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2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ѸˤѲϳμ¤˵äƤ롥[2010-05-18-1]εǤߤ褦ˡInner Circle äƤɸѸͤ뤫ǤϡѸʤɤ٤ȸѸ˵äƤѲεϤϳΤ˾ȤѸȤɤ ( components ) ( see [2010-05-09-1] ) Ǥⲿ餫ѲʹǤ롥ϡSvartvik and Leech, Chapter 11 դ濴˿ʤ顤ѸαɸѼ˵äƤѲȤμȤʤ variation ιܤ̤˥ꥹȥåפƤߤ롥ŪǤϤʤѸθѲγѤˤϤʤȻפ롥ܥ֥εǴϢꤢȤΤΤˤĤƤϡĥä
phonetics, phonology
Northern Cities Shift
vowel shift in Estuary English
stress shift as in Caribbean, controversy, and harass
stress shift in diatones
rhotic or non-rhotic /r/ in New York City ( in Labov's sociolinguistic study )
spelling pronunciation as in often
morphology
apostrophe-s genitives
regularisation of nominal plurals in favour of -s as in mouses, octopuses, and thesauruses
syntax
semi-modals such as (be) supposed to and have got to
present progressive constructions
negative contractions
relative clauses with that or zero
revival of subjunctive
catenation of words as in New York City Ballet School instructor
semantics
semantic bleaching by grammaticalisation (cf. semi-modals above)
singular they
pragmatics
honorific vocatives such as Mr and Sir on the decrease
first-name terms on the increase
gender-neutral pronouns
second person plural pronouns such as y'all and you guys
lexicology, word formation
political correctness
e-vocabulary as a result of e-revolution
alphabetisms and acronyms especially in Netspeak
blends
conversion
spelling
emoticons such as :-) and :-(
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
² ([2009-06-17-1]) θ²ǤꡤüԿؤäƤ롥¾ʲäǰˤǤϰ² 1/4 ȵƤꡤ⤽γΤޤܥ֥Ǥ [2009-08-05-1] ǸڤȤäȤ Ethnologue Table 4. Major language families of the world ˤ˰ۤʤͤƤ롥²°ϡ 45.67% 27;ο͡ˤääƤȤ1/4 ɤۤȾǤꡤ礭ʰ㤤פ͡ξǤϤФΤʤΤǤʤʤɾEthnologue ˴Ť¤ꡤ2̤Υʡ٥åȸ² ( Sino-Tibetan ) ο 12.5 ͤ礭ΥƤΥȥåפǤ롥ε[2010-05-29-1]ǤޤȤüԿˤΥɽǤ⡤ȥå10Τʤ7ޤǤ²°ΤǡˤƶϤΤ褦
Ethnologue Summary by language family ˤȡθ116θ² ( language family ) ʬ졤Τʤμ6²Τߤθ 2/3 ᡤο 5/6 Ȥ
ޤEthnologue Indo-European ζʬ Ǥϡ² Albanian, Armenian, Baltic, Celtic, Germanic, Greek, Indo-Iranian, Italic, Slavic 9ɤ˲ʬषƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Υ֥Ǥⲿ٤⻲ȤƤ Ethnologue 16Ǥ2009ǯ˽Ǥ줿饤Ǥ Ethnologue θˤޤĤ͡ʿͤįƤ顤ѸüԿˤĤƿ¤˽Ф路Table 3. Languages with at least 3 million first-language speakers ˤȡѸϥڥ˶Ϻɤۤ졤2̤3̤žƤΤǤ롥ä긫ƨƤ
ʲϾ嵭Υڡä25̤ޤǤθΥǡ䤹ޤȤΡˤϡ1996ǯǤ Ethnologue 13Ǥ˴ŤͤӤΤź Graddol, p. 8 줿ʬΤߡˡHindi ˤĤƤϡHindi Urdu ĤȤưäοͤä˼
| Rank | Language | Primary Country | Countries | Speakers (16th ed, 2009) | (13th ed, 1996) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chinese | China | 31 | 1,213 million | 1,123 |
| 2 | Spanish | Spain | 44 | 329 | 266 |
| 3 | English | United Kingdom | 112 | 328 | 322 |
| 4 | Arabic | Saudi Arabia | 57 | 221 | 202 |
| 5 | Hindi | India | 20 | 182 (242.6 with Urdu) | (236 with Urdu) |
| 6 | Bengali | Bangladesh | 10 | 181 | 189 |
| 7 | Portuguese | Portugal | 37 | 178 | 170 |
| 8 | Russian | Russian Federation | 33 | 144 | 288 |
| 9 | Japanese | Japan | 25 | 122 | 125 |
| 10 | German | Germany | 43 | 90.3 | 98 |
| 11 | Javanese | Indonesia | 5 | 84.6 | |
| 12 | Lahnda | Pakistan | 8 | 78.3 | |
| 13 | Telugu | India | 10 | 69.8 | |
| 14 | Vietnamese | Viet Nam | 23 | 68.6 | |
| 15 | Marathi | India | 5 | 68.1 | |
| 16 | French | France | 60 | 67.8 | 72 |
| 17 | Korean | South Korea | 33 | 66.3 | |
| 18 | Tamil | India | 17 | 65.7 | |
| 19 | Italian | Italy | 34 | 61.7 | 63 |
| 20 | Urdu | Pakistan | 23 | 60.6 | |
| 21 | Turkish | Turkey | 36 | 50.8 | |
| 22 | Gujarati | India | 20 | 46.5 | |
| 23 | Polish | Poland | 23 | 40.0 | |
| 24 | Malay | Malaysia | 14 | 39.1 | 47 |
| 25 | Bhojpuri | India | 3 | 38.5 |
Ѹˤ첻ܤȤСGreat Vowel Shift ( see [2009-11-18-1] ) Ūͭ̾첻ܤϡLate Middle Chinese Τʤˤ㤬롥ѸƤ첻ܤȤƤϡBrE ǹߤƤ Estuary English ΤΤ褯ΤƤ뤬AmE ˤߤԻԤƤ Northern Cities Shift ͭ̾Ǥ롥
Northern Cities Shift Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo ʤɤνԻԤˤ˼դνؤ礷ƤͻҤǤʲϿޤȡˡ

GVS Ĺ첻˵äƤΤФơNCS û첻˵äƤΤħŪǤ롥⤷ȤˡѸˤǤĹ첻Ѳˤ˵äƤ뤬û첻ϸűѸ褫ʤꤷƤꡤηŪ˿ܤȤϤʤNCS ϡѸû첻ηϤǯʾ̲꤫Фơ֤Τ褦ˤäȲФΤ褦첻ܤǤ롥NCS ϡAmE ΤʤǤäΩŪɸŪ General American ȯĤȤƼ¾ɾƤ Michigan ʤɤƤΤǡ塤ɤΤ褦ŸˤʤȤǤ롥
첻ܤϡοޤǤޤȤ롥

첻Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤޤǴ¸ηϤΤʤ chain shift äƤǤ롥Ȥ֤¤ꡤpush chain drag chain ξƯƤ褦
ϴʤȥߥ˥˳װˤʤʤAnn ʽҡ Ian ˻ҡˤˤʤäƤޤ
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 239--41.
