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ε#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-30-1]) ˰³-ate ĸȯưǤ /eɪt/ Ȥʤ̾졦ƻǤ /ɪt/ ȤʤˤĤơ
Carney Ǥ⤳꤬ƽǰƤꡤä p. 398 ˤθݤñꥹȤƤ롥ʲ˺ƸƤŪǤϤʤȻפ뤬ʰǤ롥
aggregate, animate, appropriate, approximate, articulate, associate, certificate, co-ordinate, correlate, degenerate, delegate, deliberate, duplicate, elaborate, emasculate, estimate, expatriate, graduate, importunate, incorporate, initiate, intimate, moderate, postulate, precipitate, predicate, separate, subordinate, syndicate
Carney ΥꥹȤƤΤϡʻˤäȯؤतñ줬ȤˤƤǤ롥¾μȤƤϡؤ̾ư (diatone) Ƥ뤷 -ment ĸˤƤ롥̾ưȤݤȤŪطʤˤĤƤˤĤƤϡǤܥ֥Ǥ diatone γƵܳŪ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤʻˤäȯؤפȤݥȤ -ate ȤĤʤäƤȤΤϡȯä
-ment ˤĤƤϡưǤΤ첻 /-mɛnt/ Ȥʤ뤬̾졦ƻǤۣ첻 /-mənt/ Ȥʤ롥Carney (398) 곺ñΥꥹȤƤcomplement, compliment, document, implement, increment, ornament, supplement.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
ɸˤĤƼ䤬ޤȤ appropriate ưȤƤϡֻѤ˶סƻȤƤϡŬڤʡפǤơȯ /əˈproʊpriˌeɪt/, /əˈproʊpriˌɪt/ Ȥʤޤ첻 /eɪt/ ̸ /ɪt/ ǰۤʤäƤޤϤʤǤ礦
ư /eɪt/ ȯϡֻȾȤ餷碌Ф狼褦ˡ첻 (gvs) θ̤Ƥޤ<-ate> Ȥֻɽ蘆ȯ /-aːt(ə)/ Ѹ첻ܤˤ /eɪt/ ؤѲǤޤƱֻ̾졦ƻ -ate ǤϡΤ褦ȯѲϵäƤޤѲϡष첻μ岽Ǥꡤ/ɪt/ ؤȵ뤷Ƥޤ
ΰ㤤ϡ첻ܰζΤΰ㤤˵ޤŪˤСappropriate Τ褦Ĺñξ硤ưˤƤϸβ2֤ޤƻ졦̾ˤƤ֤ʤȤޤappropriate ˤĤƶŪˤСưȤƤ4 -ate ˡ2˶֤ޤ̾졦ƻȤƤϤ줬֤ʤȤȤˤʤޤ
ǻפФ٤ϡ첻ܤϡֶΤĹ첻פˤƺѤ벻ǤȤȤǤĤޤꡤ-ate ưˡˤƤϡ2ǤϤޤ˶֤Τǡξ˹פ /-aːt(ə)/ /eɪt/ ޤ̾졦ƻˡˤƤϡ֤ʤΤ첻ܤȤ̵طˤळȤˤʤޤ̾졦ƻˡǤϡ /-aːt(ə)/ ֻȤƤ <-ate> ݤʤ⡤ȤƤ϶ȤȤ /-at/ ؤû /-ət/ /-ɪt/ ؤۣ첻ΤǤ
Τ褦ʷаޤǡ-ate ʻˤäȯ㤨ȤʤޤäηޤꡤѥǤȡθϼºݤȯ䶯֤ˤ餺ȤˤΩѥŪŬѤ褦ˤʤޤơ-ate ȯ롼뤬ΩΤǤ
Ϣơ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) ⤴Ȥ-age ʤɤ˴ؤƤ⡤ۤƱƤϤޤȻפޤ (310, 313) ȡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ܸüԤϱѸ줽¾θǶ̤벻 /l/ /r/ ζ̤Ǥ롥ܸǤϰۤʤ벻ǤǤϤʤޤǥԻҲ /r/ 2Ĥΰ۲Ȥ֤ŤǤ뤫顤̵ʤѸؤְʾ塤ȯʬİʬɬפ뤳Ȥǧ뤬̤ζꤽΤΤ̵ȤСϿǤ롥ŪʶȤϤ鷺ȤŪʶǤ롥ɤ褦ʤܸüԤξζ̤ʤΤϡŪʱѸ켪ǤƤʤȤ⡤ޤDzŪʱѸ켪ǤƤʤȤ٤ǤꡤǽϤȤϹ¤Ȥɬפ롥
DzŪʴ餤äƤ⡤l r ϡϤᤤǤ뤳Ȥϻ¤Ǥ롥ΤȤϤäȶĴ٤Ȥή (liquid) ȾΤ졤İŪˤ첻˶ᤤή褦ʻҲȰ֤Ť롥ĴŪˤ l r ۤʤΤϳΤä r Ǥ벻ǤμºŪĴϼ¤͡Ǥʡ#2198. 衼åѽ͡ r ([2015-05-04-1]) ȡˡΤʤˤ [l] ȻŤȤ٤ r Ĵ⤢ºݡܸüԤǤ⡤ԻҲŪʻƤ [ɾ] ȤƤǤʤ¦ [l] ȤȯüԤ⤤롥l r ϡĴŪˤİŪˤϤʤΤǤ롥
¤ϡ/l/ /r/ ̤٤ۤʤ벻Ǥɸ֤ƤѸˤƤ⡤ŪˤξؤƤ褦ʸݡ뤤ξԤѥȯãƤ褦ʸݤߤ롥褯ΤƤȤƤϡƱ̤ pilgrim ʽԡˤ peregrine ʳΡˤ l r ΩǤ롥츻ŪˤϸԤ r ǤꡤԤ l ϡñ2 r 뤳ȤäƤΰ۲ (dissimilation) Ȥ롥Ʊͤˡե marbre Ѹ줬Ѥ marble ȤΤ۲κѤȤ롥۲ȤϡñˤСƱȯϢ³äơȯڤؤȤȤǤ롥
äơ嵭Τ褦ʥڥ顤ѸǤ l r ϳΤˡƱײǤϤʤʤȤײǤ뤳Ȥڤ롥Ѹʸ̮Ǥ顤l r ŪˤϤᤫäǤᤤ
Ϣơʲε⻲ȡ
#72. /r/ /l/ ϴְ㤨!? ([2009-07-09-1])
#1618. Ѹ /l/ /r/ ([2013-10-01-1])
#1817. Ѹ /l/ /r/ (2) ([2014-04-18-1])
#1818. ܸ /r/ ([2014-04-19-1])
#1597. star stella ([2013-09-10-1])
#1614. Ѹ title Фƥե titre ǤΤϤʤ ([2013-09-27-1])
ε ([2019-05-27-1]) ˰³ư lie ¾ư lay ˤĤơɸѸˤơξԤκƱ֡ŪȤäƤۤ뤵褦ˤʤäΤϡʸˡȤ18θ塤19ʹߤΤȤ18ˤΤ褦ʼʸˡȤɽ꤬ Robert Lowth (1710--87) Ǥ롥
Lowth (56) ϡ#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡľܤˤ2ĤưκƱˤĤƸڤƤcf. #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])ˡΤ褦 Pope ΡָѡĤġ餫ɼԤմƤ롥
This Neuter Verb is frequently confounded with the Verb Active to lay, [that is, to put or place;] which is Regular, and in the Past Time and Participle layed or laid.
"For him, thro' hostile camps I bent my way,
For him, thus prostrate at thy feet I lay;
Large gifts proportion'd to thy wrath I bear." Pope, Iliad xxiv. 622.
Here lay is evidently used for the present time, instead of lie.
Lowth ξưκѤ˥ФȤϱѸ˾褯ΤƤ뤬ճȻŦƤʤȤ롥ΰѤʬ̤ꡤξưμ¾ζ̤ȻλȤʬˤĤƤմƤ뤬layed laid δ֤ηֻ֡ɤˤĤƤä뤷ƤͻҤϤʤȤ
Ϣ Lowth ϼư lie Τ˽о줵Ƥսǡ"Lie,lay,lien, or lain" ȳѤƤ롥ʬɤ줬Ф꤫lien ȤɸŪˤϺ˴֤Τۤष˵ƤΤäLowth ɤդ˲𤷤ƤͻҤϤޤäʤʸˡܻؤȤͣפǤȤʤСlie Lowth εϤˤ⼫Ƶ˴٤äƤ褦ˤߤ롥
ȽǤˡʸˡ Lowth ܻؤȤϡͣפǤϤʤäȤȤ館٤18εʸˡȤϡФи褦ˤۤɥä櫓ǤϤʤʴƤƤΤǤ롥ʸˡȤɤΤ褦ɾƤ뤤ѤƤȤΤۤäȽפʤΤ⤷ʤ
ºݡǯ18εʸˡȤˤĤƺɾεƤƤ롥#3035. Lowth ϤޤǤиƤʤä ([2017-08-18-1])#2815. 18εϼκɾˤĤ (1) ([2017-01-10-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Lowth, Robert. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. 1762. New ed. 1769. ʱѸʸݹ亮13Ʋ1968ǯ9--113ǡ
ư lie ʲˤ¾ư lay ʲˤζ̤Ĥ٤ȤʸˡդϡܤμѸ쳦Ǥͭ̾Ǥʡ#124. Ѹʸˡε ([2009-08-29-1]) ȡˡư lie -- lay -- lain ȳѤ¾ư lay -- laid -- laid ȳѤ롥ԤΤβȸԤθƱˤʤΤǡΤɬǤ롥⤳ŵƤѸؽԤ1ͤѸѤˤƤμѤ뵡˷äޤ줿Ȥϡޤʤ
ѸǤξԤκƱФ˶Ȥʬʤȡ̵ܡפȤΥåƥŽۤɤʤΤǡȴʤʤȤְ㤨Ƥʸ̮λ٤ˤۤȤɸʤȻפ뤬äƤޤä饢ȤȤNGɤФƤޤäƤΤǤ롥¾ˤäȸͶڥ¿ϤΤ褦ˤơΥڥФƤ褦˻פ롥ζ̤Ѹ춦ƱΤˤƶܤ̵ͭʬȥޥȤʤäƤΤlie lay ΥڥϡʹߡΤ褦ʸΤФƤˡɽȤäƤ褤
ߤǤȥޥȤƺѤȤȤϡǤ⺮ƱԤפ䤿ʤȤȤǤ롥Ūˤ17, 18ˤ⺮ѤӤǤꡤä˳ʤȤߤʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤäˤƵϼĬޤˤĤơ٤ѤȤƤȤаޤ롥
Fowler (445) ˡФ lay and lie ȤܤΩƤƤΤǡѤƤ
Verbs. In intransitive uses, coinciding with or resembling those of lie, except in certain nautical expressions, lay 'is only dialectal or an illiterate substitute for lie' (OED). Its identity of form with the past tense of lie no doubt largely accounts for the confusion. In the 17c. and 18c. the alternation of lay and lie seems not to have been regarded as a solecism. Nowadays confusion of the two is taken to be certain evidence of imperfect education or is accepted in regional speech as being a deep-rooted survival from an earlier period. . . .
