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Ѳ˸¤餺оݤ˴ؤ5W1HμΤʤǺǤʪʤΤ Why Ǥ뤳Ȥؤʤ̤ˡ並ˤơǽŪΤꤿΤ Why Ǥ롥ε#2253. ̣ѲθΤʤ ([2015-06-28-1]) Ǥˤ褦ˡ̣ѲϤȤѲνθõꡤȤΤʾκȼԤˤäơָѲθϸ§Ȥ multiple causation ǤפȤָѲ˸ʤɤʤפʤ͡Ω줬 (cf. #1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ ([2015-03-10-1])ˡ
Ѳθɵ˿ŤΩԤ⤤뤳ȤλƤ뤬䤤ǤȤ⡤˸ؤˤˤ Why Ȥ䤤ƤޤȤ۸뤳ȤϤǤʤȻϹͤƤ롥Ūˤϡ#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1]) ǰѤ Smith ٤ٻSmith ϡѲ˴ؤ (ix--x) Ǥ⡤Why 䤦Ȥɬ⤷Ƥ롥
Some levels of language, of course, are easier to discuss in 'why?' terms than others. With regard to the lexicon, for instance, it seems fairly undeniable that the presence of French-derived vocabulary in English relates to the geographical proximity of the two languages and to historical events (the Norman Conquest, for instance), while most scholars---not of course all---hold that inflectional loss during the transition from Old to Middle English relates in some way to contact developments such as the interaction between English and Norse. Sound change, as has been acknowledged by many scholars, is perhaps a trickier phenomenon to discuss in 'why?' terms. However, this book argues that it is nevertheless possible to develop historically plausible and worthwhile accounts of the changes which have taken place in the history of English sounds, bearing in mind all necessary caveats about the status of such explanations. After all, historians of politics, economics, religion, etc., have all felt able to ask 'why?' questions: Why did the Roman Empire collapse? Why did the Reformation happen? Why did the Jacobites fail? Why did the French Revolution or the First World War take place? Why did the Russian Revolution happen when it did? Why did the Industrial Revolution take place when and where it did? All these questions are considered entirely legitimate in historiography, even if no final, unequivocal, answers are forthcoming. If historical linguistics is a branch of history---and it is an argument of this book that it is---then it seems rather perverse not to allow historical linguists to address 'why?' questions as well.
ޤäƱݤǡ伫Ȥ Hotta (2) ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ȤΤǡѤƤ
In historical linguistics, the importance of asking not only the "how" but also the "why" of development must be stressed. In my view the question "why" should be a natural step that follows the question of "how," but linguists have long refrained from asking "why" through academic modesty. I believe, however, that it is allowable to speak less ambitiously of conditioning factors, rather than absolute causes, of language change.
餯Ѳ "the cause(s)" 뤳ȤϤǤʤ"conditioning factors" 褦ȤΤդԤɵΤȤؤơ "Why?" ָפȤɽѤƤѤƤĤǤ롥
Smith, Jeremy J. Sound Change and the History of English. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English." PhD thesis, University of Glasgow. Glasgow, November 2005.
ϢWaldron ˰͵ựѲεƤƱ Waldron (115--16) Ȥơ19ʹߤΰ̣Ѳˤ֤äƤߤ
Ūʰ̣Ѳϡ19ƬΥɥĤ˵äӸؤиѲ椵ϤΤƱؼԤϸŵŪʥȥåѸˤ̣ѲҤǤǽ˵ŤŪʸդΤ (figures of speech) ̻Ūʰ̣Ѳ˵ĤΤǤ롥㤨С̣Ѳʬबsynecdoche, metonymy, metaphor ʤɤΥȥåѸ˴ŤƤʤʤɤ̣Ѳˤ볫ޤˤδطεŤˤäȤͤȡŵŪȥåỌ̇̄ѲδطǧθؤΩ줫ƤܤƤϡ˶̣ (cf. #2191. ȥåΤޤȤ ([2015-04-27-1]))
ȥåѸˤ̣ѲʬफϤޤꡤ19ˤŪʬȯạ̃ǸˤޤǺ³Ƥ Extension, Restriction, Transfer 3ʬˡǤ롥ŪΤ1894ǯ R. Thomas ˤʬǡʲΤ褦˿Ǥ (Waldron 115)
I Change within the same conceptual sphere
(a) Species pro genere
(b) Genus pro specie
II Change through transfer to another conceptual sphere
(a) Through subjective correspondence (metaphor)
(b) Through objective correspondence (metonymy)
20ȡޤǤΤ褦ʰ̣Ѳʬ⡤̣ѲθʿŪҲŪŪˤؤȴؿܤạ̈Ѳ˼Ҳˤδ褦ˤʤꡤʳصѤȯŸҲƻѲƼ쥸ʤɤ̣Ѳ˵ڤܤƤƶ褦ˤʤä
̣Ѳ˴ؤ20ɽŪȤ Stern, Ullmann, Waldron 뤬̣Ѳʬ丶ϡ褽пԤ줿Ȥ뤫⤷ʤǯϡ嵭Τ褦ʸŵŪʰ̣ѲæѤơǧθءʸˡ桤ʤɤ鼨̣Ѳ椬ޤƤĤĤ롥
̣ΤθˤˤĤƤϡ#1686. Ụ̄άˡ ([2013-12-08-1]) ȡ
Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.