[2010-05-24-1]εǡѸ줬ޥ첽ȤˤĤ Gachelin ɾѤѸˤȤäƥեϥƥ䥮ꥷäȥϤǤȤϡͥ줿ȤȤ¾ǤѤƤΤɤȤ롥Gachelin ʸǤ̾ȯޤǤˡɾȵä褦ǡʸϰαѸΥޥ첽ˤĤƤθϿȤǤ⤤٤ΤˤʤäƤ롥
ΤޤްѤƤФ첿ѤǤ뤫⤷ʤȻפäΤǡˤĤƤGachelin ѤƤ븵ʸνϾά
In Lezzioni sul lessico inglese (p. 53), V. Pisani underlines the Romance character of English, due pre-eminently to all those French loan-words giving the language 'un aspetto in parte net-latino', which in its own turn increases the 'facilità di acclimatazzione' of Latin words, exactly as in a genuine Romance speech. (Gachelin 10)
English has dived into the Latin stream, 'both naked and wearing the clothes of Old French' (Burgess, Language Made Plain, p. 169), . . . . (Gachelin 11)
On 22 Feb 1850, Thomas Watt read a paper to the Philological Society, 'On the probable future position of the English language', in which he stated that 'English is essentially a medium language' uniting, 'as no other language unites, the Romanic and the Teutonic stocks', concluding that such a language might become 'the most widely spoken language on earth'. (Gachelin 12)
Chenevix Trench also praised English as 'the one language of Europe which thus serves as connecting link between the North and the South, between the languages spoken by the Teutonic nations of the North and by the Romance nations of the South', acting as 'a middle term betwe[e]n them' (English Past and Present, pp. 36--37). (Gachelin 12; the insertion of [e] mine)
. . . Jakob Grimm celebrated in English 'a surprisingly intimate union of the two noblest languages in modern Europe, the Teutonic and the Romance', prophesying its role as a 'world-language' (Gachelin 12)
Since English is more than half Latin in its vocabulary, the whole American continent might be said to be predominantly Latin, whatever dictionary, diccionario, diciónario or dictionnaire you may consult. (Gachelin 12)
'English-speaking peoples are helped in learning the vocabulary of both Romance and Germanic languages by their own twin heritage' (Anthony Burgess, Language Made Plain, p. 145). (Gachelin 13)
. . . as Sir Francis Palgrave once put it, 'the warp may be Anglo-Saxon, but the woof is Roman as well as the embroidery. (Gachelin 14)
Gachelin ȤϡޥȥޥĤʤͤȤƤαѸʸáˤŪˤȤ館Ѹ줬ȤƤդ路Ȥ⤤Ƥ롥
丫ǤϡϤޤǸդηǤ롥ѸϸäޥƤ椨ˤʤĤĤ櫓ǤϤʤˤʤĤĤ뺣ˤ֤äƤߤ顤ѸϸŪ˥ޥƤȤ狼äȤȤǤϤʤޤGachelin ͤƤͤϡޤǥޥȥޥβͤǤäơβͤǤϤʤդ˥衼å濴ȯۤǤ褦˻פ롥
Gachelin, Jean-Marc. "Is English a Romance Language?" English Today 23 (July 1990): 8--14.
[2010-01-15-1]εǷǺܤε[2010-05-25-1]Ϣ饤Ǽꤢ to pluto ֹ߳ʤפ American Dialect Society ˤ2006ǯαѸήԸޤФ줿ͭ̾ưǤ롥
2006ǯ8ιŷʸϢ ( IAU ) ᤰǮȤϵ˿εķ̽ ( Pluto ) ǤϤʤ ( dwarf planet ) Ȥƺ뤳ȤˤʤꡤСֹ߳ʡפ뤳Ȥˤʤä̽۷9ܤȤ˹ƤޤƤˡIAU εķ˥åͿȤȤˡ̽߳ʤȷӤĤҲŪʥ硼ޤ줿ΰĤư to pluto Ǥ롥ADS ˤСưϼΤ褦롥
To pluto is to demote or devalue someone or something, as happened to the former planet Pluto when the General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union decided Pluto no longer met its definition of a planet.
ʲˡʸĤۤɡ
Pluto got plutoed, but it still won WOTY [Word of the Year].
He was plutoed like an old pair of shoes.
A recent Andy Borowitz humor column . . . reports that the Bush presidency has been plutoed: An international group of scientists who demoted the planet Pluto to dwarf status three months ago met in Oslo, Norway today and reclassified the Bush White House as a dwarf Presidency. . . . with the President's approval rating in a free fall, it became clear even before the scientists convened that some sort of reclassification along the lines of the Pluto demotion was in order.
ͭ̾ Pluto ʸư첽ȤǤΤ⡤Ѹ conversion ȤμʤͿƤ뤫Ǥ롥ܸǤϡͷˤʤֹסʶʪʤˤʤɤ to pluto žѤ˶ᤤȻפ뤬Ѹϲ֤פⲿĤˤΤޤʻžƤޤ-ed ޤղäƤޤΤΤconversion ˤĤƤ [2009-11-03-1] ȡ
to pluto ξܺ٤ϡ2007ǯ15դ ADS 饤PDFΥץ쥹Ȥ줿
õ֤Ĥפ2010ǯ521ʶˤܻ֤θ658ʬ˼Ǥ夲줿Ҷ泫ȯ JAXA ǤĤߥΩ夲Ƥ롥夯ΤϺǯ12ȤȤǡĹιäϤޤäȤǤ롥
Venus Ϥ¸äΥʥʤ뤤ϥ̥ˤΤȤǡաֱࡦ˭νǤ롥˥ꥷäΰν Aphrodite Ʊ뤵줿αѸ̾ˤϥäο̾ƤƤꡤVenus ϶бƤ롥ƥ Venus θϡŪʰפǤʥΥξħǤ뤬˵̤Ȱĸ *wen- ˾פ˹Ԥ夯θ캬ȸϡѸ wish ȿǤƤ롥
ƥǤϡ s ޤˤ벻ĶѲˤ r ȸؤ㤬ˤ˵롥첻˶ޤ줿 /s/ /z/ ͳ /r/ ؤѲ rhotacism ( see [2009-06-03-1] ) ϥƥ˸¤餺ѸޤᥲޥˤäƤ롥ѸˤϤκפȯŪˤȿǤƤʤΤΡƥξˤ϶ޤη˶ŪޤƤ롥㤨 Venus ζޤϰʲ̤Ǥ롥

ɽ顤Venus Vener- Ȥظ촴ĤȤʬºݤˡVenus ȸ츻Ū˴Ϣ¿θ줬 r äƤ롥Ѹ˼Ѥ줿 Venus δϢƤߤ褦
venerable º֤٤, venerate ºɤ, venereal ¤Ρ, venery ֹꡤġ, venial ֡ʺ˽Ťʤڤ cf. venison Ľä
ɰ˾ߡȤạ̈ΤĤʤ꤬
Venusian ֶΡ͡פȤ줬뤬ľܤ˥ƥθͳ褹ΤǤϤʤȤ s ݻ餫Ǥ롥Venus + -ian ȤǡѸ¦μäƤĤ褦ʸǤ롥ƤꡤOED Ǥν1874ǯSFǡˤä
˴ؤƤϼȤDZѸ5ʬͥȤ饤ǼꤢΤǡɤ
ε[2010-05-23-1]Ǽꤢ antidisestablishmentarianism ȤѸˤλߤȡѸΥޥ첽ǤȤɽŪʥ٥ǤϤʤε§ȤŪʥ٥ˤޤߤǤȤյ
̤˱Ѹ줬ޥ첽ȤȤˤϡѸΥեñ̼ѤȯȤǰƬˤΤǤϤʤΤ˸űѸ䤽ΦˤѸϥƥܤƤΤǡޥؤδ¿ϤäȤ뤬ܳŪʥޥ첽ΰΤѸΥեȤܿ¾ʤʤե줬ϤΥޥ첽Ȥ˾뤫Τ褦ˡνѸ˥ƥñ줬̤˱ѸήˡΥեȥƥήˤϡ¤ϥꥷǤⱣ¿ޤޤƤꡤѸ鸽ߤޤǤ¿ΥꥷǤѸض뤵줿ѸαѸäΥޥ첽Τˤ Greco-Latin ϡ[2010-05-16-1]εǤҤ٤̤ꡤThe Great Vocabulary Shift ȤǤ̾դʤ뤯餤˱ѸγѤѤ
ʩ塦ñ˸ǤѸ˶뤷ǤϤʤѸĹܿȱƶˤꡤƥ䥮ꥷθ§§ȾХͥƥ֤Ǥ뤫Τ褦˳ƤޤäΤǤ롥ߡƤʳѸѸ˼ȤѤƤŪ Neo-Latin ȸƤФ뤬ϥƥ䥮ꥷηǤƥ䥮ꥷηֵ§ˤΤäȤäȤߤȤäƤ褤ɸ antidisestablishmentarianism Greco-Latin ǤȤȤ߹碌§ˤΤäȤäŵŪ Neo-Latin θǤ뤬եñƥñȤƤǤϤʤޤDZñȤ¤줵줿ݥȤǤ롥ѸΥޥ첽ϡäΤߤɽŪʸݤȸʤ뤳Ȥ뤬Ѹˤ礭ƤǡäѶŪɾƤ⤤ΤǤϤʤ
ե줬ȤʤѸ줬ޥ첽ƤаޤȰյˤĤƤϡGachelin ɾ̯Ǥ롥
French acted as the Trojan horse of Latinity in English, the sluice gate through which Latin was able to pour into English on a scale without any equivalent in any Germanic language. The process of 'classicization' which had originated in Greece was to spread from Latin to Romance languages, and via French to English. (9--10)
Gachelin, Jean-Marc. "Is English a Romance Language?" English Today 23 (July 1990): 8--14.