The paradigm is merciless, admitting no exceptions in standard English. Incorrect uses: She layed hands on people and everybody layed hands on each other and everybody spoke in tongues---T. Parks, 1985 (read laid); Laying back some distance from the road . . . it was built in 1770 in the Italian style---Fulham Times, 1987 (read lying); Where's the glory in . . . leaving people out with their medals all brushed up laying under the rubble, dying for the glory of the revolution?--New Musical Express, 1988 (read lying); We are going to lay under the stars by the sea---Sun, 1990 (read lie); They may have lost the last fight [sc. the final of a ruby tournament], but how narrow it was, and they can still be proud of all the battle honours that will lay for ever in their cathedral in Twickenham--(sport column in) Observer, 1991 (read lie).
ξưκƱ˥֡ŪǤ뤫ϡ"The paradigm is merciless, admitting no exceptions in standard English." Ȥ1ʸˤä䤫˼Ƥ롥˻ޤǡΡָѡפפ䤿ʤ褦
Υ֡ϻϤΤϡRobert Lowth (1710--87) ϤȤ18εϼʸˡȤȤcf. #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1])ˡ餬ϻϤȤƤ⡤줬ѤƤʤСפȤϤʤʤѤǤ͡ƺѤǤ͡ΤΥ֡ݻƤΤǤ롥ε#3681. βͤŤμΤüԤǤ ([2019-05-26-1]) #3672. ȥꥢ50ɥ뻥 responsibility Υڥߥ (2) ([2019-05-17-1]) ε˽С⤽1ͤ⤷ʤʤ⤽1ͤ⤷ʤ
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
#3672. ȥꥢ50ɥ뻥 responsibility Υڥߥ (2) ([2019-05-17-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡڥϤȤθˤޤȤĤҿ (prestige) (stigma) ϡǽ餫餽¸ߤΤǤϤʤȤ˼ҲˤäͿ줿ΤǤ롥ɾϤäΩƤޤȡθ϶ʤѤƤȤ¿˴ؤɤγǤ롥ϸĿĿͤɬռƤʤȤƤץǤꡤ椨˶ʿ (77) ϡѸؤγˤƱѸθѤˤˤĤƵǡηˤĤƼΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
κۤϸŪˤͥȤ̵ǤΤǤ͡ϼҲǤޤޤ˲դԤҿͿƤޤĤޤꡤѸȤȤФμˤäơμҲλŪǥƤΤȤޤȤФҲĿͤ˿Ƥ뤳ȤïǧǤñ˼Ҳ¤ȿǤƤȤǤʤդˤȤФμˤäƼҲ¤ιۤƯƤ⤤ΤȤȤǧ٤Ǥ礦
ѤκǸΤϡԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ˴ϢפǤ롥ȼҲδطݥȤǤ롥ͤŤμΤϼҲǤꡤĤǤꡤŪˤϸġüԤǤȤȤõƤ
ʿ ҡإ١åѸس١ҤĤ˼2016ǯ
ɤȥߤȤͻ礷ܤηإ륺ν (The Book of Kells) 饤ꡤܤ̩Ǥ롥ξ "The Medieval Masterpiece, the Book of Kells, Is Now Digitized & Put Online" ȤΤä

إ륺ν٤ϡinsular half-uncial ΤΥƥǽ줿4ʡǤ롥680ڡʤΤȤɤ˶ˤ̩ܤƤꡤηݽŪͤؤ롥7Ⱦ9ˤơ餯Υɽƻǡ֤Ի줿ΤμܤȤСޤμܤ̾ȤۤɤΥȥĤΰʤǤ롥Encyclopaedia Britannica ˤȡΤ褦˲⤬롥
Illuminated gospel book (MS. A.I. 6; Trinity College Library, Dublin) that is a masterpiece of the ornate Hiberno-Saxon style. It is probable that the illumination was begun in the late 8th century at the Irish monastery on the Scottish island of Iona and that after a Viking raid the book was taken to the monastery of Kells in County Meath, where it may have been completed in the early 9th century. A facsimile was published in 1974.
֥˹ԤȤ⡤ʤˤƤηį褦ˤʤäˤʤäʤ
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2008.
Ѹο;̾ηϤˤƤϡñʣȤ1, 2;ΤǤ̤ʤ (I, you) 3;ñǤ϶̤ (he, she, it) ϸűѸǤƱǤꡤηζ̤1, 2;ΤǤϤĤʤ3;ΤǤϤĤ줿Ϥʤ18ȾФαƶϤΤʸˡ Lowth (29) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
The Persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same time the Subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present; from which and other circumstances their Sex is commonly known, and needs not to be marked by distinction of Gender in their Pronouns; but the third Person or thing spoken of being absent and in many respects unknown, it is necessary that it should be marked by distinction of Gender; at least when some particular Person or thing is spoken of, which ought to be more distinctly marked: accordingly the Pronoun Singular of the Third Person hath the Three Genders, He, She, It.
1, 2;Τϲäθˤ櫓̤ϸФ狼롥3;ΤϤƤˤʤ櫓ʤΤǡ̤˴ؤ˺ܤΤŬäƤ롤Ȥ3;ʣĤʤˤĤƤľܸڤƤʤ3;ñΤۤ "some particular Person or thing" Ȥζ̤궯᤹ȸȤ
Lowth ʬʤǤʤɬϤ櫓ǤϤʤʤȤܸ䤽¾θξŪȤϤʤäƤʤܸǤϡ̣ǤϤष1, 2;ΤǤζ̤Ĥ뷹Ȥ⤤뤫
ܸȰۤʤꡤѸˤΤ˿; (person) ȤʸˡƤǧƤ1;Ρᥪ졤2;Ρᥪޥ3;Ρ¾ΰڹڡȤ1ĤѤΤȤcf. #3463. ;ΤȤϲ ([2018-10-20-1])#3468. ;ΤȤϲ (2) ([2018-10-25-1])#3480. ;ΤȤϲ (3) ([2018-11-06-1])ˡѤΤȤǤϡ;Τξˤϡ㤨Ȥ褦2ʸˡƤ궯ռ롦ʤȤäФƤΤϼȤм˲פʶ̤ɽ蘆Ƥȴ뤫餳;ΤȤʸˡƤ¸ߤƤϤ
;Τˤˤ衤ʸˡƤȤΤϿʹ֤ʬեΰˤʤȤդɬפ롥եˡޤŪ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ʸˡơեפȤˤĤƤϡ#2853. ˤȿʹ֤ʬե ([2017-02-17-1])#1868. Ѹ͡ʡַס ([2014-06-08-1])#1449. ˤơס ([2013-04-15-1]) ʤɤȡ
Lowth, Robert. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. 1762. New ed. 1769. ʱѸʸݹ亮13Ʋ1968ǯ9--113ǡ
ѸʳΰϤۤȤʸˡŪäƤ뤬ѸˤϤ줬ʤűѸˤϤäΤѸʹߤ˴˾üƤޤääơѸˤʸˡŪ (grammatical gender) ϤʤΤϡ˼ääŪ (natural gender) ˤʤ
ŪʸˡŪξüˤꡤѸϸ콬ΥåȤȤ뤬ˤäư䥲ޥΥץȥפ礭æѤäפȤʤäȤޤ¤Ǥ롥Ѹ줬Ū˳ħˤĤơʸˡθȤ⤤ Robert Lowth (1710--87) ν A Short Introduction to English Grammar ˤơؤ⤷Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ä괶ƤޤäΤǡ٤ưѤƤ (27--28)
The English Language, with singular propriety, following nature alone, applies the distinction of Masculine and Feminine only to the names of Animals; all the rest are Neuter: except when, by a Poetical or Rhetorical fiction, things inanimate and Qualities are exhibited as Person, and consequently become either Male or Female. And this gives the English an advantage above most other languages in the Poetical and Rhetorical Style: for when Nouns naturally Neuter are converted into Masculine and Feminine [3], the Personification is more distinctly and forcibly marked.
ѸʸˡŪʤ椨ˡޤ˵Ū̾ͿȡεˡҤȤ⤭Ωġǽ餫餹٤Ƥ̾ʸˡŪƤƤ褦ʸǤϡΤȤδؤ꤬Ūơޤ˵ˡǸ̤ФȻפäƤ⡤⤭Ω뤳ȤϡΤ褦ʸΤʸءؾμߤȤäƤ褤
ˤϻŦޤǵդʤäܤڤ褦ʻŦޤ˵žȯۡ
Lowth (27--28) ϡ˰Ѥս [3] ȤͿƤꡤǶФʤ顤ΤȤǫƤ롥
[3] "At his command th'uprooted hills retir'd
Each to his place: they heard his voice and went
(18) Obsequious: Heaven his wonted face renew'd,
And with fresh flowrets hill and valley smil'd." Milton, P. L. B. vi.
"Was I deceiv'd or did a sable cloud
Turn forth her silver lining on the Night?" Milton, Comus.