2֤ε#2251. Ullmann ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-26-1])#2252. Waldron ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-28-1]) ǰѡȤ Waldron ϡStern Ullmann ʤɤμפԸƧޤʤ顤̣ѲθˤĤƤƤ롥ˤĤƤβ餫οƶդäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ뤳ȤʤΤȤˤĤơ˻ͤˤʤŸƤ롥
We have now considered a number of factors which may contribute to change of meaning and it is not difficult to see why so many different schemes of semantic change have been proposed over the last 150 years and why there is so little agreement among scholars as to the correct classification of the phenomena. For behind every change of meaning there lies a chain of causation which can be analysed at a number of different levels --- e.g. material, social, psychological, logical --- and at each level we should get a different answer to the question 'Why did this word change its meaning?' The position of a statistician analysing (let us suppose) the causes of death in a certain community would be somewhat similar, unless he decided beforehand what sort of causes he was going to pay attention to. For at one level of analysis, every death might presumably be regarded as a case of heart stopped beating; at different levels of analysis such categories as drowning, overwork, carbon-monoxide poisoning, typhoid, and smoke-polluted atmosphere might all be acceptable as causes; but there would be no guarantee that each death would fit into one and only one aetiological category, unless the causes were all analysed at more or less the same level. The doctor who has to insert a cause of death on a death certificate uses one of a set of terms which classify the causes on a fairly consistent level of medical diagnosis; and in matters of such complexity no system of classification for causes is serviceable unless consistency of level is observed. This, of course, is a consequence of the indeterminateness of our concept of cause: every event has many different causes.
It is quite futile, therefore, for us to attempt to distinguish which sense-changes are due to linguistic causes and which to non-linguistic causes, or which are due to material causes and which to social causes; while it would perhaps be an exaggeration to contend that any change of meaning could be regarded as the consequence, immediate or remote, of any of the recognized causes, the various causal schemes undoubtedly show a good deal of overlapping.
̣Ѳθθͤλεˤʤ館Ǥ롥ʬϤΥ٥뤬͡ˤꤦʾ塤Ф븶ΤΤ¿¿ͤǤꡤޤФиߤ˽ŤʤäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥ɬŪ multiple causation ꤻʤȤˤʤ롥
ΤȤϡ̣ѲθˤȤɤޤ餺Ѳ̤θˤĤƤ⤤ػˤˤƤ⡤ѲθͳưŤʤõ뤳ȡˤˤĤƤϴࡹε롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥ cat:language_change causation γƵȤ줿Ǥ⡤Ȥ櫓طΤȤưʲƤ (##442,1123,1173,1282,1549,1582,1584,1986,2123,2143,2151,2161)
#442. Ѳθ ([2010-07-13-1])
#1123. Ѳθ˸ء ([2012-05-24-1])
#1173. Ѳɬȶ ([2012-07-13-1])
#1282. ꥦˤ3ΰۤʤѲθ ([2012-10-30-1])
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])
#2143. ѲˡָפϤʤ ([2015-03-10-1])
#2151. Ѳθ3ء ([2015-03-18-1])
#2161. Ҳ¤Ѳϸ칽¤ľܤȿǤʤ ([2015-03-28-1])
Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.