[2009-06-30-1]εǡѸǺǤĹñȤ45ʸ19ᤫʤ pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis Ҳ𤷤ϰ̤μˤϺܤäƤʤռŪ˹줿ĶǤ롥̤μ˺ܤäƤ뤳Ȥ¿ĹñȸΤ antidisestablishmentarianism Ǥ롥28ʸ12ƲĹǤ롥
OED ˤȽФ1900ǯǡΤ褦ͿƤ롥
Properly, opposition to the disestablishment of the Church of England (rare): but popularly cited as an example of a long word. So antidisestablishmentarian.
ꥹ1920Ƭ˵äѻ ( disestablishment ) αưȿФ͡μؤEngland ǤϤμƹϸߤ˻ޤǼƤ뤬Wales, Scotland, ޤޡȥå̤¿ Ireland ǤѻƶϤʬΥʤ
ǤȤƤ anti-, dis-, establish, -ment, -arian, -ism 6ʬʬǤ롥Τʤ˷ǤۤĹĤʤˤǤΤȶä뤫⤷ʤܸΡȿѻפä餱ƤʤܸüԤϤμοĤʤˤϴäΤϤǤ롥ե٥å28ʸܤΤϳΤǤ롥
⤷ΤϡξȤˡĤʤǤͳηǤǤ뤳ȤѸ6ǤϤ٤ơʵŪˤϥꥷ⤢뤬˥ƥ줫եͳ褹ǤǤꡤܸ8Ϥ٤ƴǤ롥ĹŪʸϡθǤΦΡ֥٥ι⤤ǤΩäƤΤ̤Ǥ롥[2010-03-27-1], [2010-03-28-1]εξθäλع¤ߤѤθʸӤ϶̣
[2009-09-27-1]εǡѸ5ħ ( [2009-09-27-1] ) ΰ Cosmopolitan Vocabulary ѸؽԤˤȤä Baugh and Cable Τ褦 asset ǤϤʤष liability ʤΤǤϤʤBaugh and Cable εǤϡեüԤʤɡѸθä礭ʱƶͿüԤѸؽΤȤǰƬˤƤ롥եüԤϡѸؽݤˤʤ߿˽вΨ⤯ŪˤºŪˤؽ䤹ϤȤ
εˤĤ Granger ̣ʸƤ롥̤ΥեѸ¸ߤեȤѸؽԤˤȤäɬץ饹˵ǽƤȤϸ¤ʤ⤷ʤȤݤʸǤ롥
Ѹʹߡ¿Υեñ줬Ѹ˼ѤƤߤޤǤξΩựѲƤ̡ʩ֤ǰ̣ο㤤бڥ̻ƤޤäڥϳؽѼʤɤǤ false friends ( F "faux amis" ) ȤΤƤ롥СѸ fabric ϡֿʪݡפ̣뤬бե fabrique ϡ¤פ̣롥ѸؼѤ줿ϡֽʪפȤ̣ΰפä֤ȤȤ˰̣Ϥޤä̤θѲƤޤäեȤѸؽԤˤȤäơϷ֤ۤƱ餳äܤΤȤʤ롥
Granger ˤȡɤʹȤ perception ˤĤƤϡեѸ¸ߤϥեüԤ˥ץ饹˵ǽ褦Ȥperception Ǥϡʸ̮ä false friends ˵ǽ뤫餫⤷ʤȤäꤹ production Ǥϡɬץ饹ƯƤȤϸʤȤ̤ФICLE ( the International Corpus of Learner English ) ΰǡեüԤˤѺʸѥ˴ŤĴ̡ѸüԤ٤ƥեѸλ٤ճˤ㤫äȤषޥϤ٤⤫äΤǤ롥
Granger ϤȤĤβǽŦƤ롥ĤϡȤƱѸؽԤˤȤäƤϡǤŪʰפäѤۤdzμ¤ȤάƯƤȤΤǤ롥⤦ĤϡեüԤȤ false friends 櫤˽ʬ˵դƤꡤοʤˤϥեѸλѤ뿴ƯƤȤΤǤ롥ǡαѸؽԤǤ false friends ˤ꤬ˤ˵뤳ȤǧƤꡤѸؽɤˤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ⼨Ƥ롥
ޤȤСեѸؽԤˤȤäơʤȤ production ˴ؤ¤ꡤѸΥեѸ¸ߤϰճȤäʤΤǤȤǽ⤫Ӿ夬äȤ롥βǽξܺ٤ĴdzΤСCosmopolitan Vocabulary ѸĹȤȤ館 Baugh and Cable ε뤳Ȥˤʤ
ä˭ѸΡħפǤ뤳ȤѤʤĹפǤϤʤȤĥݡȤˤʤꤽǤ롥
There is no doubt that the strong Romance influences exerted on the English language over the centuries have made it a richer language. From the foreign language learner's perspective, however, it seems as though it has also made it more difficult to master, creating lexical choices which they make at their peril. ( Granger 118 )
Granger, Sylviane. "Romance Words in English: from History to Pedagogy." Words: Proceedings of an International Symposium, Lund, 25--26 August 1995, Organized under the Auspices of the Royal Academy of Letters, History and Antiquities and Sponsored by the Foundation Natur och Kultur, Publishers. Ed. Jan Svartvik. Stockholm: Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien, 1996. 105--21.
Ѹˤϡ449ǯ̥ɥĤǥޡʬۤƤ ( Angles ) ( Saxons )塼ȿ ( Jutes ) λ̱²ޥɤȤƥ֥ƥϤäƤȤ˻Ϥޤ ( see [2009-06-04-1] )Ȥβ Vortigern ̱²षƤ뤳ȤԤΦͦԤʥޥͤȤȤطʤˤ롥ǯŪ449ǯȸΤϡűѸγؼ Bede ˤ The Ecclesiastical History of the English People Ȥ˽ˤεҤ뤫Ǥ롥εҤϸ The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ˤѤ졤֥ƥˤѸޤ Anglo-Saxon ϻϤˤޤĤäȤơߤ˻ޤǹڤƤThe Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ϹܤɽǤ The Peterborough Chronicle 449ǯεҤ顤ͭ̾ʰűѸǰѤ褦ѸȤȤˡIrvine (35) ȴФΤǤ롥
Ða comon þa men of þrim megðum Germanie: of Aldseaxum, of Anglum, of Iotum. Of Iotum comon Cantwara 7 Wihtwara, þet is seo megð þe nu eardaþ on Wiht, 7 þet cyn on Westsexum þe man nu git hæt Iutnacynn. Of Ealdseaxum coman Eastseaxa 7 Suðsexa 7 Westsexa. Of Angle comon, se a syððan stod westig betwix Iutum 7 Seaxum, Eastangla, Middelangla, Mearca and ealla Norþhymbra.
PDE translation: Those people came from three nations of Germany: from the Old Saxons, from the Angles, and from the Jutes. From the Jutes came the inhabitants of Kent and the Wihtwara, that is, the race which now dwells in the Isle of Wight, and that race in Wessex which is still called the race of the Jutes. From the Old Saxons came the East Saxons, the South Saxons, and the West Saxons. From the land of the Angles, which has lain waste between the Jutes and the Saxons ever since, came the East Anglians, the Middle Anglians, the Mercians, and all of the Northumbrians.
ΰ˴ŤƷƤܽ ( migration myth ) ϡĤλ¤ʤƤΤդɬפǤ롥449ǯϰܽξħǯȤ٤ǡºݤˤϤ饲ޥ̱²Φ֥ƥ˰ܽϤƤפ롥ޤ449ǯ˰٤˰ܽä櫓ǤϤʤ56ˤʳŪ˰ܽ꽻֤줿ȤȤ⤢롥¾ˤϡ͡͡塼ȿͤλ̱²¾˥ե ( Franks ) ⤳ΰܽ˲ääƤȤ롥ƱͤˡߤǤϵ뤵ƤϤ뤬եꥸ ( Frisians ) κߤƤܽξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡޤʤȤ¿褦Ǥ ( Hoad 27 )
ΰˤ⤢Ȥꡤ̱²ΦΤ줾θϤ֥ƥΤ褽ϤؤȰܽ绨Ĥ˸С塼ȿͤ Kent the Isle of Wightͤϥءͤϥذܽ꽻ʲάϿȡˡűѸϱѸ줬֥ƥäƤʬΤǤϤʤΦˤǤʬƤ̱²ͳ褹ȹͤ롥

ޥ̱²Τʤǡä Jutes β̤ˤĤƤ[2009-05-31-1]ȡޤΰˤĤƤϡ饤űѸѸǻȤǤ롥
Irvin, Susan. "Beginnings and Transitions: Old English." The Oxford History of English. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2006. 32--60.
