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衼åѤμפʸΤʤǡɥĸϱѸμѸ쥽ȤưճΩʤŪˤ٤εϤǥɥļѸ줬ΤϸѸ줫Ǥꡤ϶ϾǤ롥Ѹɥĸ⥲ޥ (Germanic) °̤εĤȤȤΤƤˤϡξ֤ǼѤȤδطϴǤ롥
Ѹ˥ɥĸθŪƶʤȤ Jespersen (143) ڤۤ (258) ʤɤαѸ˳ǤƤ̤ɥĸѤʤȤϤäƤեƥ٤ƤäǤäơºݤˤϤ٤οϼȤѸȤäƤƤ롥ǯˤƤΤ褦 (Algeo 80; #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])) #2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Wordorigins.org "Where Do English Words Come From?" Ǥ⡤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Other European languages remain steady, contributing 3--4% of new words throughout the centuries. The exception is German, which starting in the eighteenth century begins to increase its contribution to English vocabulary, reaching 3% of new words all by itself, and nosing ahead of French by the twentieth century.
Ʊꤷ OED ˴ŤפǥɥļѸŪܤղȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

켣 (115--17) ˤСɥĤ16˹ۻѤѤĹƤΤǡαƶ17--18ˤѸäȿǤƤʥդǤμ㴳ιޤ16Ǥˡ17ʹߤϿ̾μѤ¿ޤɥĤ19ůؤؤޤŪȯŸ뤲ᡤŪѸ䳵ǰѸؤήʥվ19˥ԡޤˡ̾μѤΤۤ (loan_translation) ¿Τɥĸ줫μѤħȤ뤫⤷ʤʲʬ̤˥ɥļѸѤޤˤ褦
ιۻ
cobalt, gneiss, meerschaum, quartz, zinc
ůءʸɾ
folksong, gestalt, leitmotif, nihilism, objective, subjective, superman, transcendental, zeitgeist
Ӹء
ablaut, schwa, strong [weak] (declension), Umlaut
ζ١
kindergarten, semester, seminar
ʪءء
aniline, dynamo, ohm, protein, relativity, saccharine, sarin, uranium
ΰءء
aspirin, heroin, pepsin, Roentgen-ray [X-ray]
οʡ
delicatessen, frankfurter, hamburger, lager, noodle, pumpernickel, sauerkraut, schnitzel
ɥļѸˤĤƻ䤤ƤѸ˳¿ʤCarr, Charles T. The German Influence on the English Vocabulary. London: Clarendon, 1934. Ȥ褦Ǥ롥
Ϣơ#150. ꥫѸؤΥɥĸι ([2009-09-24-1])#756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ʸ嵭2015/09/06(Sun)Begoña Crespo ("Historical Background of Multilingualism and Its Impact." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britan. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. p. 29.) ˤСǤѸ15ˤ⡤ϥɥĸ줫ιʪؤ˴ؤѸ줬äƤȤ
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
ͺ켣 رѸIIIA١Ѹ10罤۽Ź1984ǯ
Algeo, John. "Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 57--91.
䤿ϡġθѼˤĤ̤ʻפäƤ롥㤨СǤܸФդǤȻפäƤ뤫⤷ʤǤ1ѼǤԤȤƤò⤷ʤɸϹ⤤ϰ̤ʸոǧƤ뤫⤷ʤݸȤƳؤФƤѸ礭ϤĸǤȹͤƤ뤫⤷ʤθդФ̤λפפϸռѤȸƤ֤ȤǤ뤬νĤ˲餫ط⤿餹褦ʼҲŪʲʹѤȼäѤˤϸ쥤ǥȸƤǤΤŬڤǤ롥
ؽȤФܸ٤¼ (18--20) ϡܸˤȤФΰ֤ŤˤĤƹͻȤơ쥤ǥγǰƳƤ롥¼ (18) ؼԤ Irvine Ѥơ쥤ǥȤϡָطˤĤƸġʸäƤǰηϤؤŪŪͤäƤפȤҲ𤷤Ƥ롥ʤʤIrvine θʸ (255) ˤȡ". . . linguistic ideology---the cultural (or subcultural) system of ideas about social and linguistic relationships, together with their loading of moral and political interests" ȤΤǡκǽϡּҲȸδطˤĤơפȤʤ٤ޤ"interests" ϡֲ͡פطפƤΤŬ
3Ĥ롥1Ĥϡ쥤ǥμΤΤǤϤʤǰ (ideas) ˴ؤΤȤȤǤ롥ǥǤ뤫顤˴ؤͤȤŪʤΤǤ롥㤨СȻפΤϡθѼμǤϤʤθѼФǰǤ롥
2ܤˡ쥤ǥȤϡΤ褦ʽǰη (system) ǤȤȤ줾ǰΩƽ礵줿ΤǤϤʤߤߤ˰¸ΩäƤȿǤ롤ȡ㤨СФ밦ϡɸ̵̣ȤȤ˻٤ƤȤ롥
3ܤϡ쥤ǥŪŪط (moral and political interests) ȼäƤȤȤ㤨СѸϹṲ̄ͥʸǤȤŪʤȤ館뤤ϵդŪʸ (linguistic_imperialism) ǤȤŪʤȤ館ϡѸŪ뤤ŪʴɾƤǡǥǤ롥#1194. ¼ɤαѸѤȱѸˡ ([2012-08-03-1]) 4ĤαѸѤϤŪŪطȼǰηϤǤ뤫顤4ĤαѸФ쥤ǥȸƤ褤
ФδǰϼȽ캹̡츢Ȥäγǰ˶̤Τϡκ˲餫ηθ쥤ǥ¸ߤƤȤȤǤ롥
Irvine, Judith T. "When Talk Isn't Cheap: Language and Political Economy." American Ethnologist 16 (1989): 248--67.
¼ ҡؽȤФܸ١ȽŹҴȿӡ2012ǯ
Wordorigins.org "Where Do English Words Come From?" ꤹ뵭ǤϡOED ȤΨ̻ŪܤĴ𤬤롥űѸ줫鸽Ѹؤγˡ츻̤ˤɤο줬ä˲ä줿ȤȤ˥դǼƤ롥ʸˤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡФθ츻˴ؤ OED θ츻Ф줿ϡäĤƲᤷʤФʤʤȤΤϡ츻ˤ줬ڤƤȤƤ⡤줬Ѹθ츻ɽȤϸ¤ʤ褽λͤˤʤ뤳ȤϳΤǤꡤ̻ŪʳѤΤͭѤǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ
ǤϡCSV뤤EXCELǸƤ̤Ǹ츻̤οͤҼڤեȥƥ줫Ѹäɲä줿Ѹοܤղ¤٤Ƥߤ
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ѲθŪװȸ쳰ŪװˤĤƤϡ¿εǹͤƤ (cf. #442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])#1015. ҲѲȸѲΰ̴طɵǤ뤫 ([2012-02-06-1])#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])#2151. Ѳθ3ء ([2015-03-18-1]))
쳰Ūװ1ĤȤƼҲ¤Ѳ뤬Ҳ¤Ѳ칽¤ˤȿǤ뤫Ȥ϶̣ηϤγˤäΤ˼ޤȤΤϡäɤȤʤΤ㤨СѸ˱Ѹȥե diglossia ˤѤμҲŪʾ岼ط줿Ȥξ岼طϡswine pork Τ褦ʸä register ˤ岼طȤƱѸθηϤȿǤ뤳ȤȤʤäȿǤȤϡäɤΤ褦ʻȤߤǵäƤΤˤĤƤϡ#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])#1491. diglossia borrowing δط ([2013-05-27-1])#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1]) εǤ夲
ꥦ (169) ϡǽҤ٤ȿǡפλȤߤˤĤƤϾܤҤ٤Ƥʤ줬ŪǤ뤳ȤΤ褦Ƥʸʸη֤Ƥˡ
ֳŪװʰ²֤κ¤ʸ濴ϤȤΤ褦ʡˤϡά͡ưľܤ˷ꤹ뤳ȤΤʤŪװǤ롥餬ꤹΤŪμιǤäơä٤ξȤʤ롥äơŪͳФƤϡ²֤κ¤ΤΤǤϤʤΤȤĿʹ֤θŪμξ֤Ǥ롥ƱȤϡּҲ¤ѲפˤĤƤΤǤäơʤAᥤϡѲεˤͳǤȤҲ¤ѲŪ¤ˤΤޤȿǤʤΤϡƱ¤ȤϤäƤ⡤ξԤδ֤ʿմطʤǤ롥Ҳ¤ϸŪ¤ʤμҲŪؤбƤ롥ơʸΤȤǤ롥ҲŪʤΤϡʤΡֿʲפˤפľŪװǤϤ뤬Ūμ¿ͲȳزΤȤФˤäơĤޤʸװȤƤΤߤΤǤ롥
ꥦϡ³սƱˤäơˤϸ칽¤ľܤȿǤʤƤ롥Ҳˤװڻ뤷ƤΤǤϤʤȸ칽¤Ȥ̤μˤΤȤĥδ餹ȡŪװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פȤϡۤʤ٥2ĤΤΤ٤ƤȤǡʥȤȤˤʤ롥ɤۤʤ뼡ˤƽפȤȤ
ѤǿƤᥤθѲθˤĤƤεϡ#1973. Meillet ΰ̣Ѳ3Ĥθ ([2014-09-21-1]) ȡ
E. ꥦˡ ɧˡظѲȤ̻֡֡ˡ١ȽŹ2014ǯ
ǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤֲѲ㳰ʤפθ§ (Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze) ϸθؤ˿ʱƶڤܤƤ뤬ǡ͡ʷȽ佤ƤäˡѲϸäδ֤˥褦ˤƿʹԤȼĥóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ϡ㳰ʤѲΥơ˱ԤΩƤ롥
ꥦⲻѲ㳰ʤ̲ˤĤƵƤꡤˤä2ΰ̲̤ɬפ⤯ʰʲʸη֤Ƥˡ
סʸġͤʤ륰롼פθˤˤְŪѲפˤϡä̤٤ĤμΰޤޤƤ롥ʤΥ롼פΤ٤Ƥää٤ˤǡŪʰ뤤ñˡְפȸƤΤġްĤϡѲˤ餵줿Ǥ⤷ϲǷޤह٤Ƥθˤʤ뤤Ѳˤ餵줿Ǥ⤷ϲǷ褦ʾΤȤ˴ޤǤ뤹٤Ƥθˤ˰ǤäơϳơäθŪμǤϤƹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤäơŪʰ⤷ϡֵ§פȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥 (134--35)
ε#2159. ֤̻֤ӤĤ diffusion ([2015-03-26-1]) ǡѲ֤ˤȻäȶŪˤܤϰüԽĤؤγȻ˿줿ΰ̣ǤγȻʰ̲ˤϡꥦΤŪʰˤΤǤ롥ꥦ۩ֳŪȤɬŪˡֲγȻסʤĤǹԤѤη̤Ǥ (136) ѤȤϸġüԤμͳջ֤ˤΤǤ뤫顤Ūʰ̣Ǥΰ̲λˤϡˡ§ϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