"Of Law no less can be acknowledged, than that her seat is the bosom of God; her voice, the harmony of the world. All things in heaven and earth do her homage; the very least, as feeling her care; and the greatest, as not exempted from her power." Hooker, B. i. 16. "Go to your Natural Religion: lay before her Mahomet and his disciples, arrayed in armour and in blood:---shew her the cities which he set in flames; the countries which he ravaged:---when she has viewed him in this scene, carry her into his retirements; shew her the Prophet's chamber, his concubines and his wives:---when she is tired with this prospect, then shew her the Blessed Jesus---" See the whole passage in the conclusion of Bp. Sherlock's 9th Sermon, vol. i.
Of these beautiful passages we may observe, that as in the English if you put it and its instead of his, she, her, you confound and destroy the images, and reduce, what was before highly Poetical and Rhetorical, to mere prose and common discourse; so if you render them into another language, Greek, Latin, French, Italian, or German; in which Hill, Heave, Cloud, Law, Religion, are constantly Masculine, or Feminine, or Neuter, respectively; you make the images obscure and doubtful, and in proportion diminish their beauty. This excellent remark is Mr. Harris's , HERMES, p. 58.
嵭ϡΤ Lowth ̡ɤߤʤ鵤դݥȤʤΤϤȸʸˡȤΥȤΤϡȤˤޤФ椯ԤˤʸˡŪȼŪεˡʸꤲƤ줿
Lowth, Robert. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. 1762. New ed. 1769. ʱѸʸݹ亮13Ʋ1968ǯ9--113ǡ
ܥ֥Ǥ10ǯˤ錄ꡤѸˤδѸ˴ؤѤʵפֹ٤ʡʡ˵פ夲Ƥޤεäȸľơ餿ˡѤʵפΥŽʤƤߤޤϤäȤȻפޤˡcat:sobokunagimon åȡΰޤǤ⥢¿Τ濴ˡʲˤ⤤ĤƤޤٶˤ⡤ͥŹߤˤ⡤ˤĤ֤ˤʤϤǤ
#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])
#68. first ϲκǾ餫 ([2009-07-05-1])
#81. once twice -ce Ȥϲ ([2009-07-18-1])
#157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1])
#169. get give Ϥʤ /g/ äƤΤ ([2009-10-13-1])
#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1])
#184. two /w/ ȯʤΤϤʤ ([2009-10-28-1])
#199. <U> Ϥʤ /ju:/ ȯ뤫 ([2009-11-12-1])
#299. explain ˤʤ <i> Τ ([2010-02-20-1])
#437. ˤƸŲꤹ뤫 ([2010-07-08-1])
#439. come -- came -- come ʤΤ welcome -- welcomed -- welcomed ʤΤϤʤ ([2010-07-10-1])
#541. says said Ϥʤû첻ȯ뤫 ([2010-10-20-1])
#579. aisle --- ʤֻȯ ([2010-11-27-1])
#580. island --- ʤֻȯ ([2010-11-28-1])
#581. ache --- ʤֻȯ ([2010-11-29-1])
#750. number ξάɽʤ no. ˤʤ뤫 ([2011-05-17-1])
#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1])
#831. Why "an apple"? ([2011-08-06-1])
#895. Miss ϲξά ([2011-10-09-1])
#1028. ʤ̾ȤߤʤƤΤ ([2012-02-19-1])
#1080. ʤ five ν fifth ʤΤ ([2012-04-11-1])
#1082. ʤѸȤʤä (1) ([2012-04-13-1])
#1093. Ѹ˴ؤѤʵ罸 ([2012-04-24-1])
#1153. ̾ adviceư advise ([2012-06-23-1])
#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ ([2012-10-05-1])
#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1])
#1284. û첻ܻҲξˤϻҲŤͤ -ing ղäȤֻ§ ([2012-11-01-1])
#1299. Ѹǡ֤ߤפΤȤ satsuma ȤΤϤʤ ([2012-11-16-1])
#1302. ʤ¸ߤΤ --- ǥˤ ([2012-11-19-1])
#1303. ʤ¸ߤΤ --- Ⱦǥˤ ([2012-11-20-1])
#1345. read -- read -- read γѡ ([2013-01-01-1])
#1361. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ([2013-01-17-1])
#1362. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ֡ ([2013-01-18-1])
#1363. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ݼ ([2013-01-19-1])
#1442. ʱѸ˼Ҳؤ˴ؤѤʵ罸 ([2013-04-08-1])
#1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1])
#1597. star stella ([2013-09-10-1])
#1614. Ѹ title Фƥե titre ǤΤϤʤ ([2013-09-27-1])
#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])
#1865. Ф thou ѤΤϤʤ ([2014-06-05-1])
#1950. ʤ Bill William ΰΤˤʤΤ ([2014-08-29-1])
#2044. ʤ mayn't ȤʤΤ (1) ([2014-12-01-1])
#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1])
#2112. ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ ([2015-02-07-1])
#2189. ˤ will Իѡ ([2015-04-25-1])
#2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ ([2015-05-06-1])
#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1])
#2210. think -- thought -- thought γѡ ([2015-05-16-1])
#2225. hear -- heard -- heard ([2015-05-31-1])
#2227. ʤ <u> ǽñ줬ʤΤ ([2015-06-02-1])
#2243. ʥѸȤϲ ([2015-06-18-1])
#2248. ;̾ȤƤ you ([2015-06-23-1])
#2366. ʤѸ̾νϡ̾פʤΤ ([2015-10-19-1])
#2444. something good θ ([2016-01-05-1])
#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ ([2016-02-05-1])
#2481. Help yourself to some cake. ˤֻ to ([2016-02-11-1])
#2502. ʤˤ to ȸ2बΤ ([2016-03-03-1])
#2566. 3ñ -s Ȥϲס ([2016-05-06-1])
#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1])
#2633. ʤߴλϲɽ魯ȶǤʤΤ --- Present Perfect Puzzle ([2016-07-12-1])
#2784. ʤꥫǤϱѸ줬ͣμ礿ȤʤäΤ ([2016-12-10-1])
#2826. ϢָܵѸѸˤλͤפϤޤ ([2017-01-21-1])
#2857. Ϣ2֤ʤ3ñ -s դΤ ѼȤס ([2017-02-21-1])
#2887. Ϣ3֤ʤѸ첻ɽΤʤΤס ([2017-03-23-1])
#2891. ե bleu ФƱѸ blue ʤΤϤʤ ([2017-03-27-1])
#2916. Ϣ4֥ꥹѸ autumn ȥꥫѸ fall --- ʣŪͤΤס ([2017-04-21-1])
#2924. ֥ƥפθ츻 ([2017-04-29-1])
#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1])
#3106. ʤ -ed դ - (e)s դֻˤưۤʤΤ ([2017-10-28-1])
#3037. <ee>, <oo> ϤΤ <aa>, <ii>, <uu> ϤʤΤϤʤ ([2017-08-20-1])
#3069. Ϣ9֤ʤ try tried Ȥʤꡤdie dying ȤʤΤס ([2017-09-21-1])
#3099. Ϣ10֤ʤ you ϡ֤ʤפǤ⤢֤ʤפǤ⤢Τס ([2017-10-21-1])
#3104. ʤninthʥʥˤ e Ϥʤפ͡ ([2017-10-26-1])
#3109. ʤ - (e)s դ -ing դֻˤưۤʤΤ ([2017-10-31-1])
#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])
#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])
#3139. ֺ¡֥ڥǤɤѸˡפΤΤ餻 ([2017-11-30-1])
#3149. ʤŪʬहΤ ([2017-12-10-1])
#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])
#3251. <chi> ϡ֥פ֥פ֥פ֥ҡפ ([2018-03-22-1])
#3263. ʤťΥɸ줫μѸ¿Ѹ˽ФΤ ([2018-04-03-1])
#3279. ǯٽΡѤʵפ3 ([2018-04-19-1])
#3284. be ưü ([2018-04-24-1])
#3298. ʤ wolf ʣ wolves ʤΤ (1) ([2018-05-08-1])
#3305. ʤ can cannot 1֤Τ ([2018-05-15-1])
#3307. ʸˡѸȤƤ participle ʬס ([2018-05-17-1])
#3309. ʤ input *imput ֤ʤΤ ([2018-05-19-1])
