partly by adding to the muscular effort. . . . It will readily be seen that, while the mountain climate may favor the tendency toward energetic articulation, it cannot be maintained that either one of the two modes of articulation is dependent exclusively on climatic conditions. (183)
fashion ǧȤˤƤ⡤ fashion ʤλξΤõΤǤϤʤѲθ fashion 䵤ޤ˵ϸŤꤢ뤬ѤȾ˵ϤǻߤޤäƤޤ⤦˿ʤʤΤ
Collitz, Hermann. "A Century of Grimm's Law." Language 2 (1926): 174--83.
ε#1119. Rask's Law Ǥʤ Grimm's Law ȸƤФͳ ([2012-05-20-1]) ǡGrimm's Law ˡ§ȸƤФʤ Collitz ˵äƼCollitz Grimm ̤ƤϤ뤬Grimm's Law ŦƤ롥Grimm's Law ȡβѲĹȤ Second Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) Ȥ碌ƹͤȡmedia, tenuis, aspirate νǡδֳ֤ݤʤ۴ĤȤϡɬƤʤȤ狼롥ΤˡGrimm's Law ˴Ϣ Verner's Law ʤꡤ¾ΥޥˤҲѲʤ٤ȡҲѲ۴Ĥ®٤٤ϡ줾ΥǤޤޤǤ롥षٱ䤬ꡤʣǡΤ۴ѲȤȤ館ۤǤϤʤ
Collitz (178) ϡ褹뤿ˡmedia, tenuis, aspirate 3ΤۤˡʳλҲ3ä۴Ĥؤ٤ˤĤʤ

ˡCollitz (178--80) ϡȤƤĸͭӵProkosch ξ̤ꡤ(4) ̵Ȥߤ٤ǤϤʤȤĥƤ롥
ν۴ĥǥǤ p f, b p, bh b Τ줾βѲˤĤƤǤΥ饦ɤϤݤθȤʤ f bh Ȥδطɬ餫ǤʤäCollitz Τ褦˸ԤӽСϤʤʤ롥Collitz εϹ٤ŪǤꡤˤΤɾ뤳ȤǤʤʤȤ⡤6ʳꤷ۴Ĥ®٤ǤʤȲꤹ뤳ȤˤäơGrimm's Law Ϣ벻Ѳθ̤Ϥ褯ʤ褦˻פ롥
ޥ˳βѲˤϡΤ˰ƽ۴Ĥ롥Grimm's Law, Verner's Law, Second Germanic Consonant Shift ʤɤγơοܤˤĤơν۴Ĥ®٤١ʤ6ʳΤɤߤ뤫ϰۤʤ롥۴ĥѥˤ͡Ȥ߹碌ꤨGrimm's Law ⤽Τ1Ĥɽ路ΤȤƲǤ
Collitz, Hermann. "A Century of Grimm's Law." Language 2 (1926): 174--83.
Grimm's Lawˡ§ˤϡȯԤǤɥĤӸؼ Jakob Grimm (1785--1863) ˤʤ̾ΤǤ롥Grimm ϡ Deutsche Grammatik 12 (1822) ǥޥλҲȰбҲȤβطǧ줬ˡ§̾ǸƤФ褦ˤʤä
ػˤǤϤ褯ΤƤȤꡤGrimm's Law ƱѲϡǥޡθؼ Rasmus Rask (1787--1832) ˤäơǤ1818ǯ Undersøgelse om det gamle Nordiske eller Islandske Sprogs Oprindelse ΤʤǼƤե² (Finno-Ugric) Ťɸ (Old Icelandic) ʤ¿θ̤Ƥ Rask ϡĸȤǽƤʤä츦ŪŬѤ٤ȤĥƤꡤФ̻ŪؤϻϼԤȤߤʤƤ롥
ˤ⤫餺ˡ§̾ Grimm Ϳ뤳ȤˤʤäΤϤʤCollitz (175) ˤСGrimm ˤƱѲΤȤ館3ĤηŪäȤʲ"media" ͭ"tenuis" ̵"aspirate" ӵ줾ɽ魯
(1) the second or High German shifting proceeds in general on the same lines as the first or common Germanic shifting;
(2) one and the same general formula is applicable to the various sets of consonants, whether they be labials or dentals or gutturals;
(3) the shifting proves to imply a fixed sequence of the principal forms of the shifting, based on the arrangement of the three classes of consonants involved in the order of media, tenuis, aspirate.
ĤޤꡤƱѲñȯΩݤǤϤʤĴŪ˰Ӥޤä̤Ѳˤ֤ⷫߤ븶Ƥ뤳ȤGrimm ΤǤ롥[2009-08-08-1]ε#103. ˡ§ȤϲפǼ2Ĥοޤɽ蘆ƤϡΤˡ§̾ˤդ路
Grimm's Law (1822) ɽư衤ʬŪԵ§ϵդƤꡤGrimm ǯǤ1863ǯˤ Hermann Grassmann ͤʤɤƤ뤬ǽŪˤ1875ǯ Karl Verner (1846--96) ˤ Verner's Law ([2009-08-09-1]) 뤳ȤˤäơԵ§ä줿
Collitz, Hermann. "A Century of Grimm's Law." Language 2 (1926): 174--83.
²ηʤɡطɽ路 (family_tree ϡߤθؤؤּԤˤȤäƸ줿ޤǤ롥ˤϿ̼طꡤʪοʲƱͤ˷ǴطȤιͤǽΤϡ19ɽɥĤΰؼ August Schleicher (1821--68) äοʲ¿ʱƶݤȿʪⰦƤ Schleicher ˤȤäơηȤۡStammbaumtheorie ʷ⡤pedigree theory ȤˤϤʤΤäˤȤäơȤϡͭΤǤꡤʹ֤ΰջ֤ˤ餺ˡ§ˤäĹǤΤä롤ͭǤ롥ȯ衤Ω줫ФƶؤȯŸƤΤǤꡤ˻ˤäƤƻɤäƤȤͤϤ19ŪʸѤǤ褯ɽƤΤ Schleicher ä
Schleicher Compendium ΤʤǼΤ褦ʰηطꤷ줬ߤΤҤʷǤ뤳ȤΤΤưפǤʿޤϡؿѸؼŵ p. 211 ˡ

Schleicher Stammbaumtheorie ϡޤʤҤ Johannes Schmidt (1843--1901) ξ Wellentheorie (the wave theory; [2012-01-21-1]ε#999. ѲȾפ) ˤäƷ㤷Ƚ͡ȿڤФ˵ڤǡ͵äƤäߤθؤǤϡͭϤ褽Ƥ뤷¿âΤȤDzᤵʤФʤʤ
Ǥ⡤̤ǧǤϡưǤϸؤˤƤ顤ͭؤοĤϺΤ롥ʪǤȤȤŪˤ뤬θ³ˤ뤳Ȥϰճ[2011-07-13-1]ε#807. ޤʪޤפȡˡޤ˴ؤ͡âդʧʤȤ⾯ʤʤ㤨С(1) Ϥ뤬ºݤˤϡФƶȤΤĤʤ꤬ƤǽˤȤ[2010-05-01-1]ε#369. ˤƶפ[2010-05-03-1]ε#371. ƶɬ̤Ǥʤפȡˡ(2) ĸϰȤ뤬ºݤˤĸˤѼ郎äϤȤʤɤϤȤ˺줬Ǥ롥
ѸˤؤγˤɬȤäƤ褤ۤɰ²ηƤ뤬ѾƤȤȤϡSchleicher λۤѾƤȤȤˤۤʤʤػˤǤ Schleicher θѤ줿ȤˤʤäƤ뤬ݡߤ˻ޤǤνפʰü̮ȼѤƤΤǤ롥
Schleicher, August. Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. Weimar: Böhlau, 1861--62.
ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
[2011-01-24-1]ε#637. 륬ʸĸפǡĸθϤˤĤơŪͭϤ Gimbutas ˤҲ𤷤饤ʡեΥƥåӤ˱ɤƤ륬ʸ (the Kurgan culture) ô꤬3500--2500ǯۤɤλؤγȻϤԤ衹轻̱ѤƤäȤڽǤ롥
Фơųؼ Renfrew ϰӤȿФؤĥäƤRenfrew ˤС7ǯޤǤ̤ꤦĸ Anatolia 뤤üȯȤŤؤä̱ŪʿŪˤäȳϤ˺դƤäȤGimbutas Renfrew ϡϡȻˡΤ٤ƤǿøΩƤꡤĸȤƤϡߡǤܤ٤Ǥ롥ʲRenfrew μĥΤ褯ޤȤޤä1989ǯʸꡤRenfrew
(1) 1962ǯ V. Gordon Childe ˤäƽ줿Υƥåӵ⤬ǯ Gimbutas ˤ䶯졤¿ιųؼԤƤ뤬ϡʤд絬̱²ưȤŪƤʤ(108--09)
(2) Gimbutas ⤬ȤƤ褦ˤϡųŪʪ̱²Ū˷ӤĤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ̱²ȸŪ˷ӤĤ뤳ȤǤʤˡʸѲܤɬפ롥(109)
(3) ϰѤ줬ؤˤ4ˡ롥(a) "initial colonization", (b) Schleicher Ū "divergence", (c) Schmidt Ū "convergence", (d) "replacement" Ǥ롥(109)
(4) replacement ˤ4֤롥(a) "elite dominance", (b) invaders that "take advantage of power vacuum", (c) pidgin creole , (d) the introduction of a new "subsistence economy" ("the coming of farming"). (110)
(5) 衼åѤ˵7ǯˤ⤿餵줿ȤϡAnatolia ⤿餵줿(110)
(6) 嵭 replacement (a) ϡԤͥ줿Ѥ¦¦μҲȤʤ뤬Ԥ Childe Gimbutas ǤϤޤDzˤԤγΩϥ衼åѤǤƼ夫ΤȤǤ롥(110)
(7) ̱Ȥλ¹ȤˤäˤäơȤŤʤưƤäȤ "the wave-of-advance" model Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza ˤäƤ(111) ȤˤΨĤ50ܤȻꤷ125ǯ̱ͤ18kmưȲꤷƻȡ1ǯ1km®٤ǰưŤȤȬ˳ȤȤηˤСAnatolia Ȥ衼åˤɤĤΤ1500ǯۤɤǤꡤųؾȯȹפ롥(110--11)
(8) ºݤˤϡ̱ܽԤ轻̱ȤŪ˶ΤǤϤʤ轻̱٤̱ܽԤؤӼäȤ¿äʥꥷХ륫Ⱦ硤沤ꥢʳǤϤΥäȻפˡξˤϡؤ®٤ߤʤäϤǤ롥ơΤ褦ʾˡΰ³ĹĤä줬 Basque, Estruscan, Iberian, Pictish ʤɤǤϤʤ(111)
(9) ǤϡȤƥåӤ Anatolia ŤΤǤϤʤεդǤ뤳ȤƤ뤬饤ʤ˽̤ξڵϤꡤųŪˤٻ롥(113)
(10) Υ衼åѤؤϵ6500ȡ衼åѤˤϤޤꤵƤϤ뤫ĹϢ³ݤäƤ뤳ȤˤʤꡤƼˤŴˤ⡤"sudden discontinuity" ϤʤäȤˤʤ롥(113)
(11) The Nostratic Theory ([2012-05-16-1]ε#1115. Nostratic ²פȡˤμƳ Illich-Svitych Dolgopolsky ĸθϤ Anatolia ȹͤƤAfro-Asiatic, Indo-European, Dravidian üԤΰŪʴطȤƤꡤThe Nostratic Theory ĸ Anatolia ȤĴ¤롥(114)
ʾ Renfrew Υåϡ2ʸ
Its [the new theory's] immigrants come from Anatolia rather than from the steppes and at a date (6500 B.C. or so) several thousand years earlier than has generally been suggested. My hypothesis also implies that the first Indo-European speakers were not invading warriors with a centrally organized society but peasant farmers whose societies were basically egalitarian and who in the course of an entire lifetime moved perhaps only a few kilometers. (113)
θϤγפˤĤƤϡ֤3ϡֹųؤο---륬ʸȶᤰäơ(99--135) ɤߤ䤹 *
*
*
*
Renfrew, Colin. "The Origins of the Indo-European Languages." Scientific American 261 (1989): 106--14.
廰ذθζõ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1993ǯ
ε[2012-05-16-1]ǡ#1115. Nostratic ²פβ (The Nostratic Theory) Ҳ𤷤ߡ˸ؤӸδؿ顤˾ԤʸޤιۤƤ롥
1ĤˤϡNostratic ²ȤΩ²ȤơNorth Caucasian, Sino-Tibetan, Yeniseian, Eyak-Athapascan 4²ޤ Sino-Caucasian 뤤 Dene-Caucasian ²ƤƤ[2011-02-08-1]ε#652. פΰֲοޤȡˡ˲äơꥫǥΤۤȤɤθޤȤ Amerind ²ʤθ²꼫ΤŪȤʤäƤˤβ⤬Ƥ롥Ruhlen ϡˤ Eurasian ĸߤ嵭²֤ηطΤ褦ꤷGelderen, pp. 31 οޤȤ˺ˡ

Eurasian ꤷȤƤ⡤եꥫ3²ȥꥢθ췲ʿΤθ췲ϡޤ줺ΩƤ롥 Eurasian ĸʬΤꤵ롥
Geldren (29--32) ϡѸ˳ȤƤΤ褦²βˤޤƧ߹ǵҤƤꡤͭѡν²ˤĤƤϡ[2010-05-30-1]ε#398. ²Ⱦʬפ䡤Ethnologue language family index ͤˤʤ롥Oxford 桼饷ΦδñʸϿ⻲ȡ *
Gelderen, Elly van. A History of the English Language. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2006.
Ruhlen, Merritt. The Origin of Language. New York: Wiley, 1994.