Hoad, Terry. "Preliminaries: Before English." The Oxford History of English. Ed. Lynda Mugglestone. Oxford: OUP, 2006. 7--31.
ϲ٤ˤ錄äƼꤢƤ ([2010-05-15-1], [2009-07-31-1], [2009-07-30-1], [2009-07-13-1], [2009-07-12-1]) Ѹˤ Norman French Central French бڥǡGachelin ʸɲŪ˸ĤΤ롥˻ĤɽŪʸȡθǤνǯ碌Ƶ
| NF | CF |
|---|---|
| car ϼ֡ 1301 | chariot ֲϼ֡ 1358 |
| pocket ־ޡ 1350 | pouch ־ޡ a1325 |
| wage ¶ ?a1300 | gage ʪ ?a1300 |
| wallop ֥åפ 1375-1721 | gallop ֥åפ a1425 |
| wise ˡ OE | guise ֤꤫ή a1338 |
| convey ֱ֡ a1383 | convoy ƱԤ 1375 |
[2010-03-27-1]εDZѸäλع¤Ҳ𤷤εǤϡfoe, enemy, adversary ʤɤλȤ줾 (1) Ѹ졤(2) եѸ졤(3) ƥꥷѸؤʤƤ뤳ȤѸä˸뤳ðۤʻع¤ɽѸ줬ʤʤȻפäƤMcArthur trisociation ȸƤǤΤߤĤλȤΤȤ triset ȸƤǤ롥
McArthur trisociation ϡ(1) Ѹ졤(2) ե졦ƥ졤(3) ꥷȤ褦̤Ƥ褦ǡҤ foe ̤Ȥϰۤʤ롥ºݤˤϻؤΤؤʬƹͤƤΤ餳Τ褦ʥꥨ⤢ꤦ뤬Ȥñ̤ǤϤʤǤȤñ̤ǹͤˤ McArthur ̤ΤۤޤMcArthur Ƥ triset ƷǤʼ줬 b-, n-, s- ǻϤޤ triset ˡ
| triset of morphemes | triset of words |
|---|---|
| ant, formic-, myrmec- | ant-eater, formicarium, myrmecology |
| bad, mal-, caco- | badly, malign, cacophony |
| be, ess-, ont- | being, essence, ontology |
| belly, ventr-, gastr- | potbellied, ventral, gastritis |
| best, optim-, aristo- | bestseller, optimal, aristocrat |
| big, magn-, mega(lo)- | bigheaded, magnitude, megalomania |
| bird, avi-, ornith- | bird-watcher, aviary, ornithology |
| birth, nasc-/nat-, gen-/gon- | birthday, nascent/native, genesis/cosmogony |
| black, nigr-, melan- | blacken, denigrate, melanin/melancholy |
| blood, sanguin-, (h)aem(at)-/(h)em(at)- | bloody, sanguinary, an(a)emic |
| body, corp(or)-, som(at)- | bodily, corporeal/incorporate, psychosomatic |
| bone, oss(e)-, osteo- | rawboned, osseous, osteopath |
| book, libr-, biblio- | bookish, library, bibliography |
| breast, mamm-, mast- | doublebreasted, mammography, mastitis |
| earth, terr-, ge- | earthquake, terrestrial, geography |
| fire, ign-, pyr- | fire-fighter, igneous, pyromania |
| naked, nud(e)-, gymn- | nakedness, nudity, gymnosophist |
| name, nomin-, onom-/onym- | namely, nominate, onomastic/synonym |
| new, nov-, neo- | newness, innovate, neologism |
| night, noct-, nyct- | nightly, nocturnal, nyctalopia |
| nose, nas-, rhin- | nosiness, nasal, rhinitis |
| salt, sal-, (h)al- | salty, salinity, halophyte |
| say, dict-, phas-/phat- | saying, dictum, emphasis |
| sea, mar-, thalass- | seascape, marine, thalassocracy |
| see, vid-/vis-, scop- | all-seeing, evident/vision, telescope |
| self, ips-, aut(o)- | unselfish, solipsism, autistic |
| shape, form-, morph- | shapely, formal, metamorphosis |
| sharp, ac(u)-, oxy- | sharpen, acute, oxygen |
| skin, cut(i)-, derm(at)- | skinny, subcutaneous, dermatitis |
| sound, son-, phon- | soundless, sonic, telephone |
| speak, loqu-/loc(ut)-, log- | unspeakable, eloquent, dialog(ue) |
| stand, sta(t)-, stas-/stat- | outstanding, stable, stasis/statis |
| star, stell-, aster- | starry, stellar, asteroid |
| stone, lapid-, lith- | stony, lapidary, megalithic |
| sun, sol, heli(o)- | sunny, solar, heliograph |
ŪʤȤˡѸ˵äƤѲ礭⤢꾮⤢롥ѸˤįȡѲä褦˸⤢ФǤʤ⤢롥űѸ줫ѸˤƤη֤ѲѸ줫ѸˤƤθù¤Ȥߴ첻ܤʤɤѲľ300ǯ餤ƤߤȤۤ絬ϤʸѲϵäƤʤ褦˸롥ΰ̣ǤϡѸθѲϾ
ѤȸѸϤޤǤˤʤѲƤȤͤ롥ľ300ǯ餤DZѸȤμҲŪʰ֤Ť礭ѲƤѲ³Ƥ롥18ޤǤ˳عʸˡۤΩɸѸ줬ꤷȻפС19ˤϺΩäѸѼ郎˽иƱθȾʹߤϤʤꥫѸ줬ƬƤѸϿѼ߽ФʤŪ˹äƤ椭ѸͥåȥȤǤ⤤٤ʣΤ夲Ƥ
Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭⤢꾮⤢Ȥ嵭̷ϡɸѸȳȤǹͤȲä롥ɸѸǵѲŪ˱ѸˤǼ夲Ƥ褦ʸѲˤĤƤϡǤΩäΤϤʤɸѸγǤϿѼ郎ޤ졤줾줬ŪˤȼħʤȯŸƤƤ롥ΰ̣ǤϸѸѲSvartvik and Leech θդڤȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
It is a paradox of late Modern English that the language seems to have been changing more, and yet it seems to have been changing less. The speed of change seems to have been accelerating, if we look at the massive growth of variation in English worldwide. With geographical spread have come divergences, especially in the form of new Englishes and creoles . . . . But if we look only at standard English, the language seems to have been changing more slowly. (191)
ѸѲͤǡĤδ뤳Ȥ̤ƤȤɬפϢˤĤƤϡֶɤեǥפ[2010-03-12-1][2010-04-01-1]Ǥ줿Τȡ
Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
ˤϱѸ١Υ쥪 ( creole ) 30Ȥ롥ۤȤɤֽ硤եꥫʿΤäƤ롥Guyana ƤǤͣαѸɸѸ¤ǥ쥪뤬ʹ롥

Guyana Ǥϲظ ( basilect ) Guyanese Creole 顤ظ ( mesolect ) Фơظ ( acrolect ) Standard English ޤǡڤ뤳ȤΤʤϢ³ ( continuum ) ¸Ƥ롥Guyana Υ쥪ǡɸѸ I gave him ȤʸбϢ³ΤSvartvik and Leech (177) 긫Ƥߤ褦
| Standard English | I gave him | Acrolect | |