#3329. ʤϾάʸˤ¿Τ ([2018-06-08-1])
#3333. ʤ doubt ֻˤȯʤ b Τ ([2018-06-12-1])
#3396. رѸ춵9ˡѤʵ뤿αѸˤΥĥܡפǺܤޤ ([2018-08-14-1])
#3463. ;ΤȤϲ ([2018-10-20-1])
#3492. address <dd> ˤĤ (1) ([2018-11-18-1])
#3604. ʤ The house is building. ǡֲȤϷǤפȤ̣ˤʤΤ ([2019-03-10-1])
#3609. رѸ춵٤ϢܡֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡפϤޤޤ ([2019-03-15-1])
#3611. ʤ He is to blame. He is to be blamed. ȤʤʤΤ ([2019-03-17-1])
#3630. ʤ who ϤֻǤȯʤΤ ([2019-04-05-1])
#3631. ʤ?˹ԤäȤפ have gone to . . . ǤϤʤ have been to . . . ʤΤ ([2019-04-06-1])
#3638.رѸ춵٤Ϣ2֤ʤԵ§ʣΤס ([2019-04-13-1])
#3643. many years ago ago Ȥϲ ([2019-04-18-1])
#3647. ̾ she ϸűѸˤäʸˡ̾ĤǤ ([2019-04-22-1])
#3648. ʤ *He cans swim. Τ褦˽ưˤ3ñ -s ĤʤΤǤ ([2019-04-23-1])
#3649. q θˤɬ u ޤϤɤ櫓Ǥ ([2019-04-24-1])
#3652. nature mature 1ʸ㤤Ǥʤȯʤ˰ۤʤΤǤ ([2019-04-27-1])
#3654. x ǻϤޤñ줬ʤΤϤʤǤ ([2019-04-29-1])
#3656. kings' Τ褦ʣͭʤΥݥȥեθˤϲάƤΤǤ ([2019-05-01-1])
#3660. Ѥʥڥ queue ([2019-05-05-1])
#3661. ʣͭʤΥݥȥեθ˲άƤ뤫Τ褦˴Τϼ ([2019-05-06-1])
#3668. ʤʸȾʸλǰۤʤΤΤǤ ([2019-05-13-1])
#3670.رѸ춵٤Ϣ3֤ʤԵ§ưѤΤס ([2019-05-15-1])
̾εǤޤǤ˥ѥѤˤĤƽƤ֥¾ؤΥˤޤ
ޤѸؤǥѥѤ褦Ȼפä顤͡ʻͿΤΡޤϸҤΥ֥Ȥ֥졼Ϣܡdzؤ֡ѥѽѡϢܵ37ܡˤܤ̤Τ褤ȻפޤɮԤĤƤǤƤƤޤ (cf. #2186. Webޥε֥ѥõѸαƺԡס ([2015-04-22-1]) ȡ#2216. Webޥε֥ѥõѸαƺԡ ([2015-05-22-1])ˡ
ܥ֥ corpus γƵΤǤ椫ä˽פʵǤޤ
#568. ѥȱѸ쥳ѥ ([2010-11-16-1])
#307. ѥѤ ([2010-02-28-1])
#367. ѥѤ (2) ([2010-04-29-1])
#2779. ѥϱѸ˸˻Ȥ뤱ɤ ([2016-12-05-1])
#363. Ѹ쥳ѥȯŸ3 ([2010-04-25-1])
#368. ѥϸβǽ ([2010-04-30-1])
#1165. ѹǥѥ椬ˤʤäطʡ ([2012-07-05-1])
#1280. ѥɽ ([2012-10-28-1])
#2584. ˱Ѹ쥳ѥɽ ([2016-05-24-1])
#428. The Brown family of corpora Ѿա ([2010-06-29-1])
#517. ICE 7ϰѼ拾ѥ ([2010-09-26-1])
#271. øġȤƤμȥѥ ([2010-01-23-1])
˱Ѹ쥳ѥΥϥ֤Ȥ٤ȤȤС#506. CoRD --- Ѹ˥ѥξ ([2010-09-15-1]) ʤ櫓ˤϤޤǺǤͭѤ˱ѸξѥȤǤ
BNC, COCA, ICE, Brown Family, COHA, HC (= Helsinki Corpus), LAEME, EEBO, CLMET ʤɸ̤Ρˡ˥ѥˤĤƤϡ줾ΥĤ bnc, coca, ice, brown, coha, hc, laeme, eebo, clmet ⤴Ȥ
¾ȤƤϡ֥ѥõѸαƺԡס ([2015-04-22-1]) ε⻲ȡ
knead, knee, knell, knife, knight, knob, knock, knot, know ʤɤ˸ <kn> ΥڥϡȯȤƤ [n] б롥ϡ1718ˤ [kn] [n] βѲǤ롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεǰäƤ
#122. /kn/ ǻϤޤñ ([2009-08-27-1])
#1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1])
#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1])
#3482. ƬλҲϢñ㲽Ƥˡ ([2018-11-08-1])
#3386. Ѹ˾μפʻҲѲ ([2018-08-04-1])
βѲϡλ֤ [kn] [xn] [hn] [n] ȤʳФʤʹԤȹͤƤ롥Dobson (Vol. 2, 417) ꡤսѤ롥
In OE and ME [k] in the initial group kn- in, for example, knife had the same pronunciation as before the other consonants (e.g. [l] in cliff), and is retained as [k] by all sixteenth- and most seventeenth-century orthoepists. The process of loss was that, in order to facilitate transition to the [n] (which is articulated with the point of the tongue, not the back as for [k]), the stop was imperfectly made, so that [k] became the fricative [χ], which in turn passed into [h]; the resulting group [hn] then, by assimilation, became voiceless [n̥], which was finally re-voiced under the influence of the following vowel.
βѲλˤĤƤϡDobson ϼΤ褦˹ͤƤ롥
[T]he entry of this pronunciation into educated StE clearly belongs to the eighteenth century. The normal seventeenth-century pronunciation was still [kn], but the intermediate stages [hn] and/or [n̥] were also in (perhaps rare) use.
βѲΥߥϡ#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1]) ǼȤˤäᤤ٤κäΤǡˤäɬפ롥
Ϣơgnarr, gnash, gnat, gnaw, gnome ˤ [gn] [n] βѲˤĤƤߤƤ츫ξѲϥѥΤǤϤʤȵȤºݤˤϡ#1290. ۻۻ⤿餷üΰ ([2012-11-07-1]) ǵ褦ξԤΥߥϰۤʤ롥[gn] [n] ΤۤᤤΤǤ롥
Dobson (Vol. 2, 418) ̯ʲѲβꤷơξѲϤϤʬŪˤϴϢƤȹͤƤ褦
Initial [gn] had two developments which affected educated speech in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In the first the [g] was lost by a direct process of assimilation to [n]; too early opening of the nasal passage would tend to produce [ŋn], which would forthwith become [n]. In the second [gn] by dissimilation becomes [kn], the vibration of the vocal chords being delayed fractionally and coinciding, not with the making of the stop, but with the opening of the nasal passage; thereafter it develops with original kn- through [χn] and [hn] to [n̥] and [n].
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957.
Harris ޥե٥åȤνΤ˴ؤ륤饹 The Art of Calligraphy įƤ˰ʤ˾͡ʽΤ˭٤ʼܼ̿ɮˤäƾҲ𤵤롥ʸɮѶ˴ؤߤܡ
ܼܽΤޤޥޥե٥åȤνΤˤȤʤäƤΤǡʲ˺ƸƤ
Introduction
The Development of Western Script
Script Timeline
Getting Started
Roman & Late Roman Scripts
Rustic Capitals
Square Capitals
Uncial & Artificial Uncial
Insular & National Scripts
Insular Majuscule
Insular Minuscule
Caroline & Early Gothic Scripts
Caroline Minuscule
Foundational Hand
Early Gothic
Gothic Scripts
Textura Quadrata
Textura Prescisus
Gothic Capitals & Versals
Lombardic Capitals
Bastard Secretary
Bâtarde
Fraktur & Schwabacher
Bastard Capitals
Cadels
Italian & Humanist Scripts
Rotunda
Rotunda Capitals
Humanist Minuscule
Italic
Humanist & Italic Capitals
Italic Swash Capitals
Post-Renaissance Scripts
Copperplate
Copperplate Capitals
Roman & Late Roman Scripts
Imperial Capitals
Script Reference Chart
Glossary
Bibliography
Index & Acknowledgments
Harris, David. The Art of Calligraphy. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1995.
[2019-05-16-1], [2019-05-17-1] εǡȥꥢο responsibility responsibilty ȸä֤ƤȤ夲ƤϤθֻΤΤˤĤƥȤƤ
θεŪȯϡĹ6 /rɪˌspɒnsəˈbɪləti/ Ǥ롥ڥߥȻŦ줿Ǹ <i> бΤϡ2ܤ /ə/ Ǥ롥ŪȯǤ岻ۣ첻ʤΤ顤奢ȯǤæ뤳Ȥ⤢ξˤϡ1Ḻ /-bɪlti/ ȤʤꡤΥߥڥϤޤˤȯ¤ɽȤʤʤȤäơΥڥäʸ櫓ǤϤʤˡ
ޤ<i> ʸ3Ϣ³ƸȤΤ⡤뤵ȤФ뤵Ǹ <i> æϡhaplography ʽŻæˤȤäƤϸưŤʬʤǤʤΤ¤ (cf. #2362. haplology ([2015-10-15-1])) μܤʤɤǤϡμæϽʬˤʤȤäơΥߥڥäʸ櫓ǤϤʤˡ
ˡ <i> 1β bil ܤƤߤ褦ˤ <i> ʸߤ뤬б첻 /ə/ ͤƤߤ̯θ -ibility -ability ѼδΤȤ٤ƻǤ -able Ǥꡤb l δ֤ˤʸȤƤȯȤƤ i ¸ߤʤability (n.) -- able (adj.) ǤϡΥڥˤƤȯˤƤ⡤i ̵ͭΩΤǤ롥ˤ⤷ȤѸޤǤΤܤȡable <able>, <abil>, <abill> ʤɤ֤줿ability <abilite>, <abilte>, <ablete> ʤɤ֤줿θǤ <i> դƤ롥Υߥڥľܴط벻ǤϤʤȤϤǤ <i> ⡤Ū뤤̻ŪˤߤƼ¤˴ˤ¸ߤʤΤ (cf. MED āble adj., abilitē n.)