19ӸؤŪ˿뤲²ˤȤɤޤ餺²ȸ²δ֤2ӤߤϡǤƱ긫줿ۤʤ²2ӤǤϤʤ²٥ǤӤܳŪˤʤ줿Τ20ȾˤʤäƤΤȤǤ롥1964ǯIllich-Svitych Dolgopolsky Ȥ2ͤӸؼԤΩƽפʸȯɽǤϡIndo-European, Afro-Asiatic (Hamito-Semitic), Kartvelian, Uralic, Altaic, Dravidian 6Ĥμ²Ӥ졤ƱϤ줿礹²̾Ȥơ1903ǯ Pedersen ƤƤ "Nostratic" Ȥ٥뤬Ϳ줿ߡNostratic ²ˤϡ5Ĥθ² (Eskimo-Aleut, Chukchi-Kamchatkan, Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan, Sumerian) դäƤ롥
Nostratic ²ӸŪ˸ڤǤ礭1ĤϡӤǤǤ롥Dolgopolsky ϡäȤѤˤΤǤȤ15ӽФ ("I, me", "two, pair", "thou, thee", "who, what", "tongue", "name", "eye", "heart", "tooth", verbal NEG (negation and prohibition), "finger/toe nail", "louse", "tear" (n.), "water", "dead") 줫ƸбǤӤĸη֤Ʒ (reconstruction) Ƥä
Illich-Svitych ϡNostratic ĸη֤κƷߡΤ褦ö餷Ƥ롥

Nostratic ²β (The Nostratic Theory)ϡñ²Ķ뵬ϤӤȤơ٤κ˻٤ƤΤȤƤϡߡͣΤΤǤ롥Ӥ٤Ǥ䡤ƷγϷ㤷ŪȤʤäƤ롥βǮʸԤ⤤СӸؤθ³ˤꤲ븦Ԥ¿1920Ƨ߸ǤƤ褦ˤߤӸؤǤ¿ĤƤꡤεˤĤƷŪ⤬ʤ[2011-01-24-1]ε#637. 륬ʸĸפȡˤΤ顤Nostratic βʤʤȹͤΤ̵̤ȤǤ롥ॢȤƻ뤳ȤǸƤħ⤢뤫⤷ʤ줬Ū Nostratic θ1ĤȤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʾ Kaiser and Shevoroshkin ʸȤƼɮ *
Kaiser, M. and V. Shevoroshkin. "Nostratic." Annual Review of Anthropology 17 (1988): 309--29.
[2012-05-13-1], [2012-05-14-1]εǡʬˤĤƹͤѸʤɡե٥åȤΤߤѤǤʤܸǤⲾ̾Τߤɽˤϡˡ (punctuation) ΰȤʬΤ̤Ǥ롥ϡɽʸˤɽħɬŪ⤷ȤˡܸˤƴȤ˲̾ȯãƤˤ⡤ʬ˴ˤ䤫Τä
㤨Сŷʿ6ǯ762ǯˤұ̾ʸιʸǤϡŪʿ̾λ㤬ʺƣpp. 54--55ˡǤϡϷѤԡվ֤ζڤʤɡ̾ʸɤߤ䤹빩פ¿ޤޤƤȤ̾ʴˤ̾κǽ9Ⱦ긫褦ˤʤ롥ϻ֤ζڤη줿ȶ˸ΤޤȤޤռϢʡפȸƤФ³ؤȰܹԤƤäϡŪñ̤ռǤꡤsyntagma marking ɸʤäȹͤƤ褤ޤ̾ʸȤϤäƤ⡤ʿ̾Τߤǽ줿ΤϤۤȤɤʤδƽΤ¤ǤꡤߤƱ褦ɤߤˤƤȤˤդ
ϢʤȴϢȯã⤦1Ĥ syntagma marker ˡϷѤפ롥ƣ (59) Ȥ褦
ϷѤǤϡɮΤĤϤϤǻ˸Ϥƺ٤ʤꡤޤϤĤƽǻȤȤ롥ǻø֤Τˤʸᤢ뤤ʸбƤΤǤ롥Ϣʤ⤢ޤȤޤĤΤǤ뤬Ϥꡤ줢뤤ʸбƤ뤳Ȥ¿Ϥʬεǽ̤Ƥȹͤ롥
ȤǡȻĤʤƽϢʤϡäѤʿ̾˸뤳ȤܤǡҲ̾³ȤϡߤǤϡҲ̾ŪˤϴȤȤѤĶȯãƤǤ롥Ҳ̾ϡȯ餫顤ߤΤ褦ʴ̾ʸȤѤƤꡤε[2012-05-14-1]褦ˡѥˤʸڤ꤬ưפ˿ΤǤäơsyntagma marking ΤϢʤȤʤʤɬפäˤʤäΤȹͤʺƣ, pp. 60--61ˡ
ƣ س⡡ܸˡ١īҽŹ1995ǯ
ε[2012-05-13-1]˰³ʬäܸ̾νɽ路Ǥ̾ʸǤϡ̡ʬϹԤʤʤ٤ʸĸΤʤǤ˵ȽҤ٤ϡ̾ʸˤĤơʬʤѶŪͳȤϡʬɬפʤȤöŪͳ뤫Ǥ롥
1Ĥϡ̾ʸǤ1ĤǤϡܼŪɽʸǤϤʤɽʸǤ롥̾ŪΤ˶̤1뤤Ϣ³ϡȤñ̤ɽ魯Ҥ٤̤ꡤñ̤Ǥζ̤ϡդˤȤݤ syntagma marking Ǥ뤬ˤϡλ̾Τ˰ۤʤȤ¤ˤäơǤ˸ñ̤Ǥζ̤ǽˤƤ롥ʬȤʤʤɬפʤΤǤ롥ɽ̤ϡɽʸǤ벾̾ȸäƽ뤳ȤˤäưؤҤƤƤȤ롥
⤦1ĤϡܸŪħȤơּΩ°פʸȤñ̤ƤȤȤʶʸˡ˴ŤʸȤñ̤ϡŪޤǤȤϤعʸˡ˼ƹΤƤꡤܸüԤľ˹礦ΤǤˡơפʤΤΩϳʹˤɽ졤°ϳͲ̾ɽΤ̤Ǥ롥̾ʸʣʸᤫʤäƤΤǡܸʸɽСƤִܴܴܴܲ̾ܲ̾ܲ̾ܲ̾ġġפȤʤ롥̾ʸˤƤϡ̾ȴλΤ˰ۤʤäƤȤħѤơʸȤŪʶڤֻ꤬Ƚ̤Ǥ褦ˤʤäƤΤ̾ʸΤħϡڤɤŪڤʬǽΤǤϤʤڡ̵̸Ƥޤʬ뤳Ȥʤ
ܸδ̾ʸȤ٤Ȥδ֤ˡ̩ܤʴطΤ뤳Ȥ狼ΤȤϡѤδѲС٤ʬȤ꤬뤳Ȥްդ롥塤̾ʸˤƴѤꡤ̾ǽɽ蘆礬ƤƤ롥ä˼Ω˴Ѥ礬ʤʤСҤΤ褦ʸζڤ꤬Ǥʤʤꡤ٤ΤޤޤǤ syntagma marking ǽݤʤ֤˴٤뤫⤷ʤʤСʬεǽǤʤ㤨С29ǯ֤˸ľ줿2010ǯ1130βѴɽˤСʸ⤵¤줿פǤϤʤʸͤ¤줿פɽ뤳Ȥ侩롥Ԥϼ¤ɤߤˤʸ졤ͤ¤줿פȤꡤ˵ʤɤɤߤ䤹ʤ뤬̤ˡȤơʸ졡ͤ¤줿פʬƤ⤢ꤦ롥ˤ衤ܸνդϡsyntagma marking 餶ʤؤȽ˰ܹԤƤ褦Ǥ롥ʬϡʸɽηϤǤФǤϤʤɤ߽ǽϤ䶵ȤͿƤΤǤ롥