| a geev him | |||
| a geev im | |||
| a geev ii | |||
| a giv him | |||
| a giv im | |||
| a giv ii | |||
| a did giv hii | |||
| a did giv ii | Mesolects | ||
| a did gi ii | |||
| a di gii ii | |||
| a di gi ii | |||
| mi di gi hii | |||
| mi di gii ii | |||
| mi bin gi ii | |||
| mi bin gii ii | |||
| mi bin gii am | |||
| Guyanese Creole | mi gii am | Basilect |
ޤǤ⸽Ѹθÿȵ̳ˤĤƤϡդȤȤˤʥŪʿͤƤ
[2010-03-02-1]: Ѹδܸ100εȳ
[2009-11-15-1]: Ѹδܸ600εȳ
[2009-11-14-1]: ѸμѸεȳ (2)
Ȥ̤ˡä䵯̳̻Ū䤽¾äȤƤϡʲΤ褦ʵƤ
[2009-08-22-1]: եѸǯʬ
[2009-08-19-1]: ѸμѸεȳ
[2009-06-12-1]: ѸäˤޤĤ
äοͤȤΤϡȤ뼭ʤɤΥˤΤñ٤θΤʤɤˤäĴ̤礭Ѥǽꡤʤʤ̤ǿˤƤ⡤츻ΤΤԾܤäꡤեʤΤƥʤΤʤɤȽǤΤĤʤäȡϤͽ̤ۤ OED SOED ξ˴Ťͤ¿褦ǤϤ롥
ϡѤƤåꥹȤΥΤʤΤȤǽΤ Encyclopedia of Linguistics ˷ǺܤƤͤĴ٤Ƥߤ줾 "Old English" "English" ιफϢսѤ롥
The recorded vocabulary of OE is estimated at approximately 30,000 words. Only about 3% of these were of non-Germanic origin. (779)
As a result of borrowing, the Gmc word stock is now a low 30% and the Romance one is 50%. (292)
ԤǤϸѸäоݸäȤƤ褦ǤϤ뤬θϵƤʤ⤷ OED2 ˽ƤΤǤСͿƤοȤ 615,100 դǰƬˤƤΤ⤷ʤ ( see Dictionary facts ) 뤤ϡƤ츻οǤ 219,800 դǰƬˤƤΤ¿ѸθÿȤƲ 615,100 ȤѤȤơűѸȸѸθäȤΤʤΥޥΨˤĤ٤ɽǤ褦ޥäȤϡAnglo-Saxon ȡä˸ѸˤơOld Norse μѸ碌Τ濴ˤʤȹͤƤ褤
| Old English | Present-Day English | |
|---|---|---|
| vocabulary | 30,000 | 615,100? |
| native words (%) | 97 | 30 |
ѹ˾κνǤ1066ǯ Norman Conquest ˤĤƤϡޤǤ͡ʷǿƤλ̾ΤܸǥɽȤ֥Υޥȡס֥Υޥȡס֥Υޥȡפʤɤδ֤ɤ줬褦[2010-04-24-1]ǾҲ𤷤 JReK ˤ븡Ǥϡ֥ΥޥȡפŪ¿ȤƤȤ֥ΥޥȡפɽȯȻפäƤ롥ͳϡ /ˈkɒŋkwɛst/ ȤѸȯ¤ǤꤿǤϤʤ֥ΥޥפȤ֥ȡפʤŪͳ롥
conquest ϥե줫μѸäˤΥΥޥ ( Norman French ) ڤƤǤ롥ΤȤ <quest> Ȥֻ /kwɛst/ ȤȯˤäƼƤ롥Υѥ ( Central French ) Ǥηϡե conquête ֳפ conquêt ּפֻ
Ǥϡư conquer /ˈkɒŋkə/ Ϥɤconquest Ʊͤ <qu> ȤֻޤΤΡѸǤκǽλҲʷˤ /kw/ Ǥʤ /k/ ʤΤǡ Central French ηͳ褹ȹͤƤ褤
Norman French Central French Ÿ doublet ˴ؤ[2009-07-13-1], [2009-07-30-1], [2009-07-31-1]ȡ
World Englishes εǥꥹѸ ( BrE ) θҤˤʤȤˡ㡼륺ҤαѸѤӤӰѤΤܤˤ롥ʲϡThe Times 1995ǯ324ʶˤε "Prince says Americans are ruining the language" 顤̣սĤȴФΤǤ롥
He [The Prince of Wales] described American English as "very corrupting" and emphasised the need to maintain the quality of language . . . .
. . . increasing competition from America and Australia is threatening Britain's leading position in the lucrative language-teaching market.
The Prince said: "We must act now to ensure that English, and that to my way of thinking means English English, maintains its position as the world language well into the next century."
"Speaking after the launch [of the British Council's English 2000 project], Prince Charles elaborated on his view of the American influence. "People tend to invent all sorts of nouns and verbs, and make words that shouldn't be. I think we have to be a bit careful, otherwise the whole thing can get rather a mess."
In the long term, the British Council fears that instantaneous translation could see English replaced as the main international language by Chinese within three generations.
Other areas of increasing competition between British and American English include India, Eastern Europe and parts of Latin America. More than 30,000 Indian students now study in American colleges and universities, compared with 2,000 in Britain.
㡼륺ҤαѸѤꥹ͡Τˤ English English speakers ΰŪʹͤɤΤ餤ɽƤ뤫ҴŪ˼ȤϤǤʤ丫Ǥ AmE "corrupting" ȤߤʤEngE ǤȤƥ EngE speakers ŪԤϤäƤȸƤ롥AmE speakers Τʤˤ EngE Ȥߤʤͤ⾯ʤʤȻפ졤֥ɤȤƤ EngE Ϥޤ¸ߤƤȤäƤ[2010-04-21-1]Ǥߤ褦˼ϤȤƤ AmE Americanization ˤäαѸʴĤĤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥ΰѤΰĤˤ褦ˡǯ Australian English γӤޤѸѼȤζȤ̤ˡʤɤγȤζƤꡤEngE μԤȤƤ Prince Charles British Council ξǤ꤬롥
ꥹˤȤäƤϡEngE 뤤 BrE ֥ɤβͤݤƤϹŪñ˹ΰҿäƤǤʤαѸӥͥԤ5ݥɤηкѡʵˤ⤫äƤΤ顥
ε[2010-05-11-1], [2010-05-12-1]ǡoften ȤˤߤOED ˤ oft ä often ̲Τ16ʹߤȤȤ٤ι⤤ʤΤ Helsinki Corpus ( The Diachronic Part of the Helsinki Corpus of English Texts ) dzΤ줽Ȼפʬ COCOA <C ɽ part of corpus ˤΤߤˤƤޤ٤ƤߤʬάʤɤΥޥ˥奢顥
| WORD | PERIOD | oft | often |
| REGEX | /\bofte?\b/ | /\boft[ei]n\b/ | |
| OE | O1 | 0 | 0 |
| O2 | 72 | 0 | |
| OX/2 | 4 | 0 | |
| O3 | 45 | 0 | |
| O2/3 | 32 | 0 | |
| OX/3 | 106 | 0 | |
| O4 | 9 | 0 | |
| O2/4 | 8 | 0 | |
| O3/4 | 37 | 0 | |
| OX/4 | 2 | 0 | |
| ME | M1 | 67 | 0 |
| MX/1 | 20 | 0 | |
| M2 | 60 | 4 | |
| MX/2 | 9 | 1 | |
| M3 | 63 | 4 | |
| M2/3 | 15 | 0 | |
| M4 | 15 | 7 | |
| M2/4 | 3 | 0 | |
| M3/4 | 17 | 1 | |
| MX/4 | 20 | 0 | |
| EModE | E1 | 14 | 28 |
| E2 | 14 | 33 | |