1 si /sə/ ߤƤߤ褦θ -ability ǤϤʤ -ibility ȤʤäƤ뤬бեߤ responsabilité Ǥʷƻ responsableˡ츻ϥƥ1Ѳư respōnsāre ͳ褷첻 a ʤΤѸǤϱѸˤ꤬ʺƱФ i ȤʤäΤǤ롥Ǥ⡤Ϥ겿ˤ
ʾޤȤСοȤʤäǸ <i> Τߤʤ餺 <i> ⡤ˤ <i> ⡤··äŪˤɤƤΤǤ롥ΤȤ responsibility ϱѸˡɽ֤ΥڥפȤäƤ褤Τ褦˸ƤȡΡָä responsibilty ⡤̣Ǥ襤פƤ롥
ε ([2019-05-16-1]) ˰³ɸꡥresponsibility responsibilty ֤äȤǡθϤʤȤ֤ϲǤΤȤ⤢ˤʤŪˤαѸʸľܡܤ˴Ϳ¿οܿͤ͡αѸؽԤޤˤˤȤäơ<i> ޤֻפˤϰҿ (prestige) ꡤ<i> ȴƤָäֻפˤϽ (stigma) դƤȤɾͭƤ롥ΥڥߥˤĤƤɤѶŪ뤫̤ȤơʤȤ֥ȥꥢääʡפȥȤǤפäƤ褦ǤСϡֻפΰҿƤ뤳ȤξںǤ롥
Τ褦˴Ƥ͡ʻޤˤϡʤ <i> 1ʸ̵ͭ˺ֻפ˰ҿǧƤΤΡֻפѶŪöŪ˰ҿǧȤ٤ΤΤˤäơresponsibility ȤֻΰҿϤޤ˹ޤꡤresponsibilty ޤʤֻϤޤޤΥåƥŽ褦ˤʤ롥ϱѸˡ̤ˤ⥤ѥȤͿޤޤֻפΰҿᡤָäֻפνذϤä뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ҿγǤ롥
βðμΤϡѸȤҲΤǤ롥ҲȤϽĤΤȤĤȤϸĿͤνޤǤ롥ŪˤϡΰϤäƤΤϡ줾ռϤȤͰͤθĿͤǤ롥ѸȤƳؤǤ䤿γơ⡤νĤΡʤϤ줫⤷ʤ˰Ǥʾ塤0.00000001%ʲι٤ǤϤ뤬̵ռŪˤβðμΤȤʤäƤΤǤ롥ѸüԤǤʤΤˤʸϥХХȻפ뤫⤷ʤϻ¤Ǥ롥ȤֻˤȤ鼫˰ҿȤȤƤϤʤҲƵŪˤϸĿͤʡᤢʤ䤬ˡֻ˰ҿդƤΤǤ롥
ȯʸˡáֻʤɤθऽ켫ΤˡΤץ饹ޥʥϤ櫓ϤʤȤʹ֤˥ץ饹ޥʥμҲŪͤդƤǤ롥responsibility responsibilty ȤֻΤΤŪϤȤϹͤʤֻ˥ץ饹Ϥ¾˥ޥʥϤդƤΤϡͰͤοʹ֤ʤΤǤ롥ߤʤ1ΰ㤤Τϥۤ餷ȤոǰפС˥塼ˤ⥹ˤʤʤߤʤ1ΰ㤤פȻפäƤ뤫餳˥塼ˤʤꥹˤʤäƤΤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ餫˱Ѹ˴Ϳ뤹٤Ƥο͡ƱǺ夲˥塼ǤꡤʤΤ
轵ä˥塼ȥꥢκǿѤȤ50ɥ뻥3Ĥ <i> ȴ responsibilty responsibilityˤȤڥߥΤ뤳ȤȯФѸˡ祹롤"spelling blunder" ƤBBC News ε Australia's A$50 note misspells responsibility ʤɤȡˡ
Reserved Bank of Australia ǯȯԤ50ɥʾˤϡȥꥢIJνİ Edith Cowan ξ褬Ƥ뤬κ٤ˤߤγʬϡ¤˾ʸʤäƤꡤ Cowan εIJǤν⤫ΰѤƤ롥Ūˤ "It is a great responsibility to be the only woman here, and I want to emphasise the necessity which exists for other women being here." Ȥʸ٤֤ⷫƤΤʸˤƤ responsibility responsibilty <i> ȴ֤ƤǤʤɤʤʸǽƤΤǡȯԤȾǯΤïˤⵤդ줺ˤ餷Ǥ4600ƤޤäƤԲǽʤΤǡRBA ϡּΰޤפȤΤȡ

ȥꥢͤϤȤ¿ο͡RBA 䥪ȥꥢФˤȤ֤äƤޤäʤפ⿴Ĥ֤䤤Ƥ뤳Ȥľ˴ۤҤ٤С֥إޤ餫ƤޤäʤפǤ롥Τ褦ʥ˥塼֤ǤΤߤơ<i> ȴ٤Ǥñ줬뤳ȤϤʤΤȤ⤢Τ˰ջ̤Ȥ餤Сä responsibilty responsibility Ʊ褦˽ʬѤ
Τ¾ǤƱͤˡڥˤϸڻؼŪǽ (referential function) ȼҲɸŪǽ (socio-indexical function) 2Ĥεǽ (cf. #2922. ¾μҲṲ̄Τ꤫ȤƤθ캹̡ ([2017-04-27-1])) ΥߥڥϡǤפ̣θڻؼŪǽ»ͤΤǤϤʤڥμҲɸŪǽˤĤƺƹͤ¥ΤǤϤ롥ŪˤС<i> ߤ responsibility ˤϰҿ (prestige) ꡤ<i> ȴ responsibilty ˤϽ (stigma) 夷ƤȤȤ줾Υڥˡץ饹ȥޥʥμҲŪʲͤŤʤƤΤǤ롥
ǤϡʤΤ褦ʲͤŤʤƤΤïͤŤƤơ䤿ϤʤƤΤˡҲؾǤ롥
ˤСŪǤ⤢롥ȤΤϡ1500ǯĶѸˤΤʤǡڥεϤޤืʤˡŪʰ̣dzΩ餵褦ˤʤäΤϡǶ250ǯۤɤΤȤ¾λˤϡڥФ봲ƤäȤäʤʹߡΤ褦ʴƤѸҲ鼺졤<i> 1ʸΩƤۤɥƤΤ
responsibilty ϡѸηϤΤΤФؿƤӵƤФ꤫ˡˤ䡤ؤμҲŪͤŤȤؤƤ롥֤μȤǻȤäƤʰΥȥԥåܥ֥Ǥ⡤³ԵƤĤǤ롥
Ūͭ̾¾ "spelling blunder" ȤƤϡꥫ Dan Quayle Ρpotato פ롥ˤĤƤϡHorobin (2--3) 뤤Ϥ (16--17) ȡ1ʸ1ʸʤΤǤ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ۥӥˡ δˡإڥαѸˡ١˼2017ǯ
رѸ춵٤6ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱܵѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ3ܤȤʤ֤ʤԵ§ưѤΤפǺܤƤޤɤ

ŪñۤԵ§ʿȤΤϡˤߤŪǤϱѸưβʬˤĤƤ⤤ޤ¿ưϵ§Ūʸ -ed դƲʬޤŪʾưϡbuy -- bought -- bought, cut -- cut -- cut, go -- went -- gone, sing -- sang -- sung, write -- wrote -- written ʤɤΤ褦˸̤˰ŵʤФʤʤԵ§ѲޤϢܵǤϡԵ§ưѤˤɤޤơԵ§ư¿Ūˤϡֵ§ưǤꡤεդޤʤꡤȤä٤¤餫ˤʤޤ
ưԵ§ѲˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤϢƤޤΤǡʲȤ
#3339. ѸδŪԵ§ư ([2018-06-18-1])
#178. ưε§Ѳά ([2009-10-22-1])
#527. Ե§Ѳưε§®٤ٻɸ2ȿ㤹? ([2010-10-06-1])
#528. ˵§ư wed !? ([2010-10-07-1])
#1287. ưζܹԤ١ ([2012-11-04-1])
#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])
#3345. ѲưƳγ̿Ǥ ([2018-06-24-1])
#3385. Ѹ˼嶯ܹԤư ([2018-08-03-1])
#492. ѸζѲưɤ ([2010-09-01-1])
#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])
#1858. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. (2) ([2014-05-29-1])
#2200. ʤ *haves, *haved ǤϤʤ has, had ʤΤ ([2015-05-06-1])
#1345. read -- read -- read γѡ ([2013-01-01-1])
#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1])
#2210. think -- thought -- thought γѡ ([2015-05-16-1])
#2225. hear -- heard -- heard ([2015-05-31-1])
#3490. dreamt dreamed ء ([2018-11-16-1])
#439. come -- came -- come ʤΤ welcome -- welcomed -- welcomed ʤΤϤʤ ([2010-07-10-1])
#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])
#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1])
#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])
ϢܤΥХåʥСȤơ1֤ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤ2֤ʤԵ§ʣΤΰ⤴
δ졡ֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ3ʤԵ§ưѤΤסرѸ춵2019ǯ6桤罤۽Ź2019ǯ51362--63ǡ
ؤαѸ˥ߤǤϡ̾ǥߥĴԤʤ֥롼פϤƤޤ5ĤΥ롼ơޤߤƤޤƸμóݤȤơĤλͻʸޤ˽äƤȻפäƤޤΤǡ߳ϤޤƤߥ˽ǤϤޤäʤΤǥ֥ǥץˤƤޤĴƤޤޤǡּóݤפΤνǤ鸦ƤƤäƤ
0.