ʤܸɽʬηŪƳ줿ΤϼĮΥꥷΥʸˤƤˤʤä̾ʬεˤʤäΤϡǤ롥Ǥϡʸʸʸˤơ줾ʸñ̡ñ̤ǤʬƤƤ뤬ˡȤƤϳΩƤȤϤʤܸɽηϤϡʤɤưƤ롥
ʬȤϡɤߤ䤹θơθŪñ̡ŵŪˤϸʸˤǶڤꡤ֤ʤȤǤ롥ʬסʬ̽סդΥפȤƤФ졤ΤۤȤɤ٤Ƥθˡ˺ѤƤ롥Ф֤٤פܸڹ˸졤ܸüԤˤΤ褦˻פƤ뤬ǤϤƵǤ롥
ǤϡܸǤϤʤʬʤΤơ㤨СѸǤϤʤʬΤϡɽѤʸμपΰ㤤ˤ[2010-06-23-1]ε#422. ʸμפȡˡܸǤϡɽʸʲʸˤǤ벾̾ɽʸǤȤߤ̾ʸ̤ѤΤФơѸϸ§Ȥƥե٥åȤȤɽʸʲʸˤΤߤɽ롥ΰ㤤ŪǤ롥
³ˡդǧƤդܼŪäդ̤뤳Ȥ̤ǡäդˤƤ϶ȡٻߤʤɤˤäɸƤ褦¿θ쵡ǽξݤ롥äդˤ뤳Τ褦ʸ쵡ǽϡåμˤȤäơƤ礭ʥ塼Ǥ롥ʹƤ벻ˡŪỤ̄Ū⤿餷Ƥ륭塼Ǥ롥̤θСäդˤϡʸι¤˥ҥȤͿƤ롤͡ syntagma marker ([2011-12-29-1], [2011-12-30-1]) ޤޤƤ롥դϡäդȤϰۤʤǥǤꡤʬ鷺̤뤳ȤԲǽʤΤǡäդΤäƤ뵡ǽ¿ξݤʤɤޤǺƸɤξݤΤȤ٤ʸηϤˤäưۤʤ뤬¡Ūñ̤ζڤϼΤ˾ޤϡ¿ξ硤Ȥñ̤ǤꡤȤˤʸΤ褦ñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ˤʸĤۤȤɤθǡŪñ̤ζڤ꤬ syntagma marking Ƥ롥
ơɽʸΤߤɽѸͤƤߤ褦ζڤ꤬ʤե٥åȤҤ³Ƥ顤ɤߤˤƬˤ칽¤Ϣ³Ū˽äƤФ褤ʤΤdzڤɤϢ³ʸϤŪñ̤ʬƤ椯ɬפɤθСŪñ̡ŵŪˤϸˤȤ˶ڤĤʤƤ椯ΤŬäƤ롥ˡϤĤͤ롥ƸȤǤȤˡ⤢αѸܤˤºݤ˸褦ˡ˸ȸδ֤˽Ȥˡ⤢ʤȤäƤؤʤΤϡǶڤ뤳ȤǤ롥äդεٻߤˤľŪǤ⤢롥äơɽʸΤߤɽդǤϡʬ syntagma marking ݤǤ̤ΤʤΤǤ롥
ƱȤϡܸβ̾ˤĤƤ롥Ѥʿ̾Ҳ̾Τ줫ǽʸϤͤƤߤ褦عǯ顤ζʽʸϤʿ̾Ǥ롥礦̼λʤΤǸ¼ζʽ֤פκǽΥڡƤߤȼΤ褦ˤ롥
Ϥ
ϤΡϤ
ΡҤ
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ߤʡȤ
ͤ
λȤȤ⤢뤬ȲԤȤ߹碌ʸڤʬƤʽι궵ʽǤϸñ̤ʬäʸ塤ߤθ궵ʽ˻ޤʸѤƤˡ줬ʤС֤ϤΤϤʤΤҤ꤭餭餪Ϥ褦Ϥ褦ߤʤȤͤפȤʤꡤҤɤɤߤˤС̼ƳФΩƤʿ̾ʸȤˡʬʤˡʤʤɤؤιθʤˡˡҤƬˤäդʿ̾Ϣ³Ū˽äƤȤפФԥꥪɡޡʤɤζˡ (punctuation) ⡤ʬƱ褦ˡsyntagma marking ݤ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ܸʸǤǽ⡤̾ξƱͤǤ롥ܤŻҥȤPCܸбǤʤ˥ʤϺǤ⤢롥κݤˤϡñ̤뤤ʸñ̤ܸڤʤʤȡɤˤȤäô롥ñ̤Ƕڤ뤫ˤǤꡤܸˡȤƤϳΩƤʤ
Ǥϡܸɽ魯̾ΤǤ̾ʸǤϡɤΤ褦˾ۤʤΤεǡ
1985ǯ Kachru ˤäƤ줿#217. ѸüԤƱߥǥ ([2009-11-30-1]) ϡˤѸѤ뤿ΥǥȤơƤȤ櫓21ŤˤĤơ͡ȽͯФƤƤ model_of_englishes γƵǾҲ𤷤ƤǶǤ Modiano ˤ̤Ʊߥǥ ([2012-04-27-1], [2012-05-07-1]) ϡKachru ǥƲᤷ Graddol θҲ𤷤褦
Graddol (English Next 110) ϡKachru Ūʴ˴Ťؤ⡤Ѹνã٤˴ŤǥΤۤ20αѸѤθ褯ȿǤƤȹͤбʲȡˡޤã٤γƳؤΤ˶̤ȤϡǡϢ³ΤȹͤInner ȤѸ줳Ĥ˴ޤޤΤϡֺǤã٤ι⤤ءפ5ͤۤɤαѸüԤȤȤˤʤ롥

Kachru ̾Τ˽Ҥ٤С༫Ȥǯ Graddol Τ褦ʽã٤˰͵ǥǰƬˤƤ褦 (Graddol, English Next 110)
ΥǥϡѸνã٤Ż뤹 Modiano Ʊߥǥ[2012-04-27-1]) ȤӤ뤬ԤϤȤ櫓 "international English" νã٤ˤƤ롥Graddol ˤϡ"international English" ΤؤθڤϤʤޤGraddol ǥϡüԤ "bilingual status" (English Next 110) Ȥã٤ۤɽŻ뤷ƤʤJenkins ǥ ([2010-01-24-1]) Ǥ "bilingual status" ̵ͭפǤ롥Jenkins ǥϡ"the native speaker problem" Ŧ䤹ǥȤ⤤롥
ƤƤαѸѤΥǥϡ줾֤˺롥ˤϡѸѤθȤʾˡƼԤαѸ˴Ѥ侭αѸѤؤδԤȴ˾ȿǤƤ롥äơϡ̣ǤαѸ˵ҤǤȹͤƤ롥餳͡ʥǥ˴ؿ롥
ơGraddol ȤС The Future of English? ǡ (language shift) θ줿ưŪʥǥƤƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ[2010-06-15-1]ε#414. language shift θ줿ѸüԥǥפǼ夲Τǡȡ
Graddol, David. English Next. British Council, 2006. Digital version available at https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/english-next .
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/future-english .