| E3 | 9 | 78 |
ε[2010-05-11-1] often ֤ȯ ( spelling pronunciation ) ꤢoften ϱѸˤδߤƤʤꤪ⤷ȽҤ٤Ϻäۤˤͳ롥<t> ȯ˼ꤢ뤳Ȥ¿ΤϺŪȤΤȤѸŪˤߤȤϸ <n> ε˹Ԥ夯ȹͤƤ롥ơ <n> εȤΤȽȤϤʤΤ⤷
"often" ΰ̣ϡűѸǤ oft ȤɽƤ-en ϤޤĤƤʤθϥޥˤбθ˸ŤǤ롥Ѹˤϡ oft ǤǤǤϤ뤬 -e ղä ofte ⸽졤16Ⱦޤǰ֤ȤƻĤäˤޤ³ oft Ǥ롥Ǥ oft ϸŸ졦ȤѤۤofttimes oft-told, oft-quoted ʤɤʣǤȤѤ롥
often, oftin ʤɤηǸ -n Τ13ΤȤǤʰŪˤʤΤ16ʹߡˡ괧 an a λȤʬƱͤˡ첻ǻϤޤ often ҲǻϤޤ ofte ̤ƻȤƤפ Chaucer ʤɤˤ뤬ǤϤᤤʳǼθƬˤ餺 oftin ȤƤꡤ euphony ˤȤʤ롥
ǹͤ줿Τselden "seldom" ( analogy ) ȤǤ롥٤ɽȤƱ°ΤǡʬΥåȤˤʤꤦȹͤ졤ϤϹ⤤ selden Τϡhwīlum "whilom" ʤɤʣͿʷͳ褹ǡűѸ -m Ѱ۷Ǥ⸽Ф [ see [2009-06-06-1] ]ˤ seldom ѤȤʤȡʲΤ褦ΩĤΤǤϤʤ
<t> ɤफɤޤʤȤϡ⤽ <t> ɤޤʤȤ褬Ȥ¸롥<t> ɤޤʤȯ줿ΤϡѸ˻Ҳ治æȤѸβѲǤ롥ҲȤĶäƤΤϡܤ <n> ѸƤǤ롥<n> 줿Τϡ餯 selden "seldom" Ǥ롥Ȥȡ often ȯ [ˈɒfən] [ˈɒftən] Ȥϡseldom ǤȤȤˤʤΤǤϤʤ
ʤȤˡѸˤδ鸽Ѹߤ뤪⤷ΤǤϤʤ
֤ȯ ( spelling pronunciation ) ˤĤƤϡ[2009-11-24-1][2009-11-25-1]εǼ夲ƤѸ spelling pronunciation ɽȤƤ褯夲Τ often Ǥ롥θŪȯ BrE Ǥ [ˈɒfən] ȯ뤬[ˈɒftən] [t] ȯΤʹʤ1첻ѰۤˡAmE ǤƱͤǡ[t] ɤȯʹ롥LPD ˤȡ¿üԤ [t] ɤޤʤȯɤȯξäƤȤ롥BrE AmE Ǥ Preference poll η̤ϰʲ̤ꡥ

ѼǤ⡤[t] ȯΤ 1/4 ٤ǾɤΤ褦ŪĴʤΤǡǤϺιˤĤƤǤ롥
often spelling pronunciation ɽȤƤ褯夲Τϡٸˤ䤹Ȼפ뤬ϱѸˤδ鸫Ƥ⤫ʤꤪ⤷ȻפäƤ롥spelling pronunciation ȤƤ [t] ϸѸθݤȻפ줬ºݤˤ [t] ̵ͭɤ soften, swiften ʤɤȤȤ˶Ѹ鸫롥17ˤɸѸ [t] ΩƤ18, 19ˤ [t] ɤޤʤȯ̤ȤʤäƤꡤʹߤθѸǺƤ [t] 褷ƤȤΤŪаޤǤ롥often ν13Ǥꡤʸ̤ [t] ȯƤϤʤΤǡθˤȤƤ [t] ȯƤ֤ĹȤˤʤ롥ͤƤߤС<t> ȽƤΤ [t] ȯȤΤϡƼʤȤ18ʹߡ[t] ɤޤʤʤä [ˈɒfən] ˴ƤǤۤԼȤȤˤʤ롥
[t] ɤޤʤʤäΤϡҲϢ³ˤ治æȤѸȯΰŪʷȰפ븽ݤǤ ( ex. castle, Christmas, listen ) üԤ˴Ť [t] æϤüԤ˴Ť [t] Ϥΰĥꤢϡ줫³ƤΤ30ǯ夯餤 Preference poll Ԥ
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ405ǡ
ε[2010-05-09-1]ǡδܹ ( the core components ) Ȥơء̣5ʬ ( pragmatics ) ϤΥꥹȤγ˰֤Ťˤϵ;Ϥ뤫⤷ʤؤˤΰ֤ŤˤĤƤϡ the core components ΰĤȤƴޤ뤫ݤǰۤʤΩ줬롥
( phonetics )
( phonology )
( morphology )
( syntax )
̣ ( semantics )
( pragmatics )
Huang (4-5) ϡ5ʬƱ˴ܹΰĤȤǧͤ "the (Anglo-American) component view" ȸƤǤ롥Фơ ( component ) Ȥ ( perspective ) ǤꡤȤϰۼΤΤǤȤͤ "the (European Continental) perspective view" ȸƤǤ롥ιͤΰ㤤ϸȤʬȯãƤʣŪκۤˤΤǤ롥 "the component view" ѤƤ Huang θʬΰĤȤơˤ linguistic underdeterminacy Ȥ뤳ȤƤ (5-6)
linguistic underdeterminacy thesis ϡʸΰ̣Ȥ줬ºݤãƤȤδ֤ˤ礭ʥåפ뤳ȤȤƤ롥㤨СαʸϤʸդǤȤƤ⡤ʸ̮ʤ¤ãƤ¿ŪǤ롥
(1) You and you, but not you, stand up!
(2a) The authorities barred the anti-globalization demostrators because they advocated violence.
(2b) The authorities barred the anti-globalization demostrators because they feared violence.
(3a) John is looking for his glasses. ʡִפΰա
(3b) John is looking for his glasses. ʡ֥饹פΰա
(4a) They are cooking apples. ʡ֥Ƥפΰա
(4a) They are cooking apples. ʡѤΥפΰա
(1) ʪŪʸ̮ͿƤʤ¤ꡤ̾ you λؼоݤİ뤳ȤǤʤϡμפǤľ ( deixis ) Ǥ롥(2) Ǥϡthey ïؤΤɤˤϡطʤȤʤΤäƤʤФʤʤ(3) ϸä¿(4) ¿˴ŤΤǤ롥ˤϡʸ̮μȤäŪǤʤФʤʤlinguistic underdeterminacy thesis ФƸܹ˴ޤ뤳ȤȤ Huang μݤϡʸΰ̣Ȥ줬ºݤãƤȤδ֤ˤ礭ʥåפꡤ뵡εҤʤʤиϴʤơεҤΤۤʤ̸ǤפȤȤˤʤ
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
ؤѸؤ粽ʤߡʬʬƤ롥Ѹˤ˱ѸؤȤʬϻּ濴ˤƱѸѻȤ̻Ū ( diachronic ) ǤꡤѸʤ鸽Ѹǻ֤ߤƤ̤ѻŪ ( synchronic ) ʸȤ϶̤롥̻Ū˸Ѳˤ⡤Τɤ¦ ( component ) ܤ뤫ȤݥȤ¤ʤФʤȤ¿Ūʸ츦ǴŪ˶ʬƤ¦̡ʬ˽Ȥˤʤ롥˸줢뤤ϱѸѻȤäƤ⡤ݤȴѻ뤳ȤϤǤιǤʬǴѻΤƻǤ롥
ؤǴܹ ( the core components ) Ȥƶ̤ƤʤΤϡʲ5ʬ
( phonetics )
( phonology )
( morphology )
( syntax )
̣ ( semantics )
ǽϤȤƤϳΤˤդ꤬ܤѸ˸ͤ硤ä˶ǯθءѸؤλιȿǤ硤Ϥ5ʬˤϼޤʤ㤨аʲιǤɲäɬפ
( lexicology )
( pragmatics )
ɮסե٥åȡֻ ( handwriting, alphabet, and spelling )
( graphemics )
( dialectology )
Χ ( metrics )
ʸ ( stylistics )
˱ѸˤμʬޤȤʤȡˤäƤ[2009-12-08-1]δطޤˤ褦ʽʬäƤ롥ʬθƾΤǤСؤʤɤȵϤȤ꤬ʤʬθƾΤĤƤߤΤϡʬˤƤ̻ŪѲϴѻΤǤꡤäƱѸˤ˱ѸؤˤƤ꤬Ԥ뤳ȤϤʤȤȤäǤ롥2ǯܤܥ֥Ǥϡ³Ѹˤ˴ؤƤ椭
ELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) äƤܤˤϤ褯ǺܤƤ뤬ˤѸιϿޤ롥ǽ Strevens ˤäƺ줿˲Ѥ줿Τ Crystal (70) ˸줿Crystal ǤΥȥ "A family tree representation (based on a model by Peter Strevens) of the way English has spread around the world, showing the influence of the two main branches of American and British English"
Crystal ϿޤΤޤޥ֥˷Ǻܤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǡϤȤ˺֤äȲǡפǤ롥ELF Ȥʸ̮ʤΤǡƤǤϤʤܤ濴ˤϿޤξ˱ѼŸƤߤ

ϿޤϡǤʤƤʱѸϰѼĤꥹѼȥꥫѼΤ줫̤餻Ƥꡤ̤ȤŪŸŪŸƱɽ뤳ȤƤ롥ѼαƶϤǤꡤǰޤȤƤˤ褯ǤƤȻפ
Ĥ English ؼȻʬ줷ƤͤϤ礦ɰ²η ( see [2009-06-17-1] ) ۵뤬[2010-05-03-1]εˤַȱƶɬ̤ǤʤפȤƱ۵롥ȤΤϡĤȥԥ˿ʬ줿ܤޤŪʡַפΤΡǤξԴ֤Ρֱƶסä˥ꥫѼ狼ΡֱƶפŪˤĤȥԥƤ뤫Ǥ롥[2010-04-21-1]εǿ줿Ѹ Americanization ϡϿޤǤФԥȤȤˤʤ
Strevens, P. "English as an International Language." The Other Tongue: English across Cultures. Ed. B. B. Kachru. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1992.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ʸ嵭2010/05/23(Sun)Strevens ΥꥸʥȤƵ Strevens νϸäƤޤϡʲΤΤǤޤʾǺƷǤƤ褦Ǥ
Strevens, Peter. Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford: Pergamon P, 1980.