ɸˤ褯ФѤʵǤޥե٥åȤʸʸλˤϡ<C, c>, <K, k>, <O, o>, <P, p>, <S, s>, <U, u>, <V, v>, <W, w>, <X, x>, <Z, z> Τ褦ˤۤΤΤޤʬ䤹ؽưפǤ <A, a>, <B, b>, <D, d>, <E, e>, <F, f>, <G, g>, <H, h>, <I, i>, <J, j>, <L, l>, <M, m>, <N, n>, <Q, q>, <R, r>, <T, t>, <Y, y> Τ褦ǤʤΤ⤢ޤǤʤФ꤫ΥƤڥ⤢ޤȤ <D, d> ʤɤϥ롼פθդǤʤΤ褦ʻƤʤʸʸΥڥΤǤ礦
#1309. ʸȾʸ ([2012-11-26-1]) ʸȾʸάˤޤäޤȤмΤ褦ˤʤޤޤˤʸΤߤ¸ߤޤʸȤĦ줿Ĵ⤤ Imperial capitals ɽŪʽΤǤθ塤夬˰ܤѤȡƹ͡Τ߽ФޤѤŪʽΤ줿ǤŪʽΤλϡޤ줬ʸεǤ
ܴΡԽΡΤפ⤫٤ƤߤФ狼ȻפޤβʤȡλΥƤΤ̤ǤꡤƤ뤳ȤϤषǤޥե٥åȤǤ⤽ƱȤǡƹƻˤβΤŤʤꡤ̤ȤƤФиʸȤϸǤۤʤ뾮ʸΩ뤳ȤˤʤޤɽŪʾʸνΤϡ781--90ǯΥޡ˥ζפ˺ݤ߽Ф줿 Carolingian minuscule ȤΤǤ
ơ夬ͥȡꥢǿˤդ路ΤѤ褦ȤưޤŵˤƤͥο͡ϡʸˤϸޤΰҸθ Imperial capitals ѤޤʸˤĤƤϡˤҤΤȤꤽ줬¸ߤʤäᡤɽŪʾʸΤǤ Carolingian minuscule Ѥ뤳ȤˤޤCarolingian minuscule ⡤äƤߤ Imperial capitals Τ1ĤȤޤˤ錄β֤̤ƤλѤǤ顤ʤ Imperial capitals λȤϤʤ˰ۤʤäΤˤʤäƤޤäƤޤ Imperial capitals ʸˤ Carolingian minuscule ʾʸˤΥڥ˥ꥢʳˤꡤΥޥե٥åȤɸŪʽΤȤʤäΤǤ
ɸѤʵΩޤ礦嵭Τ褦ʷаޤǸߤʸȾʸΥåȤޤäƤȤͤСξԤλ줤Ȥʤ뤳ȤϡषʤȤȤ狼ޤƬ˵褦ˡºݤΥڥϾɤǤˡ٤Хޥե٥åȤñʴŪʤΤǡ줿ȤƤ⡤ŪˤȤɤޤ뷹⤢ΤȤϻפޤ
ɸεϡ֤ʤʸȾʸλΤƱΤΤǤפ䤤ľۤ⤷ޤ
511ˤīʹīΡ֤ȤХץˡ־ä椯إ١ȯйԤȤ̤ۤܶʤפꤹ뵭ǺܤƤǯ3ˡ̳ʤȤ̾˴ؤֺ߳̾ΰֵͿˡפ졤֥פɽʤʤäȤƤεǤ롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ43ˡ#3628. ̾ɽ֥ä ([2019-04-03-1]) Ǽ夲Ρ֤ȤХץפε顤Ȥ⤷ĤäƤ
֥١ȡ٥פ֥١ȡפɽƤ⡤̾ϡ֥פȯ1ܤΡ֥١פȤȤ˶̤ʤϤǤϡܸΡֲפ v ʤb ֤뤿Ǥ
1ܸʸ̮ǡ֥פ [v] ȯƤͤϤ뤫뤤ȯ礬뤫Ϣơ#3325. ֥פܸǤθ츻ŪֻȤ뤫⡩ ([2018-06-04-1]) ⻲ȡ
դ㤫鸫Ƥߤޤ礦ֿʹפϡإܥǡshimbunפȤĤŤޤ2ܤΡ֤פmס4ܤΡ֤פnפɽΤϡѸʤɤǤξԤ̡βª뤿ᡥܸüԤϡ֤פȤĤβȹͤΤǡܸǤϡ֤֤פȽޤ
2إܥǤ <shimbun>ἰǤ <sinbun> Ȥʤ뤬줾Ω줬äƤĴפϲ#3427. ἰܼإܥΥĤŤоɽ ([2018-09-14-1])#1892. ֥ΤĤŤס ([2014-07-02-1])#1879. ܸˤˡ ([2014-06-19-1]) ⻲ȡ
īʹҤϡ̾ɽ˸¤餺Ūˡ֥פȤޤάͤɤȯ뤫ȤȤʻơȼ˷Ƥ륱¿ΤǤ̾̾ɽǥƼԤ͡ɤ٤Ƥߤ⤷ޤ
3ߤʤĿͤϡ֥פ˴ϢơɤΤ褦ɽäƤ뤫ʹ˸¤餺ʽʤɤĴƤ⤪⤷ꡥ
ҲؤιֵǡɸȤѼˤߤҲŪ֥פäɤ⡤Ūʡ˸ؤθˤиߤʿǤ롥ҲŪʴ֤ߤȡź졦֤˽¸ߤΤ֤Ǥ롥βιֵǤϡʤɸ줬Τɸʤˤβ˰֤Ť뷹ΤȤФǡܸѸˤ̤DZưˤѤcf. #1786. 츢ȸλࡤλ ([2014-03-18-1])#2029. ܤ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-16-1])#2030. ꥹ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-17-1])ˡ
ܤǤ⡤Τơʤ뤤ϡ˺פȤۤŬڤˡɸԥååפȤȤϡʤ̸ĿͤԤʤäƤ뤳ȤȻפ뤬ϥǥƥƥμǤȤͤΤȤǡΤ褦٤ΤǤϤʤȤ⤢ʥǥåǡꥢڡѡƤäΤ鼡Τ褦ʥȤӽФ
٤ʤΤȤ䤤ФϤϰ㤦ȻפäϡޤäǤ뤿ᡤѤΤϡüáΤƱȻפ
ΥȤɤȤλȿϡ֤ȡʤδϡפȤΤäξȤϡ֤ش˰٤Υ٥ΤΤǤϤʤ
ɸȤ¸ߤݥƥª뤫ͥƥª뤫ȤȡƤ礭ѤƤޤȤϡѥǤϤʤȤݤΥȤǤ롥ΥѥꥺˤĤƹͤ餻Ƥߤ1礭ۤʤΤϡˤĤƤϰöѤƤޤȡƤ᤹ΤԲǽʾʤȤñˤϤǤʤˤˤĤƤɸδ֤ǡξǽϤݻǤƤ¤ˤơ˼ͳջ֤ΤȤڤؤǤ뤳ȤäơξˤϡĤ٤ŪȤʤ꤬ξˤϡȤǡ̤ΤȤɸǤȥ륹ڤȴƤФ褤Ȥ⤢ΤǡɬŪʵؤȯŸʤΤ⤷ʤ
ڤؤ뤫ݤȤǤСȤⲾ̤ȤΤۤŬڤ⤷ʤȡϤޤ˼ҲؤǤ face ΤΤȯۤcf. #1564. face ([2013-08-08-1])ˡ䤬γʤ餯 face Ȥǰ̤ǤϤʤȻפˤΥ餷ȿΤϡˤ face κѡʤ˶ᤤΡˤȾľŪ˵ŤƤޤäƤ餫⤷ʤ
ʸػˤγؤ֤ΤǤСظʸػˡ٤ܼ (4--9) 褯ǤƤ롥Ӥˡ֤鷺630ߡǹߡˡפȽƤȤꡤ²˥륫顼Υӥ奢ǡ褯줿ʸػˤɤȤΤϡȤȻפܼȤꤢƤܸˤȤͤ碌ˤϡ#3389. ܸ٤ܼ ([2018-08-07-1]) ȡˡꥹʸػˤȤ⥯褦Ȼפä#3556. إץȥѹˡʸػˡ٤Ρֱʸػˡפܼ ([2019-01-21-1])#3567. إꥹʸػ٤ܼ ([2019-02-01-1]) ⤴
ˡTOEIC˴٤ɤԤϡTOEICΤΤȤ⡤TOEICϡֱѸϡפθꤵ줿¦̤¬ꤹ뤿ΤΤǤꡤŪϤλɸǤϤʤˤ⤫餺Τ褦ʤΤȤƹǧΤƤޤäƤǤȼĥ롥ѸϤΰ̤¬ǤʤȤǤϡTOEIC˸¤餺¾λʡƱƤ櫓ǤꡤɤΤȤ٤ƤαѸؽԤΤ٤Ƥ¦̤αѸϤΧ¬ȤȤԲǽʤΤĿͤγؽŪ˱ɬפȤѸϤ¦̤ϰۤʤϤʤΤˡ1Ĥλˤäɾ褦ȤΤ⤽ְ㤤ʤΤȤݤ
ԤּʱѸλʡγס (48--49) ޤȤƤƤʸʳؾʡʿ28ǯϡؽĴˤعαѸμ»ܤ˴ؤǽʰơ˴ûפ˴ŤƺƤˡ伫ȤиΤΤʤΤ⡤ΤˤФƤƤʤȤݤ
| ̾ | » | Ϳ | ǯּ»ܲ | ɽˡ | » (*1) | |
| ֥åѸ측 (Cambridge English) | ֥åرѸ측굡 | ͿʢǤ500͡ | 2--3 | 餫þ5ġ ݤϥ (80--230) ڤӥ졼 | L, R, W Sڥ | PET 11,800? KET 9,720? (*5) |
| ѱѸ쵻ǽ | ܱѸ측궨 | 339͡H28ӡ | 3 | 1?5 ݤˤɽ H27ꥹȱѸХɤʻ | L, R/CBT (W) (S)/CBT (*2) | 1顧8,400 5顧2,500ߤʤ |
| GTEC CBT | ٥ͥåݥ졼 Berlitz Corporation ELS Educational Services ̺ˡͿʳشฦ浡 (CEES) ȶ | ɽ | 3H27 | 0--1400 | L, S, R, WCBT | 9,720 |
| GTEC for STUDENTS | ٥ͥåݥ졼 Berlitz Corporation ELS Educational Services | 73͡H26ӡ | 2 | 0--810 | L, R, W (S)֥å (*3) | 3,080 5,040 L R, W, S |
| IELTS | ֥ƥå塦 ֥åرѸ측굡 ܱѸ측궨 | 3͡H26ӡ Ǥ240 | 35 | 1.0--90 0.5ߡ | L, R, W S | 25,380 |
| TEAP | ܱѸ측궨 | 1͡H26ӡ | 3 | 80--400 | L, R, W S (*4) | 6,000?15,000 |
| TOEFL iBT | Educational Testing Service ܻ̳ɡCIEE | ɽ | 40--45 | 0--120 4ǽ0--30ɾ | L, S, R, WCBT | 235USɥ |
| TOEFL Junior Comprehensive | Educational Testing Service ܻ̳ɡGC&T | ɽ | 2--3 | 0--352 | L, S, R, WCBT | 9,500 |
| TOEIC L&R | Educational Testing Service ܻ̳ɡIIBC | 262.9͡H26ӡ TOEICץ 700 | 10 | 10--990 L, R5--495 | L, R | 5,725 |
| TOEIC S&W | Educational Testing Service ܻ̳ɡIIBC | 1.5͡H25ӡ | 24 | 0--400 S, W0--200 | S, WCBT | 10,260 |
*1?ӭ=Listening, S=Speaking, R=Reading, W=Writing
*2W 1顦1顤S3ʾ
*3S ϥץ
*4L/R, L/R/W Ǥǽ
*5ˤۤʤ뤳Ȥ
Ѹˤθͤ椬ˤ븽ʸˡȤСۤͣΤΤǤꡤŵŪ̾Ȥ٤ٹﵭΡرʸˡ٤ʤ櫓ˤϤʤΩۥǥ륳쥯ꡤٹ ﵭرʸˡ18ǡʸƲ1949ǯ饤DZǤ褦ˤʤäƤ롥
Ѹˤ̤ؼԤʤǤϤθʸˡεҤħǡȤƶѸ˭٤ʸȤȤˡʤɤͿΤŪŪ⤬̥ϤǤ롥Ȥ櫓˶ܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ǥ˴¿εƱʸˡʤ3ǡˤȡѤƤ
ʲεįǤ⡤ٹʸˡο뤳ȤǤϤǤѸˤθԤˤȤäɬɤǤФ꤫ʸˡŪطʤ˴ؿΤɤ
#740. ϸˤƻ̾ˡ --- go from bad to worse ([2011-05-07-1])
#752. ¾ưȼưüʲʬƻ ([2011-05-19-1])
#806. what with A and what with B ([2011-07-12-1])
#980. ethical dative ([2012-01-02-1])
#981. ȷƻζ ([2012-01-03-1])
#984. flat adverb ϥƥϤηƻ줬ƻ ([2012-01-06-1])