ε#2251. Ullmann ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-26-1]) κǸǡUllmann ηŪʬˤ꤬ȽҤ٤Ƚ٤ĤʤǡWaldron Ϥʤοޤ B II "Transfers of senses" 2ġPopular etymology Ellipsis 夲ơ餬ʰ̣ѲǤϤʤȽŪ˻ŦƤ롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1])#2175. Ūʰ̣ѲؤȽ ([2015-04-11-1])#2177. Ūʰ̣ѲؤȽ (2) ([2015-04-13-1]) ǿƤ뤬 Waldron (138) θդˤͤƤߤ褦
To confine our attention in the first instance to the fourfold division which is the heart of the scheme, we may feel some uneasiness at the inequality of these four categories in consideration of the exact correlation of their descriptions. This is not a question of their relative importance or frequency of occurrence but (again) of the level of analysis at which they emerge. Specifically, it seems possible to describe transfers based on sense-similarity and sense-contiguity as in themselves kinds of semantic change, whereas name-similarity and name-contiguity appear rather changes of form which are potential causes of a variety of types of change of meaning. To say that so-and-so is a case of metonymy or metaphor is far more informative as to the nature of the change of meaning than is the case with popular etymology or ellipsis. The former changes always result, by definition, in a word's acquisition of a complete new sense, while the result in the case of popular etymology is more often a peripheral modification of the word's original sense (as in the change from shamefast to shamefaced) and in the case of ellipsis a kind of telescoping of meaning, so that the remaining part of the expression has the meaning of the whole. In neither case is the result as clear cut and invariable as metonymy and metaphor.
Waldron ϡB II ˴ؤƤΤ褦ȽäǡƼΰ̣ѲʬB III "Composite changes" A B I ʤʬˡǤ롥Waldron ϡA "Shift" Stern ήʬǤ adequation substitution ˤ褽ˤȸƤӡB I (a) "Metaphoric Transfer"B I (b) "Metonymic Transfer" ȸƤȰʲΤ褦ʬȤʤ롥
Shift
Change of Meaning Metaphoric Transfer
Transfer
Metonymic Transfer
#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) Stern ˤ̣ѲʬߤƱ餤ƶϤΤ̣ѲʬȤơUllmann ΤΤ롥ʬ Ullmann 8 "Change of Meaning" (193--235) ǾҲ𤵤Ƥ뤬 Waldron (136) üŪˤޤȤƤƤΤǡ
A. Semantic changes due to linguistic conservatism
B. Semantic changes due to linguistic innovation
I. Transfers of names:
(a) Through similarity between the senses;
(b) Through contiguity between the senses.
II. Transfers of senses:
(a) Through similarity between the names;
(b) Through contiguity between the names.