ŪˤϡʤʤΤǤ롥ΰ̣ˤơֲˡ§פϡǤȡסʲŪγȻˤȤƤǤϤʤֵƤޤäȤγǧפȤơʤʤޤΤǤȤ (Geschichte) ȤƤǤϤʤʪ (Historie) ΤȤȤơºݤˤϡŪʪȤƤˤγǧĤޤ֥ݥƥꥪפʳǧˤȤɤޤΤǤ̸ά͡ (138)
üԸĿͤΤIJηϤ뤢벻̤βؤѲΰ̲ϡŪʰˤΤǤ롥ꥦϡŪˤϡֲѲ㳰ʤפΤǧȤΩǤꡤóȻĥ褦褦ʸ줫ؤŪʳȻꤹ롥
ŪϡȤϤޤä̤ΤϤʤǤ롥ξˤϡκѤΡֳȻפƱθĿͤθŪμΤ勞ǡĤθ줫̤θؤ֤ΤȤ褦˹ͤ뤳ȤŬڤǤʤ˿콬ȤƺѤ줿ͼѤʤФˤѲϢ³Ū˸뤿ᡤ¿ͤʤȤʤΤϡμλѤ˸ΤǤäơμΤΤ˸ΤǤϤʤѤ줿ϡɬƽȯ顤ѤͤθŪμΤ°Ƥ롥η̡ŪͼˤĤƸСͼϡޤˤΤȤˤäɽŪǽȤơ줾θĿͤˤäǧƤ벻ŪͼηϤȤߤޤ롥 (139)
ޤȤСֲˡ§ȤϳŪʰ̣ǤȻǤꡤỤ̄ǤǤ (152) ιͤˤСԤΰ̲ˡ§̾ˤդ路Ԥΰ̲ˡ§Ȥ̵ȤȤˤʤ롥
E. ꥦˡ ɧˡظѲȤ̻֡֡ˡ١ȽŹ2014ǯ
#2134. Ѳ̷ǤϤʤ ([2015-03-01-1]) ǡ̷֤̻֤⤹ΤǤϤʤȤ륳ꥦεߤξԤ̷⤷ʤȤϡ1Ĥθ¤2Ĥ¦̤ˤʤΤǤꡤषºݤˤͻ礷ƤΤǤ롥ΤȤϡʬۤóȻθƤȤ褯ʬ롥֤ή줬֡Ū֤Ҳؤζ֡ˤ˺פĤȤǤФ褤ưŤƱ路ƤΤΤ褦ʻޤ뤳ȤϤǤʤͤƤȤWolfram and Schilling-Estes ˤؤȸŪȻˤĤƤʸϤƬ (713) ˡƤΤߤĤ̯
Dialect variation brings together language synchrony and diachrony in a unique way. Language change is typically initiated by a group of speakers in a particular locale at a given point in time, spreading from that locus outward in successive stages that reflect an apparent time depth in the spatial dispersion of forms. Thus, there is a time dimension that is implied in the layered boundaries, or isoglosses, that represent linguistic diffusion from a known point of origin. Insofar as the synchronic dispersion patterns are reflexes of diachronic change, the examination of synchronic points in a spatial continuum also may open an important observational window into language change in progress.
"spatial" ȤȤ֤ؤƤ褦˻פ뤬ƱȤϼҲ֤ˤƤϤޤ롥ºݡWolfram and Schilling-Estes (714) ϡ2Ĥΰۤʤ֤ؤγȻƱˤĤƹͤƤ롥
Although dialect diffusion is usually associated with linguistic innovations among populations in geographical space, a horizontal dimension, it is essential to recognize that diffusion may take place on the vertical axis of social space as well. In fact, in most cases of diffusion, the vertical and horizontal dimensions operate in tandem. Within a stratified population a change will typically be initiated in a particular social class and spread to other classes in the population from that point, even as the change spreads in geographical space.
֤ȼҲ֤ؤƱγȻΤۤˤ⡤͡ʼؤƱγȻͤ뤳ȤǤ롥óȻ (lexical_diffusion) Ϥ⤽֤ˤȻǤ뤷֤ϰήʤΤǡֳȻפȤɽʤʡֶֻ֡פȤ̯ʸؤΡ˰γȻȤͤ롥Τ褦¿ŪʸȻθˤĤƤϡ#1550. ȾóȻްռ (3) ([2013-07-25-1]) ǡ"double diffusion" "cumulative diffusion" ȸƤӤʤȤǤ⤢롥ˡƱ¿Ȼ (simultaneous multi-dimensional diffusion) ̾դפ̿̾Ϥ塼ˤ֤ζ̤μ뤿Υɤ1ĤȤơ
Wolfram, Walt and Natalie Schilling-Estes. "Dialectology and Linguistic Diffusion." The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. 713--35.
ɸΤ褦 said John ʤãư줬֤ˤĤơ[2015-02-25-1]ε³Ԥ롥ѸΤθˤĤơBiber et al. (922) ϡQuirk et al. εҤ¿Ťʤ뤬Τ褦ŪͿƤ롥
Subject-verb order is virtually the rule where one or more of the following three conditions apply:
The subject is an unstressed pronoun:
"The safety record at Stansted is first class," he said. (NEWS)
The verb phrase is complex (containing auxiliary plus main verb):
"Konrad Schneider is the only one who matters," Reinhold had answered. (FICT)
The verb is followed by a specification of the addressee:
There's so much to living that I did not know before, Jackie had told her happily. (FICT)
LGSWE Corpus ǤĴˤȡʸθ֤Ǥ SV VS Ūˤ褽Ʊ餤٤ȤFICTIONǤ SV ¿NEWSǤ VS ޤʤɡʬȤȤδطǤСεǿ줿褦ˡjournalistic writing 䤪ɤ̤ǤʸǤ VS 뤳ȤȤϻѰʸΤȤδϢ
ãưǤȤạ́Ū¡ǤŪѰʸΤδͿװʣ߹ä said John John said ꤵȤС¿Ū˸ƤʤФʤʤȤˤʤ롥ۤˤŪװͿƤǽ⤢ꤽ¾ΰʸƳɽʤȤӤɬפ̻Ūʴϡ߹礤ˤƤΤޤդˤȯãʤɤȤδط뤫ɤʤɡ̣ԤʤʸԤˤĤƤϡ#2004. ICEHL18 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2014-10-22-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 ICEHL18 γزǡȯã quoth οȤͿƤǽȤݤ Colette Moore θƬȯɽİȤ롥The ICEHL18 Book of Abstracts (PDF) pp. 170--71 ȡ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
binomial 2।ǥˤȸƤФ "A and B" ʤɤηɽˤĤơbinomial εǰäƤbinomials ϡword pair, paired word, doublets, collocated words ʤɤȤƤФ롥"A and B" ˸¤餺ȡ³ˤ礵줿Ʊ֤2סҸp. 170ˤȤʤʰʲǤϸƾΤ word pair ˡѸˤˤ word pair θϤȤʤŤѸǤ word pair ˭äǤ롥ä˶ѸλϤޤޤǤϡ̤˸줿
word pair ˤ⤤ʷ뤬츻Ūˤߤ줫ʼȤƥե줫Ρ˼Ѹ줫ȤȤ߹碌ˤäƱѱѥסʽƱǡ˱ʩסʩʩפʬ롥word pair θ̤ˤ⤤Ĥμब̤롥#820. ʩƱ ([2011-07-26-1]) ǤҤ٤ʸŪŪ⤢СߤΤʤθ¥ˡߤο⤦θźȤ⤢롥뤤ϡ#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡä˱ʩפˡΧѸˤơƤ줫ȤϫȤʤäȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤޤξˤ⡤̣ĴȤƯϤ٤ϴޤޤƤΤǤϤʤ
Ǥθ츻ܤʬȸ̤ܤʬबʤطˤΤȤ϶̣Ȥ櫓ʩפ˴ؤơեѸΰ̣뤿źȤܤ㤬¿ȤʤJespersen (89--90) ϡAncrene Riwle ȤƼΤ褦 word pair Ƥ롥
cherité þet is luve
in desperaunce, þet is in unhope & in unbileave forte beon iboruwen
Understondeð þet two manere temptaciuns---two kunne vondunges---beoð
pacience, þet is þolemodnesse
lecherie, þet is golnesse
ignoraunce, þet is unwisdom & unwitenesse
Chaucer ϱʩפʸŪŪˡ뤤϶ĴŪǻѤ뤳Ȥ¿äȤ롥Jespersen (90) ϤΤȤʲΤ褦ڤƤ롥
In Chaucer we find similar double expressions, but they are now introduced for a totally different purpose; the reader is evidently supposed to be equally familiar with both, and the writer uses them to heighten or strengthen the effect of the style; for instance: He coude songes make and wel endyte (A 95) = Therto he coude endyte and make a thing (A 325) | faire and fetisly (A 124 and 273) | swinken with his handes and laboure (A 186) | Of studie took he most cure and most hede (A 303) | Poynaunt and sharp (A 352) | At sessiouns ther was he lord and sire (A 355).