#377. ѸˤȤʤꤦʬ ([2010-05-09-1]) ӡ#378. ϸδܹ礫ݤ ([2010-05-10-1]) εǡؤδܹҲ𤷤ŪʬȤƸΤۤȤɤθؤǺѤƤʳءˤΥǥɬХ褤ȤϤʤء (phonetics, phonology) (morphology) (syntax) ϼȤƸη֤̣ (semantics) , (pragmatics) ϼȤƸΰ̣Τ֤Ọ̇̄δطƤʤؤˤȯãƤ¤٤ȤݤǤ롥
(124--29) ϡ塼į˾ˤäơؤιηŪŪʸȤϰۤʤʤʤ¤ؤζڤ̤äǥǤ롥ʲϡ (130) Ρָ졧̣ѤμΤȷ֡ οޤȤ˺ΤǤ롥

ޤϸܤȤơ3Ĥ̤ơ줾˷Ū¦̤ȵǽŪ¦̤ȤԤˤǧŪʤΤʸŪʤΤȤȤŪ¦̤ǤϡŪʡֲפȡפΰϤΤޤޥΡֲפȡפޤȹͤƤ褤Ūʡַפ˴ޤޤƤ (inflection) ϡ촴ȸȤ߹碌ˤȤƺƲᤵƤꡤפ1ؼޤƤ롥ޤϡˤޤĤȤ롥
Υǥǡϡ3ܤб뵡ǽŪ¦̤εҤǤ롥ǰ벻ǤȤñ̤ϡ̣ôäƤʤ̤뵡ǽôäƤ롥ޤŪȤΤϡŪɤؤƤ褯ǤǾϤˡ§ (the Principle of Least Effort) ˽äʬƤꡤкŪʾãݤƤȤܤҤǤʥϾθؤؤαѤ˴ؿˡˤ뵡ǽȤϸΰ̣ɽ魯ǽΤȤǤꡤְ̣פȤϸ§ȤƤΰΤߤΤǤʤФʤʤˤ뵡ǽȤϵȵδطꤹ뵡ǽǤꡤˤϡְ̣פɤؤ뤫⤷ʤ嵭ΰ̣Ūʰ̣Ȥ϶̤Ƥɬפ롥ʾεǽǧŪ¦̤ˤĤƽҤ٤Τǽˤ̤ʸŪ¦̤ȤղŪʲͤǧƤꡤ3ܤ줾бʸŪǽƤƤʥʸԤǤ⤢ˡ
ԥ롦 ƣ ذ̣١ҡʸ˥ӡ1990ǯ
[2010-08-13-1]εǤϡ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥפߤ̣ѲθˤϤɤΤ褦ʼबΤ (82--84) ϡᥤ˥åפιͻ˴Ťơ4ʬƤ롥
a) Ūʤʳءѡ١¯ʤɤѲ̾Ѳȼ鷺˻ʪѲ⤿餹äƤϸηϤľŪˤϱƶʤμϡۤȤɤ٤Ƥΰ̣ؼԤǧƤ롥
b) ŪʤŪŪ뤤Ūʽͳ褹Ѳ¯츻Ʊξ͡ά
c) ҲŪּҲŪѸפ䡤μҲŪͭϰϤΰưΰ̣ͭϰϤΰưʶ۽̤뤤ϳĥˤ椭褦粽Ȱ̲
d) Ūɽõ桤֡նˡưϡʤ4̤ϥᥤΤȤʬˤϤʤäˡ
ʬθܤñºݤΰ̣ѲϼθŤʤäΤǤ롥̴طϢؤ1ĤǤǤС̣ѲɤȤϤǤʤäơġθΰ̣Ѳβˤϡ˴ȼäƤ롥
嵭θȤʤ̣ѲθȤơε#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1]) Ǽ쵭ͭﲽ̵ﲽΥ뤬롥Ǥϡ̣Ѳθʬ丶줿ˡ§Ω뤳ȤϤǤΤ
ΰ̣ѲǽʸˤΤǤ뤫顤ˤˡ§ȤäǰޤޤƤ롥εǤߤ褦ˡ signifiant signifié δطϸŪǤŪǤʤ˼ͳǤ롥äơͭ¤μʤˤطѲƤ椯ȤȤϤ狼äƤƤ⡤ͽ뤳ȤԲǽǤ롥ʤͭ¤λȤƻϼͳǤȤȤϡ¾塤̵¤̵ˡ§ǤȹͤƤ褤̣ѲˤƤϡʤƸѲ̤ˤƤˡˤΨˤȤɤޤ
ԥ롦 ƣ ذ̣١ҡʸ˥ӡ1990ǯ
塼 (Ferdinand de Saussure; 1857--1913) (arbitrariness) Ȥƾư衤̵褬֤Ƥ㤨СθȿΤȤơΥޥȥ (onomatopoeia) ħ (sound_symbolism) ФеƤϡӤǤꡤͭȤ2Ĥΰۤʤ̤в褹ȼĥ
(24--27) ˤСܼȤƵ뤳Ȥϵʤ signifiant signifié ϡ˼ҲŪʵˤäƷӤĤƤ롥ˤȤȡ֤Ǥפ֥פΤ褦פ⤫٤뤫⤷ʤɬͭӽ櫓ǤϤʤष֤ɤʸߤʸ츻ŪˤͭŪǤ (25) ͭŪȤȤˤϡŪͭȸṲ̄ͭƤɬפ롥Ԥϼˤ벻첻˼̤ onomatopoeia ǤꡤԤʣʤɤηŪʤˤäߴط㤨Сpossible impossible δطˤǤ롥ޤ캬 (root_creation) ơ٤ƤθϤ줫μͭˤä߽ФȤ¤ܤͤ롥
פʤΤϡͭϸŪǤʤŪǤʤ˼ͳǤȤŪǤʤȤΤϡäޤä signifiant signifié бѤǤϤʤͳ˴طƤ褤ȤȤǤ롥ŪǤʤȤΤϡȡʣ硤ǥಽʤɡɤˡѤƤ⡤̣̿̾ŤǤȤȤǤ롥
äơۤܤ٤Ƥθ͡ʼʤˤͭŪ߽Ф졤 signifiant signifié бꤹ뤬ꤷˤϺƤбѲ뼫ͳ롥СͭŪʴطϻ֤ȤȤޤꡤ˺졤Ĥˤ̵ŪȤʤ뤬̵ﲽ椬ȯȤʤäƺƤͭﲽƻ߽ФͭﲽȤϰռŪϢ³θĿͤϺǤꡤ̵ﲽȤ̵ռŪϢ³ŪʽĤŤǤ (45) ͭﲽ̵ﲽΤαʱΥϡ̣ܼˤǤ롥ΰ̣ѲͭȤСʲΤ褦ˤʤ

ˤȤäơ塼ΤȤϡĤǤ⼫ͳͭﲽ̵ﲽ뤳ȤǤʤľ˵ŪǤȤؤΤʤΤǤ롥
#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) #1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) εǤߤĹˤθѲϡΥͭﲽʬˤȤ櫓ܤȤȤˤʤ
ԥ롦 ƣ ذ̣١ҡʸ˥ӡ1990ǯ
ʸˡˤС졦ƻ far ӵʤӺǾˤˤɸΤȤ2बꡤˡζ̤⤫롥Usage and Abusage ꡤζ̤ߤƤߤ褦
farther, farthest; further, furthest. 'Thus far and no farther' is a quotation-become-formula; it is invariable. A rough distinction is this: farther, farthest, are applied to distance and nothing else; further, furthest, either to distance or to addition ('a further question').