#988. Don't drink more pints of beer than you can help. (2) ([2012-01-10-1])
#1028. ʤ̾ȤߤʤƤΤ ([2012-02-19-1])
#1035. 줿;̾ν ([2012-02-26-1])
#1037. ֻ save ([2012-02-28-1])
#1054. singular they ([2012-03-16-1])
#1172. ѸΥƥñ ([2012-07-12-1])
#1347. a lawyer turned teacher ([2013-01-03-1])
#1350. ư֤ưѤ of ([2013-01-06-1])
#1392. ͿʤκƵ̾ ([2013-02-17-1])
#1541. Mind you θ ([2013-07-16-1])
#1570. all over the world all the world over ([2013-08-14-1])
#1682. Young as he is, he is rich. ιʸ ([2013-12-04-1])
#1691. than ѤȤƤ as ([2013-12-13-1])
#1762. as it were ([2014-02-22-1])
#2128. "than" ȤƤ nor or ([2015-02-23-1])
#2130. "I wonder," said John, "whether I can borrow your bicycle." ([2015-02-25-1])
#2315. Ф³줬֤ݤѤ that ([2015-08-29-1])
#2442. Ĵʸȯã --- ŪݤŪǽء ([2016-01-03-1])
#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ ([2016-02-05-1])
#2647. Ӥä should ([2016-07-26-1])
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ18ǡʸƲ1949ǯ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
߿ʹθѲȤˡ褯ֿѲסֺǶѲפȸƤ֤Ȥ롥ܸǤС֤ȴաפŵθѲϷ褷ƿϤʤ#2132. ȴաar ȴաeru դա ([2015-02-27-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǤϾ½鵭Ͽꡤ餯鵯ϤƤѸ˴ؤƤ⡤Ȥ often /t/ ȯ褦ˤʤäƤȤ߿ʹѲȤܤ뤬/t/ ȯΤΤϢʤ³ƤΤǤꡤ̩ˤСֿѲפȤϸƤӤˤ⡤ߤʹѲǤϤˤϰ㤤ʤ˻ϤޤäѲǤϤʤǯʾ塤ˤäƤϿʾ³ƤѲȤ⤤ˤäƤΤǤcf. #860. ѸѲѰۤΰ ([2011-09-04-1])ˡ
ŪˤС¿ο͡ѲȤߤʤƤΤϡƤǤˤʤˤΤŤѲǤ롥Ѳ˾˥ƥʤĥäƤؼԤǤ顤ФФ櫤α¿ˤʤ롥Arnold Zwicky Ϥ櫤 "the Recency Illusion" ȸƤ¤˸̯Denison (158) Zwicky ˤ"Just Between Dr. Language and I" ꤹ뵭鼡ΰƤ롥
[...] the Recency Illusion, the belief that things YOU have noticed only recently are in fact recent. This is a selective attention effect. Your impressions are simply not to be trusted; you have to check the facts. Again and again---retro not, double is, speaker-oriented hopefully, split infinitives, etc.---the phenomena turn out to have been around, with some frequency, for very much longer than you think. It's not just Kids These Days. Professional linguists can be as subject to the Recency Illusion as anyone else.
ϢơZwicky "Frequency Illusion" ˤڤƤ롥
[...] Another selective attention effect, which tends to accompany the Recency Illusion, is the Frequency Illusion: once you've noticed a phenomenon, you think it happens a whole lot, even "all the time." Your estimates of frequency are likely to be skewed by your noticing nearly every occurrence that comes past you. People who are reflective about language---professional linguists, people who set themselves up as authorities on language, and ordinary people who are simply interested in language---are especially prone to the Frequency Illusion.
ˤƤϤФСֿѲϻפäŤѲפǤꡤˤʸݤϻפä굩ʸݡסʤˤĤƤϡդޤʤˤǤ뤳ȤõƤ
Denison, David. "Word Classes in the History of English" Chapter 13 of Approaches to Teaching the History of the English Language: Pedagogy in Practice. Introduction. Ed. Mary Heyes and Allison Burkette. Oxford: OUP, 2017. 157--71.
Zwicky, Arnold. "Just between Dr. Language and I." Language Log. 2005. Accessed May 4, 2006, http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002386.html .
#3656. kings' Τ褦ʣͭʤΥݥȥեθˤϲάƤΤǤ ([2019-05-01-1]) ꤹѤʵ夲ŪʴβȤơüŪˡֲάƤʤפŪĤޤСkings Ȥʣˡ˽ͭʤ 's դֻ塤 s's Ȥ뤵ʤꤽʤΤǡάɽΤǤϤʤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ (cf. haplology) ºݡΤ褦ȯۤΤȤǶѸ˸Ԥζˡ (punctuation) ޤäƤǽϹ⤤ΤǤϤʤȻפ롥⤷äȤ顤Ūʻ¤˴ŤȤϡŪ˴ŤˡγΩäȤȤˤʤ롥ĤʤεǽҤ٤褦ʣ kingsñͭʷ king'sʣͭʷ kings' 3Ĥɽ϶̤뤳Ȥˤʤä櫓顤̤ȤˤʤäȹͤƤ롥ŪˤϤ櫓ǤϤʤäȤȤǤϼĥƤ
դˤĤƤϡJespersen (272) ޤ˼夲Ƥ롥ѤΤüᤤ
16.86. These forms [genitive plurals with -es] (in which e was still pronounced) show that the origin of the ModE gen pl is the old gen pl in -a (which in ME became e) + the ending s from the gen sg, which was added analogically for the sake of greater distinctiveness. The s' in kings' thus is not to be considered a haplological pronunciation of -ses, though some of the early grammarians look upon it as an abbreviation: Bullokar Æsop 225 writes the gen pl ravenzz and crowzz with his two z-letters, which do not denote two different sounds, but are purely grammatical signs, one for the plural and the other for the genitive.---Wallis 1653 writes "the Lord's [sic] House, the House of Lords . . pro the Lords's House", with the remark "duo s in unum coincident." Lane, Key to the Art of Lettters 1700 p. 27: "Es Possessive is often omitted for easiness of pronunciation as . . . the Horses bridles, for the Horsesses bridles."