ëȤҸ (174--75) ˤСChaucer ʸѤ word pairs ΤΤ73%ޤǤʩפʩʩפǤȤ졤Chaucer İɼԤ˵եοι⤵롥
Ѥ word pair μ˴ؤ Chaucer жˤ˶ᤤȤˤΤȤơҸ (174--75) ϡѱѥפΨŪ˹⤤ʸƤ롥ΥƥȤǤϡѱѥפ word pairs ΤȾ뤤ϤʾƤȤ Chaucer Ȱۤʤ餺ʸŪŪʤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥ȤΤϡѱѥפ¿Ѥ뤳ȤǡֹӺǤϤ뤬϶ʸΡסҸp. 175ˤФȤ˹Ƥ뤫word pair μȸ̤ͤǤϡġκȤƥȤθɬפȤȤ
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
Ҹ סɿԤλʸˤεˡס˸ʸˡԶɽȯù١١ʶ ҡ ԡ̾ ҡԡˡˡҤĤ˼2014ǯ163--88ǡ
ë Chaucer λʸʤˤɥڥѡסؤȤФζѸեȸء١ʺ ¼ סԡˡˡʸҡ2008ǯ89--116ǡ
Ѹˤư츽߿;θ -th -s ѲˤĤƤϡ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1])#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1])#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1])#2141. 3ñ -th -s Ѳγס ([2015-03-08-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ˴Ϣ Bambas ʸɤߤκǿθ̤ȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ʤˤ褯ޤȤޤäƤ롥
ѸˤǤϡ1600ǯդξȤ The Authorised Version Լˤ3ñ -s ̵Ǥ뤳ȤФˤ롥Bacon The New Atlantis (1627) ˤ -s ʤȤΤƤ롥顤ʸŪʸǤ -s ϸŪˤȤΤ̤äΤǤϤʤȤ¬Ωġ Jespersen (19) ϤΤ褦ʰոǤ롥
Contemporary prose, at any rate in its higher forms, has generally -th'; the s-ending is not at all found in the A[uthorized] V[ersion], nor in Bacon A[tlantis] (though in Bacon E[ssays] there are some s'es). The conclusion with regard to Elizabethan usage as a whole seems to be that the form in s was a colloquialism and as such was allowed in poetry and especially in the drama. This s must, however, be considered a licence wherever it occurs in the higher literature of that period. (qtd in Bambas, p. 183)
Bambas (183) ˤСꥶ٥īλʸȤΥƥȤĴƤߤȡºݤˤ1590ǯޤǤˤʸŪʸˤƤ -s ǧƤꡤƤͻҤϤʤθ⡤Ŀͤˤä٤ΰ㤤礭ΤΡ-s 줿ȹͤͳϤʤȤJespersen θϡ-s βᾮɾǤȡ
The fact seems to be that by the 1590's the -s-form was fully acceptable in literary prose usage, and the varying frequency of the occurrence of the new form was thereafter a matter of the individual writer's whim or habit rather than of deliberate selection.
ơ17 -th -s ˼äƵˤʤäƤäȸ롥Wyld (333--34) ۩
From the beginning of the seventeenth century the 3rd Singular Present nearly always ends in -s in all kinds of prose writing except in the stateliest and most lofty. Evidently the translators of the Authorized Version of the Bible regarded -s as belonging only to familiar speech, but the exclusive use of -eth here, and in every edition of the Prayer Book, may be partly due to the tradition set by the earlier biblical translations and the early editions of the Prayer Book respectively. Except in liturgical prose, then, -eth becomes more and more uncommon after the beginning of the seventeenth century; it is the survival of this and not the recurrence of -s which is henceforth noteworthy. (qtd in Bambas, p. 185)
Bambas Ϥˤ۵Ĥ롥Wyld θϡ-eth βᾮɾǤȡĤޤȤ Bambas ϡ1600ǯǯδ֡-s -th ŪˤԤԤִȤήǤϤ뤬ξ¸λȤߤΤŬڤǤȤոΰո٤ΤϡBambas ȤԤä16ȾФ17ȾФˤƤλʸˤĴ̤Ǥ롥Bambas (186) ɽƸ褦
| Author | Title | Date | Incidence of -s |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ascham, Roger | Toxophilus | 1545 | 6% |
| Robynson, Ralph | More's Utopia | 1551 | 0% |
| Knox, John | The First Blast of the Trumpet | 1558 | 0% |
| Ascham, Roger | The Scholmaster | 1570 | 0.7% |
| Underdowne, Thomas | Heriodorus's Anaethiopean Historie | 1587 | 2% |
| Greene, Robert | Groats-Worth of Witte; Repentance of Robert Greene; Blacke Bookes Messenger | 1592 | 50% |
| Nashe, Thomas | Pierce Penilesse | 1592 | 50% |
| Spenser, Edmund | A Veue of the Present State of Ireland | 1596 | 18% |
| Meres, Francis | Poetric | 1598 | 13% |
| Dekker, Thomas | The Wonderfull Yeare 1603 | 1603 | 84% |
| Dekker, Thomas | The Seuen Deadlie Sinns of London | 1606 | 78% |
| Daniel, Samuel | The Defence of Ryme | 1607 | 62% |
| Daniel, Samuel | The Collection of the History of England | 1612--18 | 94% |
| Drummond of Hawlhornden, W. | A Cypress Grove | 1623 | 7% |
| Donne, John | Devotions | 1624 | 74% |
| Donne, John | Ivvenilia | 1633 | 64% |
| Fuller, Thomas | A Historie of the Holy Warre | 1638 | 0.4% |
| Jonson, Ben | The English Grammar | 1640 | 20% |
| Milton, John | Areopagitica | 1644 | 85% |

ε ([2015-03-21-1]) ǥꥦˤ#2154. Ѳͽ¬ԲǽפΩ2ε ([2015-03-19-1], [2015-03-20-1]) Lass ˤ볰Ŭ夲Ƥ줾ΩΤ褦˻פ뤬Ŭ¾θѲƱͤˤΤȤǤǤդβˤʤ Lass Ҥ٤Ȥ2Ĥ꤬Ĥʤä褦˻פѲǤդǤ꼫ͳǤȤˤĤơꥦ Lass Ωϻ̤äƤ롥
Lass (98) ϡŬˤĤƸƤʸ "The joys of idleness" ̵٤δӡˤꤹǽˤơ"historical junk" ŪʤˤФиѲξ뤳Ȥ˿ĤġۤȤΩʤ褦ˤߤबѲˤȤäƽפǤȤʤꤦ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
. . . useless or idle structure has the fullest freedom to change, because alteration in it has a minimal effect on the useful stuff. ('Junk' DNA may be a prime example.) Major innovations often begin not in the front line, but where their substrates are doing little if any work. (They also often do not, but this is simply a fact about non-deterministic open systems.) Historical junk, in any case, may be one of the significant back doors through which structural change gets into systems, by the re-employment for new purposes of idle material.
Crucially, however, mere 'uselessness' is not itself either a determinate precursor of exaptive change, or - conversely - a precursor of loss. Historical relics can persist, even through long periods of apparently senseless variation, and it is impossible to predict, solely on the basis of such idleness or inutility, that ANYTHING at all will happen.
ʤۤɡǽ㤱㤤ۤɳŬ뤿ξ郎ΤǤ뤫顤"conceptual novelty" ޤ䤹ȤȤˤʤʤɬޤȤϸ¤ʤˡΰ⤤ˤϰ츫ȵŪʶ褦˻פ뤬ޤǤ#836. ǽôȸѲ ([2011-08-11-1]) ʤɤƤȤǤϤ롥ηϤȤƤθȤ餤СΩεǽô (functional_load) ʤоʤۤɡʤƤ褤ΩȤȤˤʤꡤäƾüʤꡤ̵٤¸ߤ³ʤꡤ̤εǽ˼äʤꤹ뤳Ȥ䤹̤θСηȿΤʤ˶ǤȤ߹ޤƤ餺դդ餷ƤǤۤɡѲηˤʤ䤹ȤȤ#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1]) #1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1]) Ǹ褦ˡѲηϤμˤ䤹Ȥ⡤̵٤δӡפȴط
¤ؤʤ餺ȤҲؤδ⡤ƱȤsocial_network ˤС夤嫤ǷФƤ (weakly_tied) Ŀ͡ηȿΤʤ˶ǤȤ߹ޤƤ餺դդ餷ƤװѲοޤˤʤ䤹Ȥ (cf. #882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1])#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ס ([2012-07-19-1]))
Ҥ̵Ѥѡפ⤤ϡηȿ˴ؤ뤢ѲƤϤޤΤ⤷ʤ
Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.
Ѳͽ¬ (prediction_of_language_change) ˤĤơ#843. Ѳͽκ ([2011-08-18-1])#844. Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥϴݤ ([2011-08-19-1])#1019. Ѳͽ¬ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2012-02-10-1]) ʤɤǹͤƤ˴ؤƤ͡ʵ뤬ؼԥꥦϡ#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ ([2015-03-10-1]) ȳˤƤ뤯餤Ǥ뤫顤ѲͽۼΤʥǤȼĥƤ롥ʲϢս p. 336 Ѥʸʸη֤Ƥˡ
ѲͽǤȤͤˤϺʤ̤̤褽켫ΤǧˤȤäƤǤϤʤͽ¬ϳǤϤʤȤФΤФΤ褦ʹͤϤԹʼĥĤޤäɽŪͳ̤ˤƤȿ뤫äƳꤹ뤳ȤǤȤĥޤळȤˤʤ롥ͽפϰŪʸǤ뤫顤ºݤˤѲϤΤȤȤդ˽Ҥ٤롥ơˤˤ̲ȤϡŪǤäƼŪǤϤʤά͡ΤǤΤäƤ뤳줳ξΤȤǤϡ줳ѲǤȸΤǤäơġΤФˤĤơŪˤɤΤ褦ѲȤºݤ˵ΤʤΤȤϤǤʤƱ褦ˡ夹ĤΡָ֡פӤơɤΤ褦ѲƤ뤫ǧ뤳ȤϤǤ롥ѲƱ˿ʤΤɤƤΤϲʤ
ꥦѲͽ¬Բǽݤ2Ĥ롥1Ĥϡͽ켫ΤϳǤϤʤȤȡ⤦1ĤϡѲξϰŪķŪ˼ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤϸġμŪʸѲͽΤˤΩʤȤȤǤ롥ԤϡƼξΤȤǤüԤμͳݤƤ뤳Ȥ˴ط롥
ʳؤˤƤϡˡ§μΩ̤ͽ¬ǽȤϥǷФطǤ롥ϼʳؤǤϤʤˤϰˡ§ʤͽ¬ǽʤꥦϡؤʳؤ˶ŤȤ뤳Ȥ⡤ˡ§ͽ¬ǽɵᤷ褦Ȥ뤳ȤǧʤΩäƤ롥ָؤϡͳλۤΤȤˤʤ顤ʤˡ§Ω褦ȤԹʴƤ٤Ǥ (342) ȡ
E. ꥦˡ ɧˡظѲȤ̻֡֡ˡ١ȽŹ2014ǯ
ε#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲ĸ줫饲ޥĸˤȤؤˤĤơܤ롥ĸΥƥƤ Present, Perfect, Aorist ζ̤ϡޥĸˤƻȿΥƥιװȤƤ Present, Preterite 1, Preterite 2 ζ̤ؤȰܹԤŪʶ̤ݻޤޤˡŬäȤˤʤ롥ޤбγάŪ˼ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(Indo-European) (Germanic) PRESENT PRESENT PERFECT PRETERITE 1 AORIST PRETERITE 2
(i) loss of the (semantic) opposition perfect/aorist; (ii) retention of the diluted semantic content 'past' shared by both (in other words, loss of aspect but retention of distal time-deixis); (iii) retention of the morpho(phono)logical exponents of the old categories perfect and aorist, but divested of their oppositional meaning; (iv) redeployment of the now semantically evacuated exponents as markers of a secondary (concordial) category; in effect re-use of the now 'meaningless' old material to bolster an already existing concordial system, but in quite a new way.