ʸˡǤϤʤʸˡǤСä BrE Ǥ farther, farthest Ѥ뷹ˤꡤˡζ̤⼺ƤƤȤ
ˡζ̤ȤʤäƤΤ֤ζ̤⤽ʤ2Ĥΰۤʤ֤Τfar ӵ顤Ǿη֤ˤĤƤϡ2Ĥ꤬롥1Ĥϡʤˤϴޤޤʤ th ƤΤ⤦1Ĥϡʤ1첻ʻˤΰ۷Ȥ u 줿Τ
far θűѸη֤ feor(r) ä˸츻̤С#68. first ϲκǾ餫 ([2009-07-05-1]) ӡ#695. 캬 fer ([2011-03-23-1]) Ǹ褦ˡ캬 *per ˤɤĤűѸǤӵ顤Ǿϥ饦 (i-mutation) 첻 fierr, fi(e)rrest ä12ʸˤѤ줿äơ첻ȿǤ ferrer, farrer ޤ ferrest, farrest Ϥơ17ޤѤ줿
ơűѸˤϡŪʸ츻Ʊ *per ̤뤬ΩȯãƤ forþ "forth" Ȥ줬äӵ餬 furþor Ȥ֤ä"far" ӵȤƤ fierr "forth" ӵȤƤ furþor ϡ̣ξǤϡ֤ʤΡˡ˱ʤΡˡפƤΤǡŪ˺Ʊơ"far" η츻Ū th 졤"forth" η츻Ū첻 e ѸǤ ferther ʤɤη֤Ԥʤ줿Ѹ17ʸϡ첻ѲФ farther η֤ɸಽ줿ʿԤơƱθǤ츻ŪȤäƤ褤 further ¸³ơfarther further Ȥ far ӵȲᤵĤĤäƤΤǤ롥Ǿη֤⡤Ʊͤ롥
ʸ塤ξԤΩ٤ƤΤϵʸˡ˴Ťˡζ̤Ǥȿ¬뤬ˡζ̤켫Τˤ٤ŪʺΤ뤳ȤҤθˤ狼롥첻ܤСfarther far ӵǤꡤfurther forth ӵǤ뤫顤ԤʪŪΥΰ̣ˡԤŪʽ֤ʤɤΰ̣бΤ䤹
Partridge, Eric. Usage and Abusage. 3rd ed. Rev. Janet Whitcut. London: Penguin Books, 1999.
[2012-04-27-1]ε#1096. Modiano ƱߥǥפǡModiano ʸ "International English in the Global Village" ˼줿ѼŪѸѤΥǥҲ𤷤Modiano ϡɾȤȿơˡ̤ʸ "Standard English(es) and Educational Practices for the World's Lingua Franca." ȯɽǤϡǥǥ뤬ƤʰʲƱʸ p. 10 οޤȤ˺ˡ

ǤǤϡŪʱѸѼ郎ϤۤƤꡤ줾줬ۤʤäΨǤϤ뤬 "The Common Core" °ħȤæħ碌äƤ뤳ȤĴƤ롥ǤϡBritish English American English Τ褦ŪʼѼȡEFLѼޤʳѼȤδ֤˺Ϥʤ˥եåȤ˰֤ŤƤ롥 The Common Core γ¦괬ΰϡ The Common Core ǤǽΤħ亣 The Common Core 鳰ǽΤħ«ɽ路The Common Core ήưä濴Ǥ뤳Ȥ롥ơEIL (English as an International English) ϡ The Common Core ȤѼȤƤ롥ΥǥϡSvartvik and Leech ˤ#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1]) Ӥ뤬The Common Core ήưŬʤɽƤǤɾǤ롥
ʾϥǥΤʸϤȤɽΤModiano ʸФȽ1ĤˡEIL (English as an International Language) ɤΤ褦ѼؤΤ狼ʤȤΤäȽ˱ơModiano Ϥδפ "standard English" ˤȤǡΤ褦ɽƤ롥
. . . the designation "standard English" includes those features of English which are both used and easily recognized by the majority of people who speak the language (what is operative in a lingua franca context). (11)
Standard English should be a composite of those features of English which are comprehensible to a majority of native and competent non-native speakers of the language . . . . (12)
ʸ⤷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤEIL ʤ "standard English" ʤ "the common core" (11) ʤѸ뤳ȤΤ롥۲줿ѸѼħϡޤˡȤ館ɤʤȤˤ롥ϡ̼ߤΥΤ褦ʤΤǤ롥ΥΤʷͿ褦ȤС prescription Ϳ뤷ˡʤʤ٤Ūˤʤʤ褦 prescription Ѱդ뤿ˤϡ̩ description ˴ŤƤʤФʤʤسԤʤΤ describe ΤϹޤ롥description prescription ֤˾äƹԤդ֤ãȤΤŪɸȤʤΤǤϤʤ뤤ϡιդ˷ΤԤĤȤˡ⤢ξˤϡEIL "standard English" Ȥǰ̩ȤƤˤȤɤƤΤȤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
Modiano θʸϡΤȤʸ礭ȯŸƤ櫓ǤϤʤѼȿȤŪʱƼΤαѸѤФ˯ϡԤ㤷ʤäƤ롥㤨СǡǤ롥
A linguistic chauvinism, or if you will, ethnocentricity, is so deeply rooted, not only in British culture, but also in the minds and hearts of a large number of language teachers working abroad, that many of the people who embrace such bias find it difficult to accept that other varieties of English, for some learners, are better choices for the educational model in the teaching of English as a foreign or second language. (6)
A great many people in the UK do not speak "standard English" if by standard English we mean forms of the language which are comprehensible in the international context. (7--8)
Modiano αѸǥ˻ξФΤϡɽ魯ǥǤȤʾˡ̤αѸѤꤷ褦ȤǥǤꡤۤδޤޤ줿ǥǥȤϡĤǤ⤽δܤ롥Jenkins (22--23) ɾȡ
Modiano, Marko. "International English in the Global Village." English Today 15.2 (1999): 22--28.
Modiano, Marko. "Standard English(es) and Educational Practices for the World's Lingua Franca." English Today 15.4 (1999): 3--13.
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2009.
ε[2012-05-05-1]˰³ grey eyes ꡥϡѸޥ grey eyes ˤĤƹͤζɽϸˤ³Ƥ롥BNCWeb ǡ"(grey|gray) {eye/N}" ȤƸȡ287㤬ҥåȤgrey eyes ̤ηƻԤƤߤȡclear, dark, deep, pale Ū¿beautiful bright 鷺ʤ餢ä
Τ褦㤫ȽǤȡgrey Τϵ̵ͭɽ魯̣ôƤʤ褦˻פ롥⤷ôƤȤСष pale ΡΤʤפȤ˰ѱѼdzǧ¤ꡤѸ grey ΰŪʸ촶ϡܸΤȤ褯ơnegative ϷǯµͫݵŷΥäơѸ grey eyes ϡnegative ʥ˥奢ä˴ްդʤɤߤȤʤС˿ȤƤΡֳפ뤤ϡĤߤΤ֤äפɽ魯Τȹͤ롥뤤ϡgrey eyes ϡ̣ޤäɽȤѤƤˤʤȤǽ⤢뤫⤷ʤ
ȡޤޤѸŵṲ̄ȤƤ grey eyes 狼ʤ⤷MED Silverstein Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤѸ grey ɽ路ΤȤСѸεΤʤ grey 180٤ΰ̣ѲФȤˤʤ롥
gradation ΤǤꡤĤʤäƤϰϤ̣ꤷ뤳ȤϡʤʤѸΤߤʤ餺ܸˤƤ⡤̸Ǥ롥
ʤŵṲ̄ƤBrewer (258) ϡMatthew of Vandôme ˤ Helen of Troy ̤ʲ̤ꡤ1ĤηǤȤƤ롥
. . . her hair is golden, forehead white as paper, eyebrows black and thin. The space between the eyes (in contrast to the Greek ideal) is white and clear, a 'milky way'; the face is a shining star; the eyes are like stars. She has a little smile, a nose neither too big nor too small. Her face is rosy, her colouring white and red, like rose and snow. Teeth are like ivory, lips are small, slightly swelling, honeyed. Her mouth smells like a rose, her neck is smooth, shoulders radiant, well-spaced (dispatiati), breasts small, and figure incomparable.
ʽǤ礦ҲäƤߤ
Silverstein, Theodore, ed. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1983.