Strevens, Peter. "English as an International Language: Directions in the 1990s." The Other Tongue: English across Cultures. 2nd ed. Ed. B. B. Kachru. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1992.
McArthur, Tom. "Models of English." English Today 32 (October 1992). 12--21.
McArthur, Tom. The English Languages. Cambridge: CUP, 1998. 94.
ELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) 뤤 EIL ( English as an International Language ) ȤƤαѸθ̤ͤ뤦ǡפϽפʼͿƤ롥Crystal (71) Ǥϡ2001ǯˤפˤפ ENL ESL οľ5ǯ֤οΨ졤ԤԤäȤޤ⤫Ӿ夬äñ㲽ƤСѸüԤοDZѸüԤοƤȤȤǤꡤ⤳η³Ƥ椯Ȥʤȡ[2009-10-17-1]ǼѸüԤʬۤˤ ENL ΨʱߥդβʬˤޤޤƤ椯ȤȤˤʤ롥구ŪѼȤǧƤ British English American English Υ֥ɤϤƤοŪʰΤȤǺݻƤ椯ΤɤѸ̤ˤ륨ƥǤ롥
Crystal μפϤǤ˸ŤʤäΤǡϺǿǤפѤ Crystal ƱͤɽƤߤENS ESL ξܤꥹȤ[2009-10-21-1]˷ǤȤϼ˸¤äENS ˤĤƤ7ʻͤޤǤܤäˡESL ˤĤƤϸ§Ȥ2010ǯǯˤƿ2000ͤĶоݤȤͤŵ UN, World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision Population Database ˴Ťƺ줿ɽΩҲݾ㡦긦ΥڡǤΤǡˤѤñ̤1000͡Ψɤϡǯ֤˿1%ä70ǯˤϿۤ2ܤˤʤ롥
| ENL countries | population (2010) | population growth rate (2005-2010) (%) |
|---|---|---|
| USA | 317,641 | 0.96 |
| UK | 61,899 | 0.54 |
| South Africa | 50,492 | 0.98 |
| Canada | 33,890 | 0.96 |
| Australia | 21,512 | 1.07 |
| Ireland | 4,589 | 1.83 |
| New Zealand | 4,303 | 0.92 |
| Japan (for reference) | 126,995 | -0.07 |
| ESL countries | population (2010) | population growth rate (2005-2010) (%) |
|---|---|---|
| India | 1,214,464 | 1.43 |
| Pakistan | 184,753 | 2.16 |
| Bangladesh | 164,425 | 1.42 |
| Nigeria | 158,259 | 2.33 |
| the Philippines | 93,617 | 1.82 |
| Egypt | 84,474 | 1.81 |
| Tanzania | 45,040 | 2.88 |
| Kenya | 40,863 | 2.64 |
| Uganda | 33,796 | 3.27 |
| Nepal | 29,853 | 1.85 |
| Malaysia | 27,914 | 1.71 |
| Ghana | 24,333 | 2.09 |
| Sri Lanka | 20,410 | 0.88 |
ε[2010-05-05-1]³<u> <v> ʬꡥϡѸűѸˤޤ̤롥
ޤŦ٤ȤȤơűѸǤ <v> ȤʸѤʤäȤΤϡűѸǤ /v/ ( phoneme ) ȤƳΩƤޤDz /f/ ͭ۲ ( allophone ) ȤƤΤ¸ߤǤ롥alphabet ϸ§ȤƲǤбʸǤ뤫顤/v/ ȤǤʤʾ塤бʸäɬפǤϤʤ㤨СűѸ ofer "over" ȤǤϡҲ [v] ɽΤ <f> Ѥ줿ͭ˶ޤ줿ҲϼưŪͭΤűѸβ§ʤΤǡ<f> ֤ä [f] ʤΤ [v] ʤΤȤ¤ʤǤϼưŪ [v] βȤʤ롥Τ褦˵§äꤷƤΤǡ<f> ȤʸѤ롥;ʬʸߤʤȤ̣ǡǤ롥ʸѸ of of course <f> ȯӡ
ȤѸλѤäƤ롥ޤǤ /f/ ȤǤΰ۲Ȥ¸ߤƤԤ [v] ΩƼʬ¸ߤԡ뤷Ϥ /v/ ȤΩϰ̤ΤǤ롥طʤˤϡѸΥեήäեǤ /f/ /v/ Ϥ줾ΩǤȤΩƤꡤ㤨 fine vine ĤΰۤʤäΤ褦˲ǤΩڤñڥ minimal pair ȸƤ֡űѸǤϤΤ褦 /f/ /v/ minimal pair ¸ߤʤäѸǤϥե <v> ĸ¿ѤȤǡ /f/ /v/ Ω褦 minimal pair ޤ줿ƱѸ /v/ Dz ( phonemicisation ) ȡ˱ <v> ȤʸΩⴶ褦ˤʤäDzǤȤʸɬǤȤˡ̤ <v> ޤեѸ줬ŪäƤȤǡ<v> ʸȤƤ¸ߴϽʬ˴Ƥ
ѸǤϸűѸ줫ѤƤ <u> ȥեäƿȤϤ줿 <v> ¤ΩĤȤˤʤä餫֤ñǤϤʤäűѸǤ <u> ϸ§ȤƤäѤ첻ȤƻȤƤꡤϤʬۤä⤷˼줿 <v> /v/ бҲȤƳΩƤСΤ褦 <u> 첻<v> ϻҲȤ褦ʬۤƤȤ<v> ϱѸؼ줿餫첻Ȥ <u> ȤƤȤ줿ΤǤ롥ϡȤΥեǤäǤ⤢뤷˸ХƥǤ⤽äǤ롥ƥǤ <v> β첻 [u] ޤϻҲ [w] ǤʻҲȤƤϸ [v] ѲˡĤʸȤưƤӤʤۤɤˤβ϶ᤫäΤǤ롥
ơűѸǤ¸ߤ餷ʤä <u> <v> ʬ꤬Ѹ˥եֻʤäȤǿƤޤä줬褵Τ17ʹߤԤʤФʤʤäȤϡꥹʹߤʤ餯եαƶȴʤäȤƻפ碌롥
<u> <v> ˤĤơޤ phonemicisation ˤĤƤ Smith (79-82) ȡ
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
alphabet ˤϤܤƤޤۤɤοߤ롥1700ǯ1500ǯλ塤ե˥ ( the Phoenicians ) ˤäȯ줿Ȥ alphabet оϸˤΤߤʤ餺ʸˤɤ뤬ȤäƤ褤뤽ΰʸʸˤϡʣˤޤƤ롥
ǯε[2010-01-01-1]ǡǯϥե٥åȤⰷȽҤ٤ΤΤޤĤꤢƤʤäΤǡ <u> <v> ʬˤĤƹͤƤߤʸˤĤƸȤˤϡʸ̾ΡǤʬۡб벻¾ʸȤδطʤɹθ٤͡¦̤ꡤñǤϤʤ˴Ϣɽ§ǧƤʸΤΤɽȤˤ <v> Τ褦ɽɽȤˤ /v/ ʲɽˤ [v] ʲɽˤΤ褦ɽ뤳ȤȤ롥
<u> <v> ϵˤĤΰۤʤǤ롥<w> <y> 碌ơŪˤϸ奮ꥷ첻 <V> ؤ̤롥ѸǤ <u> 첻<v> ϻҲȤ̤ĤƤ뤬ζ̤ΤˤʤäΤ17ʹߡ§ȤʤäΤ18ʹߤΤȤˤʤޤǤ <u> Ƚ <v> Ƚ첻ȻҲΤɽȤǤδФǤؤ˻פ뤫⤷ʤƤޤФɤβɽƤ뤫¤ȤϤʤ ( ex. ouer "over", vnkind "unkind" ) 17ʹߤξʸζ̤ޤäȤäƤ⤽ϺñꥹȤǤϼ¤19ޤ <t> μʸȤưĤ˰Ƥ<u> <v> Υե٥åȤǤ¤ӽ⸽ߤȵդΥ⤢ꡤߤν֤ˤܸۤ경ȤΤ1828ǯ Noah Webster μ The American Dictionary of the English Language ʹߤǤ롥
Ǥϡ17ǽζ̤ʤˤ⤫餺 <u> <v> ȤĤΰۤʤ¸ߤΤϤ⤽ʤˤϡѸűѸˤޤ̤ɬפ롥
[2010-01-24-1]εǤߤ褦ˡݸȤƤαѸȤǤϡELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) EIL ( English as an International Language ) ȤƾΤ褯ʹ褦ˤʤäƤѸüԿϤȤݸȤƤαѸ˴ؤǿοͤˤĤƤϡCrystal Graddol 褯礤˽Ф롥μͤϺǿΤΤˤǤΤϾ˿ǯΥǡȤΤ̤Ǥ롥
ϡ2005ǯNewsweek ϢǺܤƤΤߤĤΤǡѸοˤĤƤεˤʤ¡פĤȴФƤߤ5ǯθߡǤ˸ŤʤäƤ⤢뤫⤷ʤΤǤ餺
ɹDZѸؽȤǯ1ɥΥӥͥǤ
the British Council ˤȡ10ǯ˱ѸؽԿ20ͤãѸüԤ30ͤãȸޤ
αѸѿ35ͤãʢꥫꥹʥο¤
1ͤλҶѸؤǤ
ɤϱѸ춵դ͢ФϤƤʢ [2009-10-07-1]
ȿѸȷӤĤ뤳Ȥ¿եǤ⡤äѸɬȿФΤΡɬȤ96%̤Ǥ˱ѸƤʢ¾ɬܡ
ŻҾ80%ѸѤƤʢ [2010-04-13-1] ΥȥǺѤꡥŻҾˤѸ٤ǯäƤƤ롥ĤΥǡʸǤ
the British Council ˤȡβʳؼԤ66%Ѹɤ
ϡ China English Standard English ˼DZѸΥꥭƤĤĤ
Τ褦ʵɤǤȱѸϻߤޤʤȤŪʰݤ롥ºݤˤϽDZѸζ̤Τ뤳ȤνˤĤƤϡJenkins 褯ޤȤޤäƤ롥
"Not the Queen's English". Newsweek 145. 10. March 7, 2005, 41--45.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Graddol, David. English Next. British Council, 2006. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-englishnext.htm44--45.