ĸˤ¸ߤʤäƥޥĸˤƿȯ줿Ȥ̣ǡγŬϤޤ "conceptual novelty" λȤ롥
Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.
#2146. ѸˤѲϡ¤εǽ¤ؤγŬǤ ([2015-03-13-1]) ǸѲˤ볰Ŭ (exaptation) γǰƳˤĤܳŪʸΤ Lass Ǥ롥ʪʲʬ Gould and Vrba ѤǰLass ϤѲ˱Ѥ
ʪʲˤ볰ŬϡGould (171 qtd. in Lass 80) ΤȤФڤȰʲ̤Ǥ롥
We wish to restrict the term adaptation only to those structures that evolved for their current utility; those useful structures that arose for other reasons, or for no conventional reasons at all, and were then fortuitously available for other changes, we call exaptations. New and important genes that evolved from a repeated copy of an ancestral gene are partial exaptations, for their new usage cannot be the reason for the original duplication.
Ŭ (adaptation) ϤǤȯãƤ뵡ǽΤʤȯãؤФƳŬ (exaptation) ̤ͳˤ뿷ȯãؤLass (80) ΤȤФȡ"Exaptation then is the opportunistic co-optation of a feature whose origin is unrelated or only marginally related to its later use. In other words (loosely) a 'conceptual novelty' or 'invention'" ȤȤˤʤ롥
ơŬѲƤϤƹͤƤߤ褦εǽ졤ƥߤȤʤäƻĤä֤éƻ3Ĥ롥Ѵ뤫ߤΤޤް̣ʤĤ³뤫̤Ӥդƿ̿뤫Ǥ롥κǸƻŬȤȤˤʤ롥Lass (81--82) Ѥ롥
Say a language has a grammatical distinction of some sort, coded by means of morphology. Then say this distinction is jettisoned, PRIOR TO the loss of the morphological material that codes it. This morphology is now, functionally speaking, junk; and there are three things that can in principle be done with it: (i) it can be dumped entirely; (ii) it can be kept as marginal garbage or nonfunctional/nonexpressive residue (suppletion, 'irregularity'); (iii) it can be kept, but instead of being relegated as in (ii), it can be used for something else, perhaps just as systematic. . . . . Option (iii) is linguistic exaptation.
Lass ϡŬζ1ĤȤơĸΥƥޥĸˤƻȿΥƥȤؤ줿Ȥ夲Ƥ롥ĸϡΥƥˤ Present, Perfect, Aorist 3첻ˤäƶ̤ƤȤޥȯãǡ첻ˤֲŪʶ̤ݻʤ顤ζ̤Ȥ̤ӤդȤŪˤϡΩϾü˻ˤΩȲˤΩΩƤĤޤꡤĤƤ Present, Perfect, Aorist ζ̤ϡޤ Present, Preterite 1, Preterite 2 ؤȡֳŬפΤǤ롥
Lass (99) ʸκǸdzŬγǰҲŪ˱ѤǽˤޤǸڤƤꡤμιƤ롥
Gould, Stephen Jay and Elizabeth S. Vrba. "Exaptation --- A Missing Term in the Science of Form." Paleobiology 8.1 (1982): 4--15.
Gould, Stephen Jay. Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes: Further Reflections in Natural History. New York: Norton, 1983.
Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.
Ѳθ礭ʬȡŪʤΤȸ쳰ŪʤΤʬ롥Ūʶ̤ˤĤƤϡ#442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1]) ʤɤƤȤǤ롥
2ĤϤ줾ҲŪװȡʽ˸Ūװɤؤ뤳ȤǤ뤬ʬˡǤϤ绨Ĥˤ롥㤨СŪװȤλФ˴ؤŪװȤˤϡ⡦Τ줬ͿƤ뤳ȤˤʤΤޤˤSOVθȡַƻ̾פθȤشطȤ褦ʵФѲˤƤϡװȤϸŪʤΤʤΤǧŪʤΤʤΤ뤤ñŪʤΤʤΤŪװȤȤΡȤϡѲνװΤηϲ˴Ť̩ʸոȤѤƤΤȤ⤽٤ƤŬʥ٥ˤʤΤΤ褦ռϸѲ multiple causation cf. #1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])ˤ̵طǤϤʤ줬ʣǤ뤫ȿǤƤ롥
Aitchison (736) ϡ˽Ҥ٤͡ʡ "layer" ءˤɽǡѲμ礿븶ˤϡʾʤȤ3ؤǧȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ҲŪʽ˸ŪǧοŪ3Ǥ롥
In historical linguistics, at least three overlapping layers of causes can usefully be distinguished. First is immediate trigger, which can be regarded as "sociolinguistic," as when, in Labov's seminal paper, the permanent inhabitants of Martha's Vineyard imitated the vowels of the fishermen they subconsciously admired . . . . Second is "linguistic proper," due to vocal tract configurations, or to the maintenance of language patterns, as when, in the Martha's Vineyard case, the diphthongs [ai] and [au] follow a roughly parallel course of change. The third level is when broad properties of the human mind are hypothesized to account for any such changes. For example, memory limitations or processing procedures might plausibly be invoked to explain why front and back vowels tend to move in tandem not just in Martha's Vineyard, but everywhere. This "top layer" of causation can be labeled psycholinguistic or cognitive, even though such labels need to be used with care: they have been applied in the literature in a number of different ways. . . . This territory is a no-person's-land between language universals and more general psychological ones. The location of the boundary is often dependent on the theory adopted, rather than on an (unachievable) Olympian view of the situation.
3ؤΤߤǤ褤ΤʤκǾؤǧοפǤΤѤ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ʡָŪפȡǧοŪפζܤۣ椵ʤɡڤߤȤϤ롥ŪʼҲŪˤȸ쳰ŪʸŪˤȤ츫Ȥ狼䤹ʬˡñ绨ĤǤȤʾˡʸޤʬǤ뤳ȤʤȤ褯狼褦ˤʤȤϤ
Aitchison, Jean. "Psycholinguistic Perspectives on Language Change." The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. 736--43.
#2140. ѲΥ饤ե ([2015-03-07-1]) εǡǯβѲʤӸѲ̡ˤθˤơäʹ䤬뤵褦ˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥ˿줿Τ褦Ԥ1ͤ Ohala 롥Ohala (676) ϡäδͿꤷ§ȤƲѲʹˤäƼƳȤΩäƤ롥줾ϢʬȴФ
. . . variation in the production domain does not by itself constitute sound change since there is no change in the pronunciation norm; the listener is able (somehow) to reconstruct the speaker's intended pronunciation.
Misperceptions are potential sound changes because they may result in a changed pronunciation norm on the part of listeners if their misperceptions are guides to their own pronunciation.
ȯε ("pronunciation norm") ѲΤȤѲȸƤ֤ΤǤС줬夹ʹΤʤǤꤻʤʹϼνִ֤äˤʤȤ̣ˤƤϡβѲŪ˼¸ΤäȤƤȯù٤ˤƤǤϤѲΤϡʹȤƤôäƤȤǤ롥ʹϡ̾äˤ뵬ϤæѰŪȯŬڤˡֽפ뤳ȤǤ뤿ᡤϤΤΤݻΤ˹롥Ȥʹ꤬Ŭڤˡֽפ뤳Ȥ˼ԤȡʹεϤΤΤѲǽ롥ΩˤСѲŵǤƱ (assimilation) ʹˤ뽤Τʤ (hypocorrection) Ȥơޤ۲ (dissimilation) ʹˤ뽤Τ (hypercorrection) Ȥª뤳ȤǤ (Ohala 678)
Ohala (683) ϡνΤۤǡѲ̵Ūä̵ͿʹνŻ3碌ƶĥƤ롥βѲˤŪŪʸȡäʻС˽Ż˿øȿФɷŪǤ롥
. . . sound change, at least at its very initiation, is not teleological. It does not serve any purpose at all. It does not improve speech in any way. It does not make speech easier to pronounce, easier to hear, or easier to process or store in the speaker's brain. It is simply the result of an inadvertent error on the part of the listener. Sound change thus is similar to manuscript copyists' errors and presumably entirely unintended.
̻μ̤ȤϤ⤷Ȥʸ̤˼äƤõȤ̣Τ褯ʤȤƤСФ̻ˤ̤ΤΤȼ㤨夷ȤվθѲϡ̵ǤϤʤ⤷ʤʤȤⲻѲ椷¿ˤʤȤϽҤ٤Ƥ褤Ȥˤϡ"at its very initiation" ʤˤƤϡˤâŻ뤷
Ohala μĥʹƤȡѲ̤ˤʹƹͤɬפΤǤʤȻפƤΤϳΤ
Ohala, John J. "Phonetics and Historical Phonology." The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. 669--86.