III. Composite changes.
A "linguistic conservatism" ȤΤϸ̾դ (see Waldron, pp. 138--39)Stern ΰ̣ѲǤȤ adequation substitution ˤ褽롥λؼоݡʤˤŪѲˤĤ졤θΰ̣ѲƤؤ (ex. ship, atom, scholasticism) B "linguistic innovation" ϡ̣ (sense) ̾ (name) Ωˡ (similarity) (contiguity) Ωݤ碌ŪηϤؤȲ̶ʬƤ롥
Ȥ櫓 Ullmann δؿ B I II ˤȤȤǡWaldron (137) Ϥ2ĤʬˤĤơľŪ䤹褦ˡʲΤ褦ʿޤˤޤȤƤ롥
(a) (b)
Similarity Contiguity
------------------------------------------------
I. between senses: between senses:
Metaphor Metonymy ---> Name-Transfer
------------------------------------------------
II. between names: between names:
Popular Etymology Ellipsis ---> Sense-Transfer
------------------------------------------------
ѸǶˤ <en> Ȥֻκǽ첻 /ˈɪŋ/ бΤϡEnglish England ȤñˤƤΤߤǤ롥ޤ˸ƤΤǰ´Ф뤳Ȥʤ2ϤԵ§ֻȯδطƤ롥ŪطʤɤäƤߤ褦
#1145. English England ̾Ρ ([2012-06-15-1]) 褦ˡEnglish England ϡ줾űѸˤ졤ʣǤ롥ԤϴΤ Engle (or Angle)ʥ͡ˤ˷ƻ -isc դ֤ǤꡤԤƱΤʣ°ʷ land դ Englaland la haplography ʽŻæˤФ֤Ǥ롥űѸδ Engle ϡޥĸ *anȝli- ̤ꡤ (angle) η Schleswig ΰ̾ȴϢŤ뤬줬ƥ˼Ѥ Anglus (nom. sg.) Angli (nom. pl.) ȤѤ줿ΤűѸäΤǤ롥
ޥĸθƬ˼ [ɑ] 첻ϡβ i ˤ i-mutation Ф [æ] ȤʤäɡǤϤ˾夲Ф [ɛ] ˻ä2Ĥξ夲ϡ2 i-mutation Ȥ⤤٤ΤǡCampbell (75) ˤȸűѸΥƥȤˤϤ褯ȿǤƤʤѸ South-East Midland ϰǤʤäˡƱѲФȤƤϡmenn (< *manni), ende (< *andja) ʤɤp. 222--24ˡΰϢβѲȿǤ˸ˤ夷ȤƤϡ(East) Anglia Anglo-Saxon ʤɤ롥
ơ14ˤʤ /eŋ/ > /iŋ/ Ѳڤ褦ˤʤ롥senge > singe, henge > hinge, streng > string, weng > wing, þenken > þinken, enke > inke ʤɤǤp. 169ˡȤƤϡޥĸΤȤȤ첻 [ɑ] 夲β٤ФƤĤ˹첻 [ɪ] ˤʤäƤޤä櫓Ǥ롥
ơ˵ñ췲Ǥϡ첻ξ夲ȼɸŪֻǤ <eng> <ing> ȽƸ˻뤬English, England ˤĤƤϡϹԤʤƤ <Inglish>, <Ingland> ʤɤֻɸಽ뤳ȤϤʤ<Eng>- ¸³뤳Ȥˤʤä (cf. #1436. English England ̾ (2) ([2013-04-02-1])) ͳϤ褯狼ʤˤ衤2ˤĤƤԵ§ֻȯδط夷ƤޤäȤſ
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
; (redundancy) ѤˤĤơ#1089. ȸ; ([2012-04-20-1])#1090. ; ([2012-04-21-1])#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1])#1098. ؤͿƤ뼨2 ([2012-04-29-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1]) ʤɤǵƤηϤΤȤƤߤ;Τۤˡ㤨бѸֻȤɽŪηϤˤ;ͤ뤳ȤǤ롥#1599. Qantas ȯ ([2013-09-12-1]) Ǿ̤ꡤ㤨 <q> θˤ <u> 뤳Ȥ˹⤤ΩǴԤ뤿ᡤ<qu> ;ζˤƹ⤤ʸϢȤȤǤ롥
ѸֻηϤΤȤƤߤƤ;⤤ΤᡤѸθá֡졤Ѥʤɤ˴ؤ塤Ѿμ˭٤ǤСɬˡ̤֤ƤʤȤ⡤ʬʸϤɲ뤳ȤǤ롥ġñֻεϤΰæϤȤꡤʸʸζ̤ʤꡤʬ¾ζˡάƤ⡤¿ΤΡ褽ɤ뤳Ȥϲǽ̤˸ѲѰۤˤƷû (shortening) ӻǤ뤳ȤͤСɸŪʽդˤƤ⡤ֻˤṳ̂ˤȤưפ롥δϡγݤѤκǾϾΩطˤꡤξԤϤ줫Фꤹʤ褦ʷǡֻηϤХݻƤΤȹͤ롥
줫ϤФꤹηϤȤƵǽʤʤΤΡ¿ФˤȤɤޤ¤ϡʤȤѤΤǤ롥ȤƷӵѤƤǶ Short Messages Service (SMS) ǤϡѼԤϡꥢ뤿ˡåɲǽϰǤʤ٤̤ɬפ롥ѸΥåˤĤƤСֻ;Ǿˤ褦ʸץˤ뤳ȤˤäơºݤΰΨ뤳ȤǤ롥ſʸΤθǤȤäȤ
ºݤˡθƤߤ褦ʲ "Text Squeezer" ϡ첻礿ˤȤḁ̊ץ1ĤǤPerl ⥸塼 Lingua::EN::Squeeze ѡˡϤƥȤˤ뤬10%ʾΰΨ롥ϥƥȤϡΤ˲뤬ƤȤʤѤȤ狼롥Ṳ̆ˡǽ줿ʸǡѸˡ;Ǥ뤫ΤƤ餤
63դǴ줿Ѥʵ;̾Ȥ people one ۤɤΰŪʻؼоݤɽ魯 you ˡϡŪˤĤɤΤ褦ȯãΤȤǤ롥ѸʸĤ褦
You learn a language better if you visit the country where it is spoken.