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2009.
[2010-05-01-1], [2010-05-02-1]εǡˤַפȡֱƶפν̤ĴƤ¤ΤȤξԤζ̤ϰƳۣǤ롥
äʸˡˤƸߤAȸBäȲꤷ褦ַפˤΡ㤨ξ줬ߤطˤˤʤΤֱƶפˤΡ㤨иAüԤBüԤʸŪˤʤΤΤˤϡ˸AȸBˤޤĤˤҲŪʬäƤʤФʤʤˤȱƶˤ礷Ƥǽ⽽ʬˤꤦ롥
Ѹ줬ƥե줫¿μѸƤ¤ˤȤαѸäѸäȡѸΥƥեäӤȡξԤʤƤ롥ΤߤȽǤ¤ꡤξԤˤΤʤΤƶˤΤʤΤʬʤϤǤ롥줬ѤȤŪƶη̤ǤǸǤΤϡѸʸƥեʸƶƤȤ˾λ¤ΩΤäƤ뤫Ǥ롥Ȥʤμ⤷ʤȤСξԤδطʤΤƶʤΤȽ̤뤳ȤʤäȤ⡤ʸˡ¾θؤӤСŪʴѻǤ⡤ľŪʷطˤʤ餷Ȥʬ뤫⤷ʤ
Ť̤̤ۤɡŪμԳΤˤʤꡤƶʬ븰ʤʤ롥ĸʤɤ6000ǯ̤櫓ǤꡤΤ餤ΤäȤʤȡ줬ѤƤҲŪʥƥȤŪˤ¬Ǥʤȡμ ( see [2009-06-17-1] ) ǤϷطȤƿƤФ줬ط椨ǤϤʤƶط椨Ƥ˲ʤȤäȤƤ⤪ʤ֤˿ӤŪƶѤ̡夫ߤƷطȸޤۤɤι˻äȤȤ⤢롥Τ褦ϡӸ ( comparative linguistics ) Ʒ ( reconstruction ) ȤˡǤ줳Ť˰ƤΤ¤ΤȤȱƶδ֤ΤȤ
ǰϡַפȤļȡֱƶפȤ̤ƤΤŪˤξɬľԤΩǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤõƤ
ε[2010-05-01-1]ǡַפȡֱƶפν̤ˤĤֱѸϥƥ줫ޤ줿פȤԤϤäƤ˲⤷ΤξδطŪΤɽȤΥꥢڡѡӽФϤǺѤ
Ѹȥɥĸΰ㤤ޤ˱ġƥȤϤäȤäȱȤ褯ʬޤˤ⤫餺ƥαƶ礭ȤȡѸϥƥ̻ܻҡȤäȤʤΤǤ礦
̻ܻҤȤϼ¤ˤ褯äΤǤ롥ƥˤϥե̼ˤեˤϡڥ졤ꥢ졤ݥȥʤɤλ夬롥Υեϱ濫äƳθˤѸȤȷФ뤳ȤˤʤäƥȤΤۤҲŪϰ̤⤫äˡѸ̻ܻҤȤƥƥȤ˷ޤ줿ѸϺäˤޥȤη줬ήƤΤΡƥȤǤĹǯˤꡤɬŪΩʤ˻ƤΤä
ȡʥȡϤɤǤ礦
λѸˤιֵǤϱѸ줬²ΰǤ뤳ȤˤĤä롥ꥢڡѡǴ긫¿ΤֱѸϥƥ줫ޤ줿ȻפäƤפȤΤǤ롥ʸʤΤʤǤγäȤ⸸ۤȤȤ⤤뤳θäμäƱѸǯٶƤȤˤʤ롥
褦ʸȤƤϡֱѸϥɥĸ줫ޤ줿סֱѸϥƥϤǤסֱѸϥȷϡפʤɤ롥ޤƤޤ褦ʸȤƤϡָѸϸűѸαƶƤפȤΤ⤢롥
ˤϡ²ηޤͤФ褤 ( see [2009-06-17-1] )Ѹ줬ƥ줫ޤ줿ΤǤϤʤȤϰѸ줬ɥĸ䥱ȽʤɤȤʤطˤ뤫¨¤餫ˤʤ롥ޤǤʹȤΤ졤뤤̾Τʤä줬ѸȤɤΤ褦ʷطˤ뤫˿ƤꡤƤοͤäįƤߤ뤳Ȥ롥
嵭θ¿ϡַפȡֱƶפȤƱƤ뤳Ȥˤ롥 ַפȤŪˤзδطǤꡤƻҡ̤ȤäѸǸ褦ʴطǤ롥ޤʬȤꡤ֥եϥƥ줫ޤ줿סֱѸȥեꥸϷʤλ¹ˤǤסֱѸȥϥޥɤȤƱפʤɤɽ뤳ȤǤ롥ƥȱѸˤĤƤС褷ԤԤȤطǤϤʤ²Ȥ礭ʤǤϳΤ˱뤬ޤ˱Ƽºݾ֤¾ͤȤäƤ褤餤δطǤ롥
Ū˶ᤱСܤƤ뷹ΤϡʪξƱǤ롥줬ĤʤäƤȤƤ夿ƤгʤۤʤΤ뤳ȤʤǤ⡤ոзطϤϤäꤹ롥Τ褦ʴطַפǤ롥
ǡֱƶפϡȤ̼Ǥ롥οͤƶȤȤȤ褤οͤȿƸޤСʬθܤͤ⤽οͤ˻ƤΤǤ롥οͤȤƱƤʪǤʤĤƤʿʪǤäƤ褤Ԥξ硤οʪλĤܤʤɤˤƶȤȤˤʤ롥
ƥȱѸδطϤޤΤ褦ʡֱƶפδطǤ롥ѸˤȤäƥƥϷŪˤϸ¤ʤ֤¾ͤ˶ᤤƥΰŪʸϱѸˤȤäɤܤˤʤäѸŪˡƥʸ䤽ɤ߽Ǥμ̤̤ͤΥƥñѤƤΤǤ롥äơä˸äΰ̤ˤƤϡѸϥƥ줵ʤȤäƤ褤ƻҴط̴طʷˤˤΤǤϤʤлطʱƶˤˤΤǤ뤳Ȥϡäȶ̤Ƥɬפ롥
ο̤οͤΤۤ˻ΤϡͤǤʤƱȤʤΤ⤷ʤȤΥꥢڡѡǡ۩
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