ܥ֥ΤĤε ̣semantic_borrowing, 뤤 "semantic loan" ȤѸȤäƤȤꤿƤˤȤϤʤäΤǡĤƤ̣ѤϤȤ (loan_translation) ȺƱѤ뤳Ȥ뤬2ĤϰۤʤǤ롥ѤˤƤϿʸùܤ߽Ф뤬̣ѤˤƤϴ¸θùܤ˿ʸɲä뤫줬Ť֤뤫Τߤǡʸùܤ߽ФʤѸη֤ȿǤʤȤǶ롥#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) Haugen Ѹ˽С importation ǤϤʤ substitution ȤȤˤʤ롥
Ѹˤˤ̣Ѥŵ1Ĥˡdream 롥űѸ drēam "joy, music" ʴӡڡˤΰդѤ줿бťΥɸ draumr "vision" ̴ˤΰդäƤȤˤꡤαƶѸޤǤˡ̴פθȤȤΥޥʳǤθ֡ʶʤɤˤǤ路פΰ̣ȯŸˤ֡ʴڤˤ˶ڡӡפηȡָơ̴פηȤ¸Ƥȹͤ뤬ԤϸűѸؤʤä褦ºݤˤϡűѸˤ⡤ťΥɸαƶζǤϡ̴פθԤƤפ롥
ۤˤ褯ΤƤΤȤơbloom 롥űѸ blōma "ingot of iron" ʲŴˤ̣ťΥɸ blóm "flower, blossom" ʲ֡ˤαƶǡѸޤǤ˿ʤˤϰ⤢ˡdwell űѸñ dwellan, dwelian "to lead astray" ¤碌ˤѤ줿ťΥɸ dvelja ʤ롨ȤɤޤˤȯŸŪʸֽפѤȤ롥ޤ#340. ťΥɸ줬ѸͿƶ Jespersen ɾ ([2010-04-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡbread ϸűѸǤ brēad "morsel of food" ۤɤΰ̣äťΥɸ brauð "bread" ֥ѥפθڤƤ褦 (Old Northumbrian ˡ֥ѥפȤƤ㤬ߤˡ
ťΥɸ줫ΰ̣ѤĤƥ줫Ȥƥƥ rēs ֽȡΡפθäƤȤ顤ֽפΤߤ̣űѸ þing ֤ȡΡפΰ̣Ȥ롥ƱͤˡűѸ Dryhten "lord" "the Lord" θɲä줿Τ⡤бƥ dominus αƶʴϢơ#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1]) ȡˡűѸˤΥꥹȶѸˤϡбƥαƶǿ˰̣Τ¿ (ex. wītega "prophet", þrōþung "suffering", getimbran "edify", cniht "pupil" (cf. Strang 368--69)
ۤˤϡֿΡפΰ̣ǥե줫ѸäƤnovel θ她ڥڤӥꥢб줫ʪ졨פΰ̣줿ʤɤ롥
Ѹ줬̣ߤФ¦ȤʤäƤ⤢롥ե realizer ʤϤäˤ introduirʾҲ𤹤ˤΤ줾θϡѸб줫μѤǤ롥ޤꥫäݥȥ engenho ϡֵѡפ̣Ѹ engine ֵؼ֡פΰ̣ѤˡֿܸסʧפϤ줾ʪŪʰ̣Τۤˡ֡ʤɤˡ˸ڤס֡աɰդʤɤʧפΰ̣Ĥб touch, pay ξĤȤαƶȤ롥
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
ѸҲѸȥեˤ diglossia ƤȤϡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) #1203. ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ ([2012-08-12-1]) ʤɤεǸƤȤǤ롥2Ѿ֤ľܸڤ褦ʵҤõΤɬ⤿䤹ʤޤƤ䡤2ˤĤɾ褦ʥȤϸĤˤΤʤǤ⤳λ˸ڤͭ̾ʰ롥Robert of Gloucester (fl. 1260--1300) Chronicle ΰǡʲCorpus of Middle English Prose and Verse The metrical chronicle of Robert of Gloucester 곺սѤ褦
& þe normans ne couþe speke þo / bote hor owe speche (l. 7538)
& speke french as hii dude atom / & hor children dude also teche
So þat heiemen of þis lond / þat of hor blod come (l. 7540)
Holdeþ alle þulke speche / þat hii of hom nome
Vor bote a man conne frenss / me telþ of him lute
Ac lowe men holdeþ to engliss / & to hor owe speche ȝute
Ich wene þer ne beþ in al þe world / contreyes none
Þat ne holdeþ to hor owe speche / bote engelond one (l. 7545)
Ac wel me wot uor to conne / boþe wel it is
Vor þe more þat a mon can / þe more wurþe he is
ΥޥͤϥɤˤäƤȤˤϥեΤߤѤƤꡤλ¹ "heiemen" եݻƤȡΰ "lowe men" ϱѸΤߤѤƤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥Ϥޤ diglossia ˤ H (= High variety) L (= Low variety) ζ̤ؤľܤθڤǤ롥ޤեΤʤȼҲŪ㤯ȤȤƤ롥ˡѤνΤۤǤϡξΤäƤۤ褤ΤۤҲŪ˲ͤ⤤Ȥߤʤȡʩ bilingualism ʸ륳ȤդƤ롥
ºݤΤȤChronicle 줿13ˤϡ²λǤ⤢ƳؽʤХե˻ȤʤʤȤ֤ˤʤäƤ²λΥեϤοꤨϡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ13ޤǤˤϤǤ˸ˤʤäƤ褦եμҲŪϰ̤ϰȤƹ⤫äᡤ;פ˥եؽ夵줿ȤȤˤʤäΤ褦ʾˤ Robert of Gloucester ϡξ뤳Ȥڤ⤤ΤǤ롥
16ˤϡƥѸϤȤƥޥʤɤμѸ줬ӤѸήʡ#1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1]) #1411. Ѹä "oversea language" ([2013-03-08-1]) ȡˡܸǤʹߡ̤δ줬졤°ʹߤ̵Υʸ줬ήʡ#1617. ܸˤ볰 ([2013-09-30-1]) ڤӡ#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1]) ȡˡλγơˤơ (purism) Ω줫μѸȽʹ줿Ѹߤ䤿˻ѤΤϹơä¿Ȥ٤ȤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƤޤʹʤΤϡѸΤ褦˲եѸФȽǤ롥#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ǸȤꡤѸϥΥޥȸο֤ǡ˾ƿȤϤǤ̸üѤиƤΥեѸؤȽϤʤäΤ
Τ˥ͥΥȽۤɤΩʤѸˤեѸȽޤäʤä櫓ǤϤʤRanulph Higden (c. 1280--1364) ˤƥ Polychronicon 1387ǯ˱ John of Trevisa (1326--1402) ϡǡťΥɸȤȤ˥ե줫μѸ̵ʬ̤ʻѤˤĤƶ褷Ƥ롥Crystal (186) ΰѤƸ褦
by commyxstion and mellyng, furst wiþ Danes and afterward wiþ Normans, in menye þe contray longage ys apeyred, and som vseþ strange wlaffyng, chyteryng, harryng, and garryng grisbittyng.
ƱͤˡRichard Rolle of Hampole (1290?--1349.) ˤ Psalter (a1350) Ǥ⡤"seke no strange Inglis" ʸΤ̱ѸϻȤʤˤȥեѸФưŤԲƤ뤷15 Polychronicon Osbern Bokenham (1393?--1447?) ⡤ե줬ѸڤˤƤ (Crystal 186) ȤơΤʤǡ줿եѸѤƤȤϤޤǤʤ
Τ褦ѸΥեѸؤνŪϤĤǧ뤬η㤷Ƚ٤ñȯŪǤꡤä礭Ĭήʤä褦Ѹ켫ΤޤθȤƤܤĤʤϰ̤ˤäơѸؤλѸηȤŪ٤ܤӤˤϡޤ夬ᤫäΤȻפ롥Ǥ⡤ѸϤʽŪȽϡβȽʳȤơΤ˱Ѹ˾˰֤ŤΤǤϤ
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸˤƤפѲϤֵǽƤȯפȤª뤳ȤǤ뤬ϡֵǽ¤γŬפȴ뤳ȤǤ롥űѸ衤οȼäƸ¤ (Lexical Projection) ǽ¤ (Functional Projection) ؤȺʬϤˤƤ濴Ȥ빽¤ǽƤ濴Ȥ빽¤ؤȳŬƤäȤΤ
ʸˡεǤϡʪʲʬŪѤ볰Ŭ (exaptation) ȤǰѤ褦ˤʤäƤݺ (151) Τ狼䤹
ŬȤϡȤСʪʲ¦̤ǤϡȤβݻΤ¸ߤƤӤΩ줬¸Ŭ夲̤ȤʤꡤĻؤοʲĤʤäȤͤǤά͡Lass (1990) ϤγǰѲ˱Ѥư DO ȯãγŬʤȤȻưäΤ̵̣¸ߤȤʤꡤ̤Ӥ˳Ѥ줿ˤƤޤܽǤϡιͤʤᡤ¤ޤŬȼĥȻפޤά͵ǽƤϤȤȰĤ FP (Functional Projection) ȹͤ졤Ŭη̡ޤޤʹ¤ȤƶȤ櫓ǤѸϤ̻ŪѲβǡ̾ưζ֤ξüȶˡ濴ι¤鵡ǽ濴ι¤ؤȰܹԤƤȹͤ졤η̡졤ư졤ư֡λʹԷ¿ͤʬۤȸ櫓Ǥ
Τ褦ʸѲѤϡɭοʲȤͤˤĤʤ롥ҥȤͭθȯȿʲָʲפȸƤ֤ȤС嵭Τ褦ʸѲϡָξʲפȤߤ뤳ȤǤȤĴ碌ʤֿʲפȤߤǸ椬ʤƤ롥
ݺ (158) ϡμȿκѤ˿ʤ顤κǸΤ褦äƤ롥
켫ΤĤƻõѤϡ뼫ȿʼȯŪȤޤˤȸʤȤǽǤȿȤη뾽䥷ޥޤΥ֥ͭ̾ǤʪŪʪŪ¦̤ФǤʤȤСϤĻФԷ֡ʰδֳֻ֤ѡˡݸݡкѥƥҲΩʤɤˤڤӤޤξʲޤˤΰȤƹͤ졤ưŪŬѲᥫ˥ߤ¸ߤȤǤ줳ȤФοʲƳָפȸΤǤϤʤǤ礦ѸˤʸˡθݤϤޤˤιǤꡤѲθ椬ʣηϤʳؤĤμʤˤʤ뤳ȤƤƤΤǤ
Ѳ礭1ĤβǤ롥
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ
ɸˤĤƤ 3pp γƵǼ夲ƤϢ뵭Ҥ⤦1ĸĤΤǡʲ˵Ƥ#1301. Gramley αѸ˳Υѥ˥ȡ ([2012-11-18-1]) ȡ#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Gramley (136--37) ΰѤǤ롥
Third person {-s} vs. {-(e)th} is a further inflectional point. This distinction is one of the most noticeable in this period [EModE], and it may be used as evidence of the influence of Northern on Southern English. In ME Northerners used the ending {-s} where Southerners used {-(e)th}. In each case the respective inflection could be used in both the third person singular present tense as well as in the whole of the plural . . . . While zero became normal in the plural, in the third person singular present tense there was no such move, and the two forms were in competition with each other both in colloquial London speech and in the written language.