It's a friendly place---people come up to you in the street and start talking.
You have to be 21 or over to buy alcohol in Florida.
On a clear day you can see the mountains from here.
I don't like body builders who are so overdeveloped you can see the veins in their bulging muscles.
ޤϡOED Ƥߤ褦you, pron., adj., and n. ˤСyou ̾ȤƤˡ16ȾСѸ̤롥
8. Used to address any hearer or reader; (hence as an indefinite personal pronoun) any person, one . . . .
c1555 Manifest Detection Diceplay sig. D.iiiiv, The verser who counterfeatith the gentilman commeth stoutly, and sittes at your elbowe, praing you to call him neare.
Ϥޤ2;ñ̾Ȥ thou ĤäƤΤǡOED thou, pron. and n.1 Ĵ٤ƤߤǤä;̾ȤƤθߤƤʤä
ѸξäƤߤ褦 Mustanoja ȡηˤĤƵߤĤ뤳ȤǤMustanoja (127) ϡthou ;Ūˡ Chaucer ˤߤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
It has been suggested (H. Koziol, E Studien LXXV, 1942, 170--4) that in a number of cases, especially when he seemingly addresses his reader, Chaucer employs thou for an indefinite person. Thus, for instance, in thou myghtest wene that this Palamon In his fightyng were a wood leon) (CT A Kn. 1655), thou seems to stand rather for an indefinite person and can hardly be interpreted as a real pronoun of address.
ܳŪʵ Mustanoja (224--25) Ƿ깭Ƥ롥嵭Τ褦 OED εҤϡˡȯãѸΤΤȵȤºݤˤñ thou ˤʣ ye ˤ⡤Ѹ줫㤬ΤǧȤѸ줫 ñ thou 㤬3İƤ뤬;Ūˡ̤äȤ (Mustanoja 224--25)
wel þu myhtes faren all a dæis fare, sculdest thu nevre finden man in tune sittende, ne land tiled (OE Chron. an. 1137)
no mihtest þu finde (Lawman A 31799)
--- and hwat mihte, wenest tu, was icud ine þeos wordes? (Ancr. 33)
Ѹˤñ thou Τۤ¿ʣ ye 뤤 you ϡ餬ñ thou ִĤĤäѸˤƤ⡤ۤΩϤʤä褦ʣ ye ⡤Τ˽Ѹ줫ʲΤ褦ʸڤ (Mustanoja 225)
--- þenne ȝe mawen schulen and repen þat ho er sowen (Poema Mor. 20)
--- and how ȝe shal save ȝowself þe Sauter bereth witnesse (PPl. B ii 38)
--- ȝe may weile se, thouch nane ȝow tell, How hard a thing that threldome is; For men may weile se, that ar wys, That wedding is the hardest band (Barbour i 264)
ʤMED thou (pron.) (1g, 2f) Ǥ yē (1b, 2b) Ǥ⡤;ŪˡϽѸ줫˭٤ʸڤ롥ʸȤ줿
ʹؼ2;̾줬ΰŪʿ͡ؼˡȯã뤳ȤˤʤäȤϡۤǤϤʤȤ虜Եˡ쥷ԤʤɤͤƤߤȤ褤Υ쥸ǤϡȯԤϡʹꤢ뤤ɤꤷ thou ʤ ye ʤѤ뤬Τ褦ʹꤢ뤤ɤϼºݤˤ¿ο͡Ǥ롥ޤΥ쥸ǤϡƤΰȾǤꡤȤꤢʤɤȤΩƤ thou ye Ū˻ؼоݤȤ뤳ȤϼԤ㤨ФΤ褦ʥ쥸ȯơ2;̾줬Ū;ŪѤ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤϤʤ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
##2219,2220,2226,2238,2247 εǰäƤ "Southern Voicing" ˴ؤꡥ
#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])
#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1])
#2226. ѸǸƬͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1])
#2238. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ (2) ([2015-06-13-1])
[2015-05-26-1]εǿ줿 Poussa ʸɤǤߤ Danelaw ϰ˸Ƭ [f] ͭʤä뤤Ϥθ̤ŤʤäͳǤϡƱϰ餫 [v] Ժߤäȡ뤤ϾʤȤŪǤϤʤäȤȤ롥Poussa (298) Ϥ¤ȤƤϼƤ餺ޤǿȤƤˤʤդɬפǤ롥
According to Skautrup (1944: 124), the sound system of Runic Danish had labial fricatives, voiced and unvoiced, and did not yet contain the labio-dental [f] and [v], but he believes that /f/ appeared in the following period. The development of the English dialects of the north midlands may have followed a similar time-table. The Runic Danish period corresponds to the period of Viking settlement in England, which was strongest in the north midlands. In the Eastern Division Viking Period settlement mainly affected East Anglia (particularly Norfolk) and part of Essex, which fell within the Danelaw in the late 9th. century. Southern Voicing of OE /f/ in initial position would have been unlikely in East Anglia, therefore, though during the OE/ME period initial [v] should have occurred in the Kentish dialect through the application of the Southern Voicing rule. [Skautrup = Skautrup, P. Det Danske Sprogs Historie I. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1944.]