Brewer, D. S. "The Ideal of Feminine Beauty in Medieval Literature, Especially 'Harley Lyrics', Chaucer, and Some Elizabethans." The Modern Language Review 50 (1955): 257--69.
ѸޥɤǤȡҥ grey eyes Ȥ̤뤳Ȥ¿̤Ǥ뤫顤grey eyes ŪˤɤΤ褦Ʒɽ路ƤΤΤꤿȻפΤ줬ƳǤ롥ȸȤŪФۤʤ뤳ȤϤˤȤƤ⡤ֳƷפȤΤʤΤ뤤ϡѸ grey ɽ魯̣Ѹ grey ȤϰۤʤäƤȤǽϤʤ
㤨СSir Gawain and the Green Knight ll. 81--84 "wheel" Ǥϡ Guenevere grey eyes ȤƤAndrew and Waldron Ǥѡˡ
Þe comlokest to discrye
Þer glent with yȝen gray;
A semloker þat euer he syȝe
Soth moȝt no mon say.
gray βϡԼԤˤäƤۤʤäƤ롥Andrew and Waldron ϥå "(of eyes) blue-grey" ȤƤꡤĤߤäפȲᤷƤ롥Gollancz, Barron, Tolkien and Gordon ϡѸ grey ƱǤȤƤꡤĤߡפѶŪӽƤ櫓ǤϤʤŪˤϡֳפȤߤʤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥grey eyes ϳƷؤȤľʲϡOED Ǥ3ˤ "Having a grey iris" ȤƺѤƤ롥
MED Ǥ grei (adj. & n.) ǤϡۤʤƤ롥 2 (b) ǡ"of eyes: bright, gleaming (of indeterminate color)" Ȥꡤ礤ǤϤʤ굱ͤҤƻȤƤ롥Ʊ Silverstein ˤäƤ⼨Ƥꡤ"With lively, sparkling eyes" ȤͿƤ롥Ѹˤϡgreye as glas (The General Prologue, l. 152 Prioress 䡤The Reeve's Tale, l. 3974 ʴ̼ηơˤ grey as crystalle stone ʤɤɽߤĤ뤷Τ褦ܡפȤ̤뤳Ȥ顤Ʒο礤ΤΤϤεܤɽȤäΤ⤷ʤ
ˤ̤ˤĤƤ Brewer ܤ12ˤϡʸؾ塤ƽפȤϤƤʤäȤʹߤϡŵṲ̄νޤ³ξˡ˳Ūɽ줿㤨С"whiter than the swan" Τ褦ηƤѸˤϰƤȤ (Brewer 262) grey eyes ϥեϰƤ줿 des yeux vaires ȤƤ롥 vaires ʤƻβ⡤礤ȵΤɽ路ΤǤꡤgrey eyes βɬҥȤͿƤʤ
Andrew, Malcolm and Ronald Waldron, eds. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript. 3rd ed. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2002.
Gollancz, Israel, ed. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. EETS os 250. 1950.
Tolkien, J. R. R. and E. V. Gordon, eds. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. 2nd ed. Rev. Norman Davis. Oxford: Clarendon, 1967.
Barron, W. R. J., ed. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
Silverstein, Theodore, ed. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1983.
Brewer, D. S. "The Ideal of Feminine Beauty in Medieval Literature, Especially 'Harley Lyrics', Chaucer, and Some Elizabethans." The Modern Language Review 50 (1955): 257--69.
[2012-05-02-1], [2012-05-03-1]εǼ夲Ƥ Zipf's law ڡʤȤθˤ뤿ˡGeneral Service List (GSL) κ2000;ΥǡѤƷƤߤʥǡեˡ


ǽΥդٽ̤٤ݤ碌դǡٽ100̤ۤɤޤǤθоݤȤʲϤҤƤ椯ΤߤʤΤǾά٤ΥդޤǤʤѤοۤɤDZٸΤۤȤɤʤäƤޤͻҤ褯狼롥
ΥդϡZipf's law ˤˤʤȤٽ̤٤ѤļˤȤäΤǤ롥̿ޤǤϡפϾ岼礭ɤưꤷʤʸ1000줰餤ޤǤϡˤ䤫ϤΤΡ夯θΥճǤϤҤ³롥äơפǤΤܤ˸Ƥ1000줰餤ޤǤ
ˡ§ȸƤ֤ΤϤޤ˳Ƥȹͤ뤫Ū褯ФƤȤȤ館뤫ϡѻԤθҤȤĤǤ롥Zipf's law ˤפϡ֤褽פȲ᤹Τۤλ֤褽פɤ٤ǤΤƤʤޤZipf's law ĥƤΤȰۤʤꡤդ٤Ȥ륳ѥΥˤ¸褦
ε[2012-05-02-1] Zipf's law ˤĤƳ⤷Zipf's law ˤˡ§פ¿ꡤ1Ĥˡ[2012-04-22-1]ε#1091. ;١ѡפǤŦָǤϡ٤⤱вûפȤΤ롥ưŪˡ̻ŪɽȡָǤϡ٤⤯ʤвûʤפȤʤ롥٤⤯ʤäƤ椯ȡ٤ٱϤΤΡβûƤ椯Τ뤳Ȥϡ䤿иŪˤ褯ΤäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1]) #879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) ǸȤꡤѸο쥽Ȥû (shortening) ˤäƤꡤˤϻ礫ʤ
Zipf's law ˡ§ΤĶŪյ̻Ūյ碌ƹͤȡ٤Ĺˤäơ줬Ϸ椯 (senescent word) ʤΤޤĤĤ (nascent word) ʤΤ̤ǤȤǽ롥Zipf Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology νɾ路 Chao (399) ꡤϢսѤ褦
A very interesting application of the tool analogy is that of senescent and nascent tools in connection with the Principle of Economical Specialization. Reasoning from tool efficiency yields the result that 'whenever we find a tool (or word) whose magnitude is smaller than that of its neighbors in the frequency range, we may conclude that the tool (or word) of below-average size is an older tool (or word) whose usage is on the decrease (hereinafter we shall call this a senescent tool)', and 'whenever we find a tool (or word) whose magnitude is above average for its frequency, we may conclude not only that it is a newer tool (or word), but that its usage may well be directed toward an increase (hereinafter we shall call this a nascent tool)' (72). The application to words is verified to a fair degree for English of various periods (111). By regarding all behavior as work and words as tools, the analogy becomes a case and the qualifier 'or word' can be omitted.
Ūûñ A ͤ롥Zipf's law ˤСA Ū٤ι⤤ͽۤ뤬ºݤˤƱ٤٤¾¿θ٤ȲûȤ롥ξ硤餯 A Ϥ٤ޤäƤ senescent word ȹͤƤ褤ȿФˡŪĹñ B ͤ롥Zipf's law ˤСB Ū٤㤤ͽۤ뤬ºݤˤƱ٤٤¾¿θ٤ȲĹȤ롥ξ硤餯 B Ϥ줫٤ޤޤƤ椭ṳ̂Ƥ椯ͽۤ nascent word ȹͤƤ褤ϡZipf's law ˡƬ˽Ҥ٤ŪٱȤݤ碌ˡ§ȤäƤ褤
̾ Zipf's law ŪǶŪŪˡ§ȤȤ館Ƥ뤬ưŪ̻Ūʴ顤οդˡ§ȤƺƲᤷƤߤȤ⤷
Chao, Y. R. "Review of Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology by George Kingsley Zipf." Language 26 (1950): 394--401.