ƱѸ˽ѥ˥ꡤ6ϤΤ (p. 8) ˡ˾ܤ⤬ܤäƤͭѤǤ롥ޤǤ Northern Subject Rule (= Northern Present Tense Rule; cf. nptr, #689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1])) ˤƤꡤδϢ Lass (166, 185) Nevalainen and Raumolin-Brunberg (283, 312) ؤθڤ⤢롥
NPTR ˤŬѤ줿̤Ȼפʣ -s Ƥ
they laugh that wins (F1--3, Q1--3; win F4) (Shakespeare, Othello 4.1.121)
whereby they make their pottage fat, and therewith driues out the rest with more content. (Deloney, Jack of Newbury 72)
For if neither they can doo that they promise & wantes greatest good (Elizabeth, Boethius 48.11)
Well know they what they speak that speaks (F1; speak Q) so wisely (Shakespeare, Troilus 3.2.145)
when sorrows comes (F1), they come not single spies. (Shakespeare, Hamlet 4.5.73)
As surely as your feet hits (F1) the ground they step on (Shakespeare, Twelfth Night 3.4.265)
Shakespeare ǤǤˤäʣ -s 줿äꤹ㤬뤳Ȥ顤ˤʸŪ뤤̻ŪʴްդꤽǤ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
Nevalainen, T. and H. Raumolin-Brunberg. "The Changing Role of London on the Linguistic Map of Tudor and Stuart England." The History of English in a Social Context: A Contribution to Historical Sociolinguistics. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Mettinger. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 279--337.
Ѹ괧 a(n) ȴ the ϡŪˤϤ줾űѸο (OE ān) ȷ (OE se) ȯãΤǤ롥ߤǤϲĻ̾ñǤϤ줫ղäɬܤȤʤäƤꡤʳ̾ʣǤꡦʸˡƥɸΤȤƾ¤פôäƤ뤬űѸѸǤϤޤǤդǤˤʤäѸʹߡ줬ɬܤʸˡܤȤʤäƤäʤʤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤäˤʸˡΩ줫ߤȡʸˡϿ DP (Determiner Phrase) ȤǽƤȯȤª뤳ȤǤ롥ݺ (16) Ȥơ괧괧ι¤Ѳĥɽȼ̤Ȥʤ롥

an ˤƤ þe ˤƤ⡤űѸǤϡ̾ˤзƻȤǤդźơ礭 NP (Noun Phrase) äѸˤʤäΤ NP ǤϤʤ DP ȤǽƤι¤ȤƺƲᤵ褦ˤʤäDP ȯȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥ι¤ DP ȲᤵȤȤϡޤ a the μȤʤꡤ̾ʤΤȤꡦξʸˡǽȯãȤ̣롥NP Τ褦˸Ūʰ̣ͭƤ顤DP Τ褦ʸˡǽôǽƤغƲᤵ줿Ȥǡι¤Ѳʸˡΰȸ뤳ȤǤ롥
ѸˤˤƵǽƤȯȤǤѲ¿ꡤݺǤϼΤ褦ʹܤǽ DP, CP, IP ؤκʬϤη̤ȤƼ갷äƤ롥
ι¤Ѳ
괧졤괧
there ι¤Ѳ
ͭɸ -'s ι¤Ѳ
³ι¤Ѳ
now, when, while, after, that
ط̾ι¤Ѳ
that, who
Ƶ̾ι¤Ѳ
ư DO ι¤Ѳ
ˡưι¤Ѳ
may, can ,will
to ι¤Ѳ
ɸ to, be going to, have to
ʹԹʸι¤Ѳ
λʸι¤Ѳ
ưʸΤι¤Ѳ
it ʸι¤Ѳ
Ϣ BE ʸit դ;ιʸ
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ
ꥦϡѲˡָפϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ΰ츫ԲIJʰ⤤ˤϡꥦָפȤդDzؤƤ뤫Ȥ館ɬפ롥ˤͤϡ#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) ȡ#2139. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ (2) ([2015-03-06-1]) ɸ̤Ǥ롥ʲָˤȷ̤ˤѲФ̻Ū¤ΤСŪŪΰ̣פꤹ륳ꥦ6 (259--343) ꡤ3սѤʰʲʸη֤Ƥˡ
ˤϡäơѲҤָפʤΤ¸ߤͣκѸäμͳˡޤͳ¸ߤʤϾŪνΤΤˡΤϡäθŪͳˤͤ졤ѤʤƱˤɽߵ˱ѲȤȤΡƻŪסʵŪˤʾǤ롥ηϤΤޤˡּסɽᤫ鸫ơŪʼʤˤɤ뵻Ūʷ١ѲΡָפǤϤʤŪͳȤȤǡƻפ켫Τ¤Dz褹٤Ǥ롥äơʤ롤ƤʤʤФʤʤΤϡΡ뤤ϼͳγˤָפ줳õ뤳ȤǤϤʤġ˾ΤȤǼͳˤäƼ¸줿ΤŪŤȤǤꡤ줿ѲԤη٤ȲǽȤˤäơɤΤ褦ʤɬ⤷ϲǽȤƷʸˤΤĤȤ뤳ȤǤ롥 (286)
ɡŪȤưŤΰǤ롥ϡָפ֤ˤäƲ¸ߤ褦ˤʤˡѲ뤤Ͼü¸ߤˤ٤ƤΤΤǤפꡤָפΰŪǰˤȤƴޤޤ롥ꥹȥƥ쥹ϼΤΤ褦˻ͼΡָפ̤Ƥ롥Ф뤤߽ФΡʺưԡʤư⤷ѰˡѤƲФǺ⤷̼̰͡ˡ줫鲿복ǰܼ⤷Ϸ̷͡ˡᤶƲȤΤΡŪˡʡؼءII3II7ˡäơŪŪˤȤϡĤθǤ뤫顤ֺѰפͳȰտȤʤΤǤȤˡϤ븶Ǥ롥ơˤΰ̣ǤϡѲȤϡºݤ˥ꥹȥƥ쥹θͤĤưŤʤƤ뤬椨ˡָפĤȸäƤޤä̷ϤʤĤޤꡤ¤ϡïˤäơʺѰˡäơʺˡΤδǰäơʷˡΤŪ˺ΤǤ롥줬ѲˤϡָʤפȸΤϡʳŪʰ̣ǤθʤȤΤȤǤäơСʪŪʤΤΤФơͳγˤäơֵҴŪפǼʪΤ褦ʸϤʤȤ̣ˤƤΤߡäƤΤǤ롥Ϥ켫ΤȤƤʡָפȤѸλѤȿФƤΤǤϤʤͿƤ̣ȡĤϸǤⲿǤʤŪʸȸĥȿФƤΤǤ롥 (290--91)
ѲϡΤȤΤǤϤ뤬綠Τʤ¤ϡä꤬Τ¤뤫¸ߤΤǤäơä꼫ȤˤȤäƳŪʡʪŪɬΡֻʪפǤʤСθ֤ΡɬŪԲŪʵפǤʤ¤Ρΰ̣ǡָŪפͣȤϡͳŪäơ¤ΤȤΤǤ롥ʳϡʪŪʵǤꡤޤԤѼԤȤƤθĿͤθŪͳưԤäξǤ롥
̤˸ѲΡָפȸƤФƤΤϡ¤ϡָפȤϡ־פȤߤʤ٤ΤȤǤ롥θȤϡԤξΤȤˤ뼫ͳջ֤ˤѤǤ롥δ顤ƸѲθȽˤĤƹͤƤ
E. ꥦˡ ɧˡظѲȤ̻֡֡ˡ١ȽŹ2014ǯ
ɸ䤤˼üˤϡɽǻGörlach (68) ˤɽΰˡ
| South | Midland | North | ||
| Present Indicative | 3sg. | -(e)þ | -(e)þ | -(e)s |
| pl. | -(e)þ | -(e)n | -(e)s | |
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| LAEME: 3sp 's' and 'th' | LAEME: pp 's', 'th', 'n', 'e', and zero |
|
| LAEME: NPTR pp 'e' and zero |
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| eLALME: 3sp 's' | eLALME: 3sp 'th' |
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| eLALME: pp 's' | eLALME: pp 'th' |
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| eLALME: pp 'n' | eLALME: pp 'e' or zero |
#1857. 3ñ -th -s Ѳθưϡ ([2014-05-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ173ñζ -th -s ؤ֤äƤäϡλ夫ʹԤƤִηаޤҲ𤷤褦
űѸǹԤʤƤ3ñ -s ̤ˤСѸ -s Ƹ줿Τ14ΥɥΥƥȤˤƤǤ롥Ϥޤä15˽٤ȯŪΤ16--17ˤƤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ȿǤƤ褦ʥƥȤˤơ٤ޤäƤä褦-s ϡ褽1600ǯޤǤɸȤʤäƤȻפ뤬16ΥƥȤˤɤ줬ߤΤ¤Ǥ롥Ť -th 첻ȼä -eth ȤƲ-s ϲʤäᡤξԤϱΧŪǻȤʬ줿פ (ex. that hateth thee and hates us all) 㤨СShakespeare ǤϻʸǤϤۤȤ -s ѤƤ뤬ʸǤ -th 롥ȤϤξ٤ϡΧŪװʸŪװʾ˸ĿͤޤϺʤʤ˰¸뤳Ȥ¿쳵뤳ȤϤǤʤdoth hath ʤ٤˹⤤ˤĤơŷФ餯ͥǤ³-s ٤줿ȤȤϡŪħ1ĤȤõ
Lass (162--65) ϡִΥ塼ˤĤƼΤ褦Ƥ롥
In the earlier sixteenth century {-s} was probably informal, and {-th} neutral and/or elevated; by the 1580s {-s} was most likely the spoken norm, with {-eth} a metrical variant.