ƬͭŪʬۤȤŪʳ硦̾ƼҲŪطʤ˾Ȥ餻С Poussa ̥ŪǤϤ뤬ǽפȤʤϤβŪʻ¤ΤƤʤȤΤԹ礬̤ϡ1ĤβȤƤȤɤƤۤʤ
Poussa, P. "Ellis's 'Land of Wee': A Historico-Structural Revaluation." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 1 (1995): 295--307.
ε#2245. Meillet "tout se tient" --- ηϤȤƤθ ([2015-06-20-1]) ơηϤǤ뤳ȡˤƤ "tout se tient" ǤȽҤ٤ Meillet Ρ⤦1Ĥ¦̡ʤҲŪʸѤΤƤߤ褦
Meillet (16--18) ϡθ¤ϸŪʤΤǤƱ˼ҲŪʤΤǤ⤢뤳ȤĥħǤȡΰѲսޤơĹϢʬ
[La réalité d'une langue] est linguistique : car une langue constitue un système complexe de moyens d'expression, système où tout se tient et où une innovation individuelle ne peut que difficilement trouver place si, provenant d'un pur caprice, elle n'est pas exactement adaptée à ce système, c'est-à-dire si elle n'est pas en harmonie avec les règles générales de la langue.
A un autre égard, la réalité de la langue est social : elle résulte de ce qu'une langue appartient à un ensemble défini de sujets parlants, de ce qu'elle est le moyen de communication entre les membres d'un même groupe et de ce qu'il ne dépend d'aucun des membres du groupe de la modifier ; la nécessité même d'être compris impose à tous les sujets le maintien de la plus grande identité possible dans les usages linguistiques : le ridicule est la sanction immédiate de toutes les déviations individuelles, et, dans les sociétés civilisées modernes, on exclut de tous les principaux emplois par des examens ceux des citoyens qui ne savent pas se soumettre aux règles de langage, parfois assez arbitraires, qu'a une fois adoptées la communauté. Comme l'a très bien dit, dans son Essai de sémantique, M. Bréal, la limitation de la liberté qu'a chaque sujet de modifier son language « tient au besoin d'être compris, c'est-à-dire qu'elle est de même sorte que les autres lois qui régissent notre vie sociale ».
Dès lors il est probable a priori que toute modification de la structure sociale se traduira par un changement des conditions dans lesquelles se développe la langage. Le langage est une institution ayant son autonomie ; il faut donc en déterminer les conditions générales de développement à un point de vue purement linguistique, et c'est l'objet de la linguistique générale ; il a ses conditions anatomiques, physiologiques et psychiques, et il relève de l'anatomie, de la physiologie et de la psychologie qui l'éclairent à beaucoup d'égards et dont la considération est nécessaire pour établir les lois de la linguistique générale ; mais du fait que le langage est une institution sociale, it résulte que la linguistique est une science sociale, et le seul élément variable auquel on puisse recourir pour rendre compte du changement linguistique est le changement social dont les variations du langages ne sont que les conséquences parfois immédiates et directes, et le plus souvent médiates et indirectes.