##1089,1090,1091,1098 εǡ (information theory) ؤͿƤθˤĤơĤƤιȤơǤ褯ΤƤΤ1Ĥˡꥫθؼ George Kingsley Zipf (1902--50) 1949ǯ Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology ˤ Zipf's law åפˡ§ˤ롥٤ˤĤƤηиŪˡ§Ǥꡤ٤ f Ȥ٤ν̤ r Ȥȡ C ϤۤȤʤȤ
r f = C
ˡ§ϡ졤ƥȤμꡤԡ¾θŪѿˤ餺ΩĤȤ뤬ºݤˤ٤ǹ⤪Ӻθ췲ˤĤƤϸ礭Ȥ狼äƤꡤϹ⤯ʤȤȽ¿ޤr ٽ̡ˤʤ f ١ˤ˰¸Ƥꡤf r ΤϼǤ뤫顤ѤͤȤȤȤ϶ä٤ǤϤʤΥȡȥǤȤȽ롥иŪ¤˾Ȥ餷ˡ§ȤޤǤϤ鷺Ȥⷹ褯ɽ路ƤȤȤϤǤŪ˻Ŧյ礭
Zipf's law ȵڸ̤¿ˤ錄롥㤨Сˡ§ˤС٤ι⤤줫餽λ٤߷פƹԤŪθDZٸʬ뤳Ȥ顤ؽܸä˺ͿΤȤʤ롥ޤˡ§Ŭ礷ʤʬۤäȤС¾üװͿƤǽȤʾθ٤ޤ˹⤹иäϼ岽ƤȿǤ뤷٤㤤Ϥθ줬٤ѤƤˤȯŪʿ¤äʬɤꤵˡ
Zipf's law ϡʹ֤ιưʤȤ礭ʸ§the Principle of Least Effort ʺǾϤθ§ˤΰǤꡤθؤαѤϡ嵭κǤ褯Τ줿٤ٽδطθΤߤʤ餺¾θƤˤڤǤ롥㤨С٤ȸĹȿδطˤ롤ȤΤ⤢롥ѸñǤ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ¡ʲʬĴˤĤƤ ##348,349,355 ȡˤ䡤٤⤯ʤƬʤɤΤ褦û̡ά뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ¤⡤θ롥ۤˤϡϰϤȤ°οδطɽ魯ĴǤ٤㤤Ȥ븶§ʤɡˡ§Ͽ¿ cooperative principle ʶĴθ§ˤˤ̤γΧ֡ʤξˤơɬפȤƤʤΡ˾ͿפȤͿ"effort" ʤɤ꤬ĤäƤꡤޤǾϤʹ֤ιưʤͣθ§ǤȤϹͤ뤳ȤǤʤΰ̤ĤΤȤƽפʳǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
ʤʸǤϡ嵭Τθ§ Zipf's law ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥꡤޤ Zipf's laws ʣǤޤȤ줿ꡤthe Principle of Least Effort 礵줿ꤹ뤳Ȥ⤢ΤդɬפǤ롥Zipf νɾȤƤ Chao ȡŪˡ§ˤĤƤϡCrystal (86--87) ȡ
Chao, Y. R. "Review of Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology by George Kingsley Zipf." Language 26 (1950): 394--401.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
ε[2012-04-30-1] Farsi ˤ#1099. ҤηƻɾηƻפζʬŪ Class AɾŪ Class Bξ Class C ȤʬϡŪʴζʬ줾Υ饹°ƻоȤįƤȡ̻Ūʰ̣礤⤭夬äƤ롥Farsi ϼ2Ŧ (56--58)
(1) Class A Class C ؤȽ°ѹƻ줬Ĥ롥ȤȤϵŪ "concerning X" ۤɤθͭƤ Class A ƻ줬ɾŪ "worthy of X" ۤɤθθ碌ķ̤ȤʤäƤ롥English, American, Christian, logical, philosophical, scientific ʤɤΤ褦̻Ūвɤä
(2) 嵭Τ褦㤫¬ˡ Class A °ƻ줬衤ɾŪʰ̣ Class C ذܹԤȤȤΤǤϤʤ㤨Сphonemic ϡֲǤΡפȤŪʸŵŪ Class A ƻǤȤͤڻ뤹벻ȽŪ˻ؤ *unphonemic ɽС֤ȤƤ *phonemic ɾŪʸ뤳ȤˤʤꡤClass C ǧꤵ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Class A °ɤηƻˤ⡤ɾŪ뵡ϳƤ롥
Class A Class C ؤ̻Ūܹԡ뤤ϰ̣ȯŸϡѰ (register) ˱Ƥߤ뵭ŪɾŪΤɤȤŪʻ¤ȤɽФƤ롥㤨Сmental ɸŪˡǤϵŪɸŪˡǤɾΤäΤפȤ̣ӤӤ롥aesthetic ̾ϵŪˤɾŪˤѤ뤬ؤʸ̮ǤϡäѤ鵭ŪѤ
Farsi ϡClass A Class C ؤ夲ƤʤŪˤϤʳѲ⤢ȤϽҤ٤Ƥ롥ɾŪʸ줬ɾŪʸӤӤȤ̣Ѳϡεդڤ¿ľ롥ҴѤѤؤĥʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ꡤ[2011-03-11-1]ε#683. semantic prosody פǼʹ֤ȽꡥHotta (2011) Ĵƻ -ish ηỤ̄γǤ⡤Ϣä[2009-09-07-1]ε#133. ƻĤ -ish γηϩפ⻲ȡˡFarsi ηƻʬϡΤ褦ˡ̣Ѳꡤ̣ѲȻѰʤɤˤ⼨ͿƤ롥
⤦1ġ̻֤ȤδϢǵƤΤϡFarsi ʬȼѤ뤤ϸȤδطǤ롥εƬǤҤ٤#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) 䤽¾ع¤εǸƤȤꡤɾŪǡGreco-Latin ϡ˼ѸϵŪǤ褦ʸΥڥ¿Τ褦ʶŪʬ̻ۤŪʴ᤹ȡΤ褦ˤꤹ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤűѸǤϡƻϤۤΤߤǤꡤ̣ˤä Class A, B, C 3बäѸʹߡեƥ줫̤ηƻ줬Ѥ[2011-02-16-1]ε#660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨסˡ¿ϵŪäƤᡤClass A Class C °ƤϤΰϤ˶б뵭ŪäƤäĤޤꡤϼȤɾŪä Class B Ĥ줿Ѹ⼡ɾŪӤӤ Class B Class C ؿǤη̤ȤƤθߡѸϥ饹ˤ餺ʬۤƤ뤬ϼפʤΤ Class B °ƤФǤ롥
ʾ夬绨ĤʲǤ롥פּѸפϡΤˤϡǡפּѷǡפȸƤ֤ۤ褤⤷ʤbehavioural mannerly ʤɤ ( hybrid ) ΰǤɤΤ褦˰֤Ť٤ͤɬפ롥Ǥ Farsi ηƻꥹȤɤΤ褦˺줿ΤǡɤŪʤΤʤɤ⸡ڤɬפ
ɾŪγѰ衤ȼѸ졽Τ褦θȤơFarsi ηƻʬȤ館ʤȤǤ褦˻פ롥Ѹäλع¤뤿ˤ⡤ܸäλع¤[2010-03-28-1]ε#335. ܸäλع¤סˤΤˤ⡤̥ϤơޤȤʤꤽ
Farsi, A. A. "Classification of Adjectives." Language Learning 18 (1968): 45--60.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Suffix -ish and Its Derogatory Connotation: An OED Based Historical Study." Journal of the Faculty of Letters: Language, Literature and Culture 108 (2011): 107--32.
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