켣 (217--18) ˤȤ̤˸ƤߤȡThe Authorised Version (1611) Bacon The New Atlantis (1627) ˤ -s ʤȿФ Milton (1608--74) Ǥ doth hath ̤ˤ -th ʤShakespeare ǤϡJulius Caesar (1599) ʬۤ˸¤äƤߤȡ-s Ψ do have ǤϤ줾 11.76%, 8.11% ʳΰ̤ưǤ 95.65% ȰݤƤ롥
Ȥ櫓16--17ξڵ˴Ťˤդ٤ϡ#1856. ưľˡ߷ -eth 17Ⱦˤ -s ȯƤ ([2014-05-27-1]) Ǹ褦ˡɽ -th ȤäȤƤ⡤줬Ǥ [s] ȯƤǽȤȤǤ롥
ִΥ塼ˤĤƤϡ#1855. ꥫѸ˿ʤǤ3ñ -th -s ([2014-05-26-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ
ѲΰǤϡĤƤǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤ "Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze" 㳰ʤѲפȤơľ褦ˤʤäƵפºݤβѲɬ§˽äƤ줤˿ʹԤȤϸ¤餺षʣʽװκΤ̤Ǥ롥ֲѲΥ饤եפǯǤϤ뤬ǯƹͤ褦ˤʤäƤ͡ʹͤ뤬Salmons (103) ϶ǯƤ줹븫Τ褦ˤޤȤɾƤ롥
1. Coarticulation and other articulatory factors . . . introduce new synchronic variants into the pool of speech . . . .
2. As learners . . . and listeners . . ., we build generalizations based on those variants, constrained by our cognitive abilities. This often turns phonetic patterns into phonological ones.
3. Phonological patterns feed morphological alternations, and as 'active' phonological processes fade, they may be adjusted to fit paradigms, in analogical or other realignments . . . .
In a sense underlying the life cycle is the notion that phonetic and phonological patterns are constantly reinterpreted, negotiated and generalized by each generation of learners, speakers and listeners.
üŪˤСѰۤϲѲ⤿餷ѲϷѲˤ⤿餷ʤ鸺हȤ饤եѲȷѲΤ褦ʴطˤ뤳Ȥϡ#1674. ѲȶοʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1])#1693. §ŪʲѲԵ§ŪʷѲ ([2013-12-15-1]) Ǥ⼨Ƥ̤Ǥ롥ޤ#838. ηϤȥȥԡ ([2011-08-13-1]) ƳȥԡδߤȡΥ饤եϡȥԡ硤ڤӤ³ȤƵҤǤ롥
ΰѤ2ˤ褦ˡǯʹŻ뤷ѲˤʤäƤƤ롥ԤˤäƤϡ٤ƤβѲˤʹ꤬äƤȼĥԤ⤤롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1932. Ѳ monitoring (1) ([2014-08-11-1])#1933. Ѳ monitoring (2) ([2014-08-12-1])#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1])#1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˡ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1])#1936. ʹΤѲ ([2014-08-15-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ̤ꡤѲʤ餺ȤѲˤʹϤäɾƤ褤
Salmons, Joseph. "Segmental Phonological Change." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 89--105.
#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1])#2014. ꥢ (2) ([2014-11-01-1])#2020. ۩Ѳθ "expressivity" Ǥ ([2014-11-07-1])#2021. ꥢ (3) ([2014-11-08-1])#2022. ѲˤĿͤαƶ ([2014-11-09-1]) ǡꥢ (neolinguistics) θۤҲ𤷤Ƥꥦ⤳γɤαƶ¿ʬ˼ؼԤ1ͤǤꡤ#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1]) ȳˤμĥꥦȤ˸餷褦ʰʲʸη֤Ƥˡ
äˤää줿ȤŪͼȤơäѤƤδ¸Υǥ뤫Ϥ롤Τ٤ƤξȸƤǤ褤ޤʹ¦θɽΤΥǥȤơƤСȸƤǤ褤(118)
ѲʡָˤѲסˤȤϡγȻ⤷ϰ̲ǤꡤäɬŪˡĤϢκѤǤ롥ʤѲϡȤǤ롥 (119)
ơѤϲȤܼŪ˰ۤʤ٤Ǥ롥٤ΤξŪȤˤäƸꤵƤ뤫ꡤϡθΤƸ̩ʰ̣ˤ֥ѥλ¡פǤꡤäλѤ°Ƥ롥ȤѤϡ̤ι٤θˤ줿֡ѼͼγǤ뤫顽 λ¡פǤꡤиμפؤȺԤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤѤȤϸؤ֤ȤǤꡤưΤޤˤޤˤֺԡפ뤳ȤǤ롥Ȥ Τꤳ뤳ȤǤꡤѤȤϥǥߥʥʸŪμˤȤƤθ켫ĶŬ礵뤳ȤǤ롥Ѥ⡤ˤäƾŤƤϤ롥ξԤΤȤϵդǤ롥ˡŪʡָסɬͳ˻ߤ뤫ǡˤĤȤΤˡѤϡŪǥɽβǽγѷȤ꤫Τ褦ˡҤȤŪưǤ롥äʸŪŪ뤤ϵǽŪȤääѤŪˤʤ (119--20)
ѤϾɽɬ˱ƹԤ롥ɬפȤϡʸŪҲŪŪǽŪ줫ΤΤǤ롥ʹϡ줬ʬΤʤΡŪƤΡʬμҲŪФ褯ƤΤǤäꡤǽŪΩäƤ褦ʤΤʤСѤ롥ֺѡפȤϡäơʸι٤Ǥ⤢Сߤˤ٤Ǥ⤢ꡤޤŪʸι٤Ǥ⤢롥 (130)
ǤϡֲפѲμˤѲΰ̣ѲȸƤФΤϤ줬ֺѡפ줿ȤǤ⤫Ƥ롥#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ѸǤСΡֲפ potential for change ʤ variant ȯбֺѡפ implementation бѤΤˤ錄äơꥢؤθۤǻȿǤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
E. ꥦˡ ɧˡظѲȤ̻֡֡ˡ١ȽŹ2014ǯ
#1612. ƻϩɸѸɽء ([2013-09-25-1])#1613. ƻϩɸαѸɽȡָĶס ([2013-09-26-1])#1746. ɽΥ ([2014-02-06-1]) ˤƤ褦ˡʴ (linguistic_landscape) ȤǰҲؤ夷ƤƤ롥ʴѤϡΰ褢뤤ϰθŪŪɽˤβĻȸסʾʤۤp. 9ˤ졤2000ǯäƤ͡ʸ椬ԤƤʲʤۤ (9--10) ȤơܤθʴѤοܤγά
ܤθʴѤˤϤ⤺äȸŤ1962ǯˤפֿɤԻԸʴѡפĴƤꡤǤŹ̾ĤθʸʤɤĴ٤Ƥ롥ŪĴʹߡĤĴ³θʴѤ̻Ū餫ˤʤäƤ
绨Ĥοܤߤȡ1980ǯϡܿͤоݤȤŪѤγħŤ졤ܤθʴѤΡפȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥
1980ǯʹߤϡ塹äƤͤΤ¿ɽȤʤäƤΡ̵ؤʤɤָ쥵ӥפȤƱѸʤɤƻϩɸɽġϲŴġɸ֤褦ˤʤäǯǤϡ졤ڹī졤ܤդ褦ˤʤäƤΤ褦ĬήϡܤθʴѤΡֹݲפȸƤ٤
⤦1Ĥܤ٤Ĭήϡܤ˺߽볰ͤ˥ߥ˥ƥξΤ˷ǤɽäǤ롥οݤΥꥢκڹīͼҲϿͤ¿쳤λԻԤʤɤͤ롥ȯŸܤθʴѤΡ¿̱²פȸڤ뤳ȤǤ롥
2020ǯԥåŤ˸ơǯδ֤ܤθʴѤϤѲ뤲Ƥ椯ȤˤʤĬήϤɤΤ褦˸ƤФ뤳ȤˤʤΤޤ˺ܤθʴѤޤĤĤΤ
ʴѸαԤȲǽˡʤۤǼ夲ƤȥԥåƤ
¿첽ȸʴѡʴѤʤˤߤ뤫
кѸؤߤʴѡȸ
ʴѤȸε
ʴѤδɽȤϰ躹ĵμĴ
ϲŴĤˤߤɽˤ1999ǯμ
ܤθʴѤιŪطʡȤ
İо㳲ԤˤȤäƤθʴѡŸĴ
ʴѤˤ̱Τ줫ꥢߥ˥ƥθƤ
ˡPХåϥFޥˡܤθʴѡ١ҡ2009ǯ
#2125. 르ͥ륲 ([2015-02-20-1]) ǡͥ륲ȤƤߤ Humboldt θѤҲ𤷤#2134. Ѳ̷ǤϤʤ ([2015-03-01-1]) ǰѤؼ Coseriu ⡤ưŪʳưȰ֤Ť Humboldt ٻԤǤꡤä١ʥѥˤפȤŸƤ롥ʲꥦ (68--69) Ѥʰʲʸη֤Ƥˡ