In dialects and in vg speech the ending -ses is found: Franklin 152 (vg) before gentle folkses doors | GE M 1.10 other folks's children; thus also 1.293, 1.325, 2.7 | id A 251 gentlefolks's servants; ib 403; all in dialect | London schoolboy, in Orig. English 25: I wish my head was same as other boyses. Cf Murray D 164 the bairns's cleose, the færmers's kye, the doags's lugs; Elworthy, Somers. 155 voaksez (not other words, cf GE)
Τ褦ʲɤǤȡɸΡˡפȤƤ -s's 뤵 -s' ˤȤϺѤǤʤΤΡɸˤȤߤȡ⤢ʤְäƤȤϸڤʤΤʤȻפľꤹ롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
ѤʵȤơ#3649. q θˤɬ u ޤϤɤ櫓Ǥ ([2019-04-24-1]) ܥ֥Ǽ夲ȤɼԤꡤqueue ˤȤ̯ʥڥñ줬뤳ȤŦƤä<ueue> 첻4Ĥ³ΤϡѸΥڥȤƤ˳ʤեμѸǤ뤳θˤĤƤϡ̣ŪʴӱѸαƺȤ顤Ĥơ#1754. queue ([2014-02-14-1]) ˤڥˤĤƤϹͤȤϤʤäΤǡ˥ȤäƤ
ε ([2019-04-24-1]) Ǥϡ<qu> /kw/ ñˤȤ館¤ <qu> /k/ Ǥ뤳Ȥ⾯ʤʤcritique, technique, unique ʤɤθ˸륱ϤȤꡤquay, conquer, liquor ʤɸƬƬ˸Ƥ /kw/ ǤϤʤ /k/ Ȥʤϡcf. #383. ֥ΥޥȡפǤʤ֥Υޥȡס ([2010-05-15-1])ˡܤƤ queue /kjuː/ ⤳֤
queue 첻ʬΥڥߤ <eu> /juː/ ȤʤäƤꡤϰѸΥڥ§˱äƤϤ롥neurotic, leukaemia; feudal, neuter; adieu, deuce, lieu ʤ (Upward and Davidson 163) ˳ǧбϽʱѸΥڥ§Ȥϡ줾쥮ꥷ졤ƥ졤ե줫μѸȤƸΥڥѤΤȤߤۤ⤷ʤʤ⡤ΤĤñǤ (yod-dropping) η <eu> /uː/ ȤʤäƤˡ <e> ϡѸΥեˤ⤢뤫餢ΤƤ褤Ʊ˱ѸΥڥ§Ǥ <u> ñ뤳ȤǤʤ⤯ȤǤʡ#2227. ʤ <u> ǽñ줬ʤΤ ([2015-06-02-1]) ȡˡ
ʤߤˡε ([2014-02-14-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡqueue cue ͤȱˤȤƱ졤Хڥ㤨2Ÿ (doublet) Ǥʤ礦ɡ#183. flower flour ([2009-10-27-1]) Τ褦ʤΡˡƱΥեñͳ褹뤬ڥ㤨뤳ȤǰۤʤǤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤʤ褦ˤʤäΤϡѸˤȼȯãǤ롥
ˤ queue Υڥϡ <ueue> 첻4³ǡ˳ŪǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤŦ꤬Ȥޤ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
첻 gvs äǶܳŪʸȤơStenbrenden Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling (2016) 롥첻ܴѤ˽ŪʸäȤ⡤Ԥˤ碌첻ܤθǤϤʤĹ첻ܤθȼĥ첻ܤȸʤȤˡԤΥݥȤ뤫
Stenbrenden ϡ#3552. 첻ܤ5Ĥ ([2019-01-17-1]) ǵ첻ܡȤʬŪ˽ʣ뤫Ǥʤ⡤ȼλ5ĤˡŦƤ (1--3)
1ܤϡ"functional explanations seem to be teleological, suggesting that languages in a sense know where they are heading and hence resort to chain-shifts to avoid mergers" (2) Ȥ¤Ūȯۤ˴ŤϢŪ (chain shift) Ū (teleology) ФܼŪȽǤ롥
2ܤϡ"push chain", "drag chain", 뤤ƱѲȤäܤν֤˴ؤ뽾ϡƲǤΰ۲Ѱۤιڻ뤷ƤȤŦǤ롥ǤȰ۲δطϤäʣʤΤǤꡤθǤñ㤹Ȥ櫓
3ܤϡ"push chain" "drag chain" Ȥ̾դϡޤǸݤҤƤˤθݤƤΤǤϤʤˤ⤫餺̾դˤäƤʤ줿Τ褦˺ФƤޤäƤȤ꤬롥٥뤬ŽդƤޤλߤ˴٤äƤޤȤȽ
4ܤϡϡŪʴפϤäΤǡҤȤ˲ʤˤȤƤȤ館ƤȤǤ롥ĴİСΧȤäŪʥץǡƤΤǤϤʤ
5ܤϡŬ (Optimality Theory; ot) ϤȤŪʥץϡ㤤Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤϤʤȤȽˤäθݤޤǤʤ硤QŪˤ¦꤬ȹͤΤ̤ФиݤΤۤΤǤϤʤȤȯŸ뤳ȤȤǤžݤǤ롥
ʤʤ긷ȽǻŦƤΤϡ첻ܤ5ĤפȤ첻5ĤפȤäۤ褤
Stenbrenden, Gjertrud Flermoen. Long-Vowel Shifts in English, c. 1150--1700: Evidence from Spelling. Cambridge: CUP, 2016.
#2000. ˸ʬȲ ([2014-10-18-1]) ˰³ơ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ϡǯδ֤˹ŪˤŪˤ̾٤ƤǤϻ HiSoPra* (= HIstorical SOciolinguistics and PRAgmatics) ˻äƤäƤ뤷Ϥγ並ԤߤƤߤƤμ¤˴ؿޤäƤƤΤ롥
˸ΰΰϹμήɸؤǤϼꤳܤƤֻ¿ʡС뤳Ȥ¿˸θΰ褦Ȥߤϡε ([2014-10-18-1]) ǤҲ𤷤褦ˡĤ롥ϡArnovick (96) Ѹ˸ǰƬ֤ĤĵƤ3ʬˡҲ𤷤褦
Pragmatic forms: discourse markers, terms of address, connectives, and interjections;
Interactional pragmatics: speech acts, politeness, impoliteness;
Discursive domains: scientific and medical discourse, journalism, religious and political discourse, courtroom discourse, literary discourse, public and private correspondence.
Arnovick ƱʸǤϡѸ˸ȥѥѤοˤĤƤ⤫Ƥ롥ƳŪʸϤȤʤäƤΤǡѸ˸˽ƴؿä顤ɤǤ餤
Arnovick, Leslie K. "Historical Pragmatics in the Teaching of the History of English." Chapter 9 of Approaches to Teaching the History of the English Language: Pedagogy in Practice. Introduction. Ed. Mary Heyes and Allison Burkette. Oxford: OUP, 2017. 93--105.
Mt. Fuji is the highest mountain in Japan. ˤϡMt. (= mount) mountain Ȥֻפ̣2Ĥñ줬롥ͭ̾ȤȤ˸ˤ mount ɽϤƤά Mt.ˤѤ̾ȤƤ mountain Ѥ롥
űѸ̤ˡֻפ̣ beorg ʥɥĸ BergˤäǤ˸űѸ顤ƥǡֻפ̣ mōns, mont- Ѹ munt ȤäƤꡤѤ뤳ȤϤäѸˤʤȡƱ츻Ǹťեθ mont ˤ뤫Ѥ褦ˤʤäMED mount n.(1) ȡˡѸǤϡ̾ȤƤʸ졦ŸȤƤζͭ嵭Τ褦 Mt. ȤƸͭ̾ΰȤѤΤ̤Ǥ롥
mountain 13Ⱦ˽Ф롥츻ˤ⤢ƥ mōns, mont- ηƻȤ⤤٤Τǡ¯ƥ *montānea(m) (regiōnem) (= "mountainous region") ťե montagne ФơѸ mountain(e n. ȤäƤΤǤ롥ߤޤǤ˺Ǥ̤Ρֻפɽ魯̾ȤȯŸƤʹͤƤߤȡmountainous Ȥƻϡ츻ŪˤϷƻΡΤޤƻȤȤˤʤäƤ⤷
¤ Mt. ȤάɽλѤˤˤĤΤꤿȻפĤ˼ǤθƤߤΤۤȤɾʤ̤λˤäĴ٤ƤߤɬפꤽʤߤˡϢ뤫⤷ʤȻפäĴ٤Ƥߤ Mr Mrs ʤɤɽˤĤƤϡ褽̤Ȥcf. #895. Miss ϲξά ([2011-10-09-1])ˡ
»1εϡѤʵ䥷ꡥԤѤʵǤ
ѸǤɽ kings ʲ, king's ʲΡˡkings' ʲΡˤȡ̣˱3ν̤ޤȯϤ٤ /kɪŋz/ ƱʤΤǤֻˡϤäȶ̤뤳ȤˤʤäƤΤǤɽζ̤ϲͳ褹ΤǤ礦
ݥȥե (apostrophe) ϡŵŪ˾άɽ魯Ѥޤit's it is ξάǤI'm I am ξάyou're you are ξάǤݥȥեϾάΤѤȤϸ¤ޤ#582. apostrophe ([2010-11-30-1])#1772. greengrocer's apostrophe ([2014-03-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŪˤϾάɽ魯Ѥޤ¾ŪˤȤޤɸε⡤δߤɬפꤽǤkings, king's, kings' γơΩҲ𤷤Ƥޤ礦
űѸǡֲפɽ魯ֲפʣʼʡгʡˤ cyningas Ǥ줬ʣ kings ˤʤ櫓ǤϸűѸ cyningas Ѹ kinges Ѹ kings ȤѲβФ̤Ǥܤȡ-as -es ȤŤʣ첻ü-s Ȥʤä櫓ǤΤ褦̻Ūˤʣۣ첻 /ə/ ־üפȤȤ館ޤŪˤ첻־άפ줿褦ˤߤޤʣֻ kings ϼ¤ϤΤ褦ˡ־άפǤˤ⤫餺륢ݥȥեѤ˺ѤޤƤȤ櫓Ǥ
ˡֲΡפɽ魯ñͭʷֻ king's ˤĤƹͤޤ礦űѸǤϡñ°ʡʽͭʤΤȤűѸǤϤƤӤޤ˷ cyninges ֤졤줬ѸˤΤޤ kinges ȤƼѤޤѸˤơʣξȥѥ˸ۣ첻äᡤƱ kings ֤ƤޤΤޤޤǤ褵ʤΤǤˤֻ϶̤褦ȤȤʤΤñͭʷΤۤ king's ɽ뤳Ȥˤʤޤۣ첻 /ə/ ־άפƤΤ顤ɸ뤿 king's ȤݥȥեդνˤʤäΤĤ뤳ȤǤޤ
ǸˡֲΡפɽ魯ʣ°ʷ kings' ǤˤϤܤŪɬפǤűѸǤʣ°ʷ cyninga Τ褦 -a äƤޤѸˤƤ -a æäñ°ʸ -es ʸ첻üФ -sˤʣ°ʸȤƤѤ褦ˤʤäΤǤĤޤꡤking(e)s Ȥ֤ǡֲΡפȡֲΡסʤȡֲסˤƱɽ路иΤǤơʹߡˤȯ϶̤ǤʤΤǤƽդˤƤ϶̤褦ȡñͭʷ king'sʣͭʤ kings' ȤʬȯãΤǤ
ʾޤȤмΤ褦ˤʤޤʣʼʡˤ kings Ѹ kinges ͳ褷 e ־άפ줿Ȥߤ뤳ȤǤޤξάɽ魯Τ˥ݥȥեդ뤳ȤޤǤŬäƤʤ褦ˤߤޤñͭʷ king's ϡʣƱѸ kinges ͳ褷 e ־άפ줿̤η֤ǤΤǡݥȥեդֻŬäƤȤǤǸʣͭʷ kings' ϡñͭʷȹ줷֤ˤΰ̣ǤΥݥȥեθ˲άƤ櫓ǤϤޤ
(1) άƤΤ˥ݥȥեդƤʤʣ kings
(2) άƤ뤫ʤȤͳǡ˥ݥȥեդƤʤȲñͭʷ king's
(3) άƤʤΤ˥ݥȥեդƤʣͭʷ kings'
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