Il ne faut pas dire qu'on soit par là ramené à une conception historique, et qu'on retombe dans la simple considération des faits particuliers ; car s'il est vrai que la structure sociale est conditionnée par l'histoire, ce ne sont jamais les faits historiques eux-mêmes qui déterminent directement les changements linguistiques, et ce sont les changements de structure de la société qui seuls peuvent modifier les conditions d'existence du langage. Il faudra déterminer à quelle structure sociale répond une structure linguistique donnée et comment, d'une manière générale, les changements de structure sociale se traduisent par des changements de structure linguistique.
Meillet ϡ줬 "tout se tient" ηϤǤʾ塤ѲȤϸηϤѲΤȤˤۤʤ餺ϼҲηϤѲ˸ƱΤǤȹͤƤ롥ġΥߥʼҲѲǤϤʤޥʼҲηϤѲ֤ĶѤ̤ȤƴŪ˸ηϤɤ֤ΤäơܼŪϡǸʸˤ褦ˡͿθηϤʤҲηϤбƤꡤҲηϤѲɤΤ褦˸ηϤѲȤʤäƸΤȤˤ롥
ʹ¤˸ؤȼҲؤĤʤռMeillet οȾϢơ#2161. Ҳ¤Ѳϸ칽¤ľܤȿǤʤ ([2015-03-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
Meillet, Antoine. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1982.
ָηϤǤפȤ⤤ϡ塼Ρʹ¤˸ؤˤơŪʥơǤ롥θɽ⤦1ĤλȤơMeillet "tout se tient" 롥Meillet (16) ꡤսѤ褦
[La réalité d'une langue] est linguistique : car une langue constitue un système complexe de moyens d'expression, système où tout se tient et où une innovation individuelle ne peut que difficilement trouver place si, provenant d'un pur caprice, elle n'est pas exactement adaptée à ce système, c'est-à-dire si elle n'est pas en harmonie avec les règles générales de la langue.
"tout se tient" ϡ#1600. Samuels θѲǥ ([2013-09-13-1])#1928. Smith ˤ٥γإǥưŪǥ ([2014-08-07-1]) Ǥ礤˽Фβ Jeremy J. Smith Ǹˤ롥ϡѲˤηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ȤݤˡĤ⤳ "tout se tient" Ф (cf. #1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1])) Meillet (11) Ȥ⡤ΰѤΩIJսǡѲ˴ؤƼΤ褦ʼĥҤ٤Ƥ롥
Les changements linguistiques ne prennent leur sens que si l'on considère tout l'ensemble du développement dont ils font partie ; un même changement a une signification absolument différente suivant le procès dont il relève, et il n'est jamais légitime d'essayer d'expliquer un détail en dehors de la considération du système général de la langue où il appraît.
"tout se tient" ϡΤ˹¤ؤˤ롤ƤθѲˤ1ĤλǤϤ뤬Meillet ̾ʼҲؼԤȤƤΤƤ¤˾Ȥ餷Ƥΰ⤤ľƤߤȡۤʤ롥ȤΤϡΰʸϡäѤ줬ηϤǤȤȤ⤹ʸ̮˸ƤΤǤϤʤƱ˼ҲŪǤ⤢Ȥˤ2Ĥζ¸ĥʸ̮ˤƸƤ뤫Ĥޤꡤ"tout se tient" ϰ츫ȥι¤Ūʰ⤤¤ Meillet ϼҲŪ¦̤˰ռʤ顤ζˤƤΤǤ롥
Ǥϡ"tout se tient" ȽҤ٤ Meillet ϡѲˤȼҲѲˤδطɤΤ褦ˤߤƤΤεǰ
Meillet, Antoine. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1982.