ȤǡäǵǽǶŪ˻Ѥλ¤ΤδäȤƺѤʤСȤФϥ르ǤϤʤͥ륲ǤȤΥեܥȤͭ̾ʥơȯ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ΥơϤФаѤ뤬ϡƤΤФäȤ˺줵äƥ르ȤƤΥƨिǤ롥ɤ⡤ɬפʤȤϡäȤƼߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ʤʤ顤ˤϵ䱣ȤǤϤʤĤƻΤΤޤޤγǧ뤫Ǥ롥¤ˡƲỤ̄ˤƤǤʤȤФưǤäʤǤϤʤʡȤФϳưǤ뤫顤ǧäƤΤߡʡפȤݤ椹뤳ȤǤ롥ºݡꥹȥƥ쥹ιԤä̤۵СĤγưϼΤ褦˸뤳ȤǤ롥(a)ưΤΤȤơʥƥͥ륲ˡ(b)ǽϤˤưȤơʥǥߥʥˡ(c)ʤ˼¸줿ưȤơʥƥ르ˡ餫ʤ褦ˡˤϻĤΰۤʤ븽¤ΤǤϤʤĤ¦̡ƱĤθ¤뻰ĤθΤǤ롥¾ ä ȤϡŪʶƱΤ줾ĿͤˤäƼ¸γưǤ롥äơѥפδޤߤˤƤ⡤̤δޤߤˤƤ⡤ޤˤδޤߤˤƤͻ뤳ȤǤ롥
θ塤ꥦä١ʥѥˤꥹȥƥ쥹3ʬˡס̡ˤ3ʬˡݤ碌9̤θˤƺƲ᤹롥9̤θɽˤޤȤƤߤ
| ƥͥ륲 | ǥߥʥ | ƥ르 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ѥ | פäǽ | ƥȤ | |
| ̤Υǥ | ̤äǽ | ƥ | |
| Ūʥ | ͭŪͭȤƤΥ | ͭŪͭȤƤΥ |
ŪưȤƤϡäȤϡˤŪʥǥߥʥˤۤʤʤĤΡפäȤǤꡤͳʳưȤǤϡäȤϡǽϤŪ˰¸ƤΤǤϤʤΤĶ뤳ȤǤ롥Ū ä ǤǤ˳ΩƤϡ䤪ʤ˼ͳθ롥θϡͳʹ٤Ф뵻ѤȻǤʾ塤ΰ̣ǡָ³פȤϡषͳȤΤɬŪǤ롥äȤ٤Ϥ٤ơŪǤƱ˼ͳǤ뤫顤ǤŪɬסСŪɬʾʤ ȤˤˤĤʤäƤ뤷¾Ǥϡޤޤ̰̣¤ܻؤäơǤ˳Ω줿ΤĶƤ⤦ĤζˤˤĤʤäƤ롥
̻֤ȶ֤ΤΤۤ褦Ȥ롤٤ѤǤ롥
E. ꥦˡ ɧˡظѲȤ̻֡֡ˡ١ȽŹ2014ǯ
#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1]) ǡʸˡˤʬϤȽŪ˼夲ϤʤȤ䤤ˤƤʤȤȽǤꡤŪʬϤȤȽƤ櫓ǤϤʤषϼưΰ (agreement) ưζޤˤäɸ˰ŪŬѤǤ롤Ūˤ줿ʬϤTime flies. ȤñʸʸˡʬϤäȡʲιʸڤʤʸˡǤΩˤäƵǽƤΥ٥νۤʤǽϤˡ

ǾʸΤ IP (=Inflectional Phrase) Ǥꡤ I (=Inflection)˼Ȥʤ NP (=Noun Phrase)˽ҸưȤʤ VP (=Verb Phrase) ġNP time I s Ψ (government) 礦طˤȤ졤ΨطҤΰפȿϢƤ롥NP time ˤϡ[+ 3RD PERSON] [+ SINGULAR] ȤͿƤꡤI [+ PRESENT] ȶĤơs ȤФ롥
οޤǤϤޤǤƤʤΤܼư (affix-hopping) Ȥ§ŬѤơs VP fly ˰ưǸ˲DzĴ time flies Ȥ¸Ȥ롥פˡΨطˤ NP I ΤȤǡ;Ργͤȹ礵졤٤ưפȶ s Ȥ롼ʼºݤˤϡ3ñΤۤľˡǤ뤳ȤɬܾǤϾάˡΥ롼1ķƤȡ¸¾쵬§ѤơϢŪʸǤʸ "Time doesn't fly." 䵿ʸ "Does time fly?" ʤɤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤ롥
ʬϤɸѸ3ñ -s ˤޤĤȷ֤Ӥ꤫ǤȤϤ뤬ʤΤ褦ʸݤΤȤȤʤʸˡϡֲפ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפ䤤Τդ֤ʤפ䤤ˤϡϤŪʻѤۤʤ
ɸϲ椷ơֺǶᡤẢפɽŪʸ֤Ọ̇̄ͭյ뤿ˤϡΩΤɬפ롥츫Ȥ now + a + days Ȥˤߤ뤬ʤ줬ֺǶᡤẢפ̣Τ
Ҥͤȡnow ͽ̤ now Ǵְ㤤ʤa 괧ǤϤʤֻ on μˡdays ʣǤϤʤñ°ʷͳ褹 (cf. #81. once twice -ce Ȥϲ ([2009-07-18-1])) ñ°ʷͳ褹 days ϡűѸ줫ߤŤɽǤꡤߤǤ nights ˡˤ椷Ѥ褦ˡñȤŪˡˡ (in the daytime) ΰդѤƤñȤŪѤΤǤֻ on (> a) λ٤ɬפʤϤ#723. be nihtes ([2011-04-20-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŪʸˡʬŪʸˡ礷 "on days" ɽΤ蘆ä "now on days" ɽǥȤˤѤ褦ˤʤȡȯֻξ nowadays ʣŪ1Ȥǧ褦ˤʤäΤȻפ롥OED ˤȡnow on days nowadays, ޤ adaysñ°ʸȼʤ nowaday ʤɤδϢ֤14ˤäƽФƤ롥MED nou-a-daies (adv.) (Also nou-daies) nou-a-day (adv.) ⻲ȡ
äơnowadays -s ϵŪˤñ°ʸȤȤˤʤ뤬ߤüԤľǤʣȤߤʤƤΤǤϤʤɽ these days αƶʤɤθȡβΤ褦˻פ롥˴ؤ OED ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Adverbial use and adverbial phrases.
For adverbial use of an original genitive singular form, which was later probably apprehended as a plural, see DAYS adv. In prepositional phrases of the noun which occur in adverbial use, it is not always clear to what extent variants with final -s simply show the plural of the noun and how far they reflect the influence of DAYS adv. (especially in early use); compare by days at Phrases 1b(b), on days at Phrases 1d(b), ADAYS adv., NOWADAYS adv.
Beside the regular dative, an endingless dative form also occurs in Old English, especially in adverbial use; compare e.g. forms of TODAY adv.
Ǥϡñ°ʷͳ褹 nowadays ʤ "these days" ΰ̣Ĥ褦ˤʤäΤ츻˽ΰ̣ "now in the daytime" ۤɤǤꡤadays ʬ now ʺߡˤꤷƶƯƤĤޤꡤ֤ΰȤƤΡ֤ޤ˺פɽɽäȤ֤ޤ˺פθ̩Ȥ³ʤǡֶˡ§פα¿ȤʤꡤֺޤϰϡǶᡤẢפȤˤ̣ȯŸΤȹͤ (cf. #992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1]) #1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]))ߤζŪʴФȤƤ nowadays ˤ days ʬ these days ƱʣȤǧƤΤξɽ̻ŪȯŸϷŪˤ̣Ūˤۤʤ뤳Ȥդ
ǶᡤؼԥꥦθѲˮ줿Ѳ椹ԤˤȤäƥꥦΤȤФ϶Ƭ (19) ǡָѲȤפȤ˸ڤƤʰʲ˵ؤƤˡ
ѲȤϡ餫˰ĤκŪ̷Ƥ롥⤽⡤Ȥ٤ȤꤢơϤʤѲΤʤޤѲƤϤʤʤΤ褦ˡˤ䤦ȼΡˤ褽ʤäΤˡȯŸ𤷡˲餷ƤޤΤȸǤ롥ȯŸϸܼȿΤȡޤˤΤȤεǤȤ롥
̷θ塼ζ֤̻֤2ʬˡˤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥#1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1]) ȡ#1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1]) ǿ줿Ȥꡤ塼ϸ츦ˤ붦֤ͥ褷̻֤ϼΤŪ⤿ʤ衤¿θؼԤ塼˽ܼŪηϤǤꡤѲȤΤϸˤȤä̷ʳβΤǤʤȿƤƱԻĤäƤ⤭
ꥦ (22--23) ϡŪʸѲ̷˿øй롥ꥦˤ8ʻŦѤ褦
(a) ѲˤĤƸդ餵Ƥ뤳εʤΤϼºݤˤ¸ߤŪˤϡϤäʤΤϤ뤬ʥˤȡֶŪơפȤƱΤȹͤƤޤ꤫ˤʤȡ(b) ѲȤϸγ٤Ȥꤢ뤳ȤϤǤʤޤ٤Ǥʤȡ(c) ˰ĥϳΤľˤȤŤƤϤ뤬ޤǤɤˤȤ褦ʲˤͤƤޤˡǤʤΤоݤΤˤƤ뤳ȡΤ褦ʼĥʤԤɤˤ̤Ƥޤ̷Ϥ٤Ƥ뤳ȡ(d) ϤäС̻֤֡ΧȿоݤΥ٥ˤǤϤʤΥ٥°ΤǤäơ줽ΤΤˤǤϤʤؤˤΤǤ뤳ȡ(e) 塼Χȿ뤿μ꤬ϡ塼뼫ȤΤȤˡȤФθ¤ˤϤޤʤˡޤȿƤ⤽ꤳǤޤäƤˡǤ褦ȯ뤳ȤǽǤȤȡ(f) ϸäƤϤꡤ塼ιͤȤγǰȤϡˤҤ̷ιˤຬŪʸƤ뤳ȡ(g) ηϡפȡפȤδ֤ˤϤʤ̷ʤȿФˡϤηޤ߹ǤȤȡ(h) Υ٥ˤ붦֤̻֤ȤΧȿϡˤˤƤΤߡޤˤˤäƤΤ߹ǤȤȡʾǤ롥
Ѳ뤳ȼΤܼǤꡤѲ뤳ȤˤäƸϸǤ³롥ޤäƱǤ롥#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1]) ⻲ȡ
E. ꥦˡ ɧˡظѲȤ̻֡֡ˡ١ȽŹ2014ǯ
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