ܤ2020ǯŤءѥԥå˸֥ԥȥ (pictogram) Ū줹ȤȤˡISO ʹɸಽˤؤϿܻؤȤʤƤ롥
ԥȥϼ˺ҳꡤؤνߤɽ魯ʤɸŪʤФʤȤħˤꡤ1964ǯؤκݤ˳Ѥ졤˹Τ뤳ȤȤʤä˭ʸˤʸܤ߽ФХ롦ߥ˥ؤ礭ʹǤ롥ܸݸ졤ػΩƾ夲褦Ȥߤϡܤˤ٤λٻԤϤˤ衤ŪˤϤۤȤɤʤƤʤиȤ̤¦̤ˤơܤŪʵϽФѶŪ˴ؤäƤȤȤϡ⳰ˤäƤ褤2020ǯ˸ƤΥԥȥؤĩ⡤˻ٻͤˤ狼䤹ϿɽƤ HP Ǥϡ64𤵤줿ͤˤ狼䤹Ͽɽ (PDF)ꤹ롥 *
ܤϡ۵±֡ˡʾʴѸꡤӥˡˡͤ褯ˬʥۥƥ롤ȥ졤ʪۡˤʤɤ濴˼ŪʥԥȥǰƬˤƺꤷƤ褦ԥȥθۤǽϤˤȤɤޤʤŪʰ̣ηϤɤŨԥȥηϤȤΤϲǽ߽ФʸԥȥǤꡤθ塤ȤηӤĤʤɽʸɽʸȯŸƤʸˤפ֤Ȥߡݥߥ˥˶뤿˥ԥȥबɾƤƤȤ¤϶̣ԥȥϸŪǤ뤬椨ˡñܼŪŪǤ롥
ԥȥηϤʤΤͤȤϤäƤ⡤ΤߤDzΤʣƸ뤳ȤʸˤˤƤ⡤γʸˤϡʬ (double_articulation) Τ줫ñ̡ʤǤ뤤ϲǤȷӤĤ뤳ȤˤꡤŪȯŸɤŨʣɽǽȤʤäƤΤǤ롥ԥȥηϤʸɽʸνȤȤϤߤɽʸؤȤϤǤ˸̸θηϤ˶¸ϤƤΤǤꡤԥȥबĥ˥СϤƤΤСΤȤԥȥηϤϡ줫鷲ؤɤڤäƤΤǤ (cf. #1521. ȷ ([2013-06-26-1]))
ǯΥԥȥ೫ȯȤƤܤʸˤȤįΤ⤪⤷ʸˤˤĤƤϡ#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1]) ڤӡ#1834. ʸǯɽ ([2014-05-05-1]) ȡԤĥäεȡ
ε#2242. ʥѸβŪħ ([2015-06-17-1]) ǥʥѸħΰü˿줿ʥѸȤϲȤϡѼ (variety) ܼŪޤǤ (cf. #415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1])#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1])#2116. ֱѸפεۣ ([2015-02-11-1])#2241. Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles ([2015-06-16-1])) Brinton and Fee (439) ϡʥѸγܤϤκǸǡʥѸȤϲȤ䤤ˤĤơΤ褦ʲͿƤ롥
Canadian English is the outcome of a number of factors. Canadian English was initially determined in large part by Canada's settlement by immigrants from the northern United States. Because of the geographical proximity of the two countries and the intertwining of their histories, economic systems, international policies, and print and especially television media, Canadian English continues to be shaped by American English. However, because of the colonial and postcolonial history of the British Empire, Canadian English is also strongly marked by British English. The presence of a long-standing and large French-speaking minority has also had an effect on Canadian English. Finally, social conditions, such as governmental policies of bilingualism, immigration, and multiculturalism and the politics of Quebec nationalism, have also played an important part in shaping this national variety of English.
ǤΥʥѸϡŪħ˴ŤΤǤϤʤʥ֤ƤҲŪĶŪаޤƧޤΤǤ롥ʥѸ̤ꤦΤǤСꥫѸαƶϤϳμ¤ǡҲŪ¿ѤȤƤʸȤΰռοƩˤꡤʥѸ¾μפʱѸѼ٤ƽѲƤ椯ǽ⤤
ޤǤ˥ߤǻƳƤ´ʸߤƤ⡤ܿͱѸؽԤΤʤˤϡʥѸʤơȥꥢѸ졤˥塼ɱѸˤ˴ؿļԤʤʤƤ2Ѽ˰ʤȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤܿͤϤιŪ˹ʤΤȻפΤˤϡǤϤαѸѼθ椬ʤCanadian English ϡҲŪˤäȤäܤƤ褤ѸѼǤ롥
Brinton, Laurel J. and Margery Fee. "Canadian English." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 422--40 .
ε#2241. Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles ([2015-06-16-1]) ˰³UBC Ǥ SHEL-9/DSNA-20 Conference ä;äơʥѸꡥ
ʥѸϡ#313. Canadian English ([2010-03-06-1]) ǤŦ褦ˡŪ American English British English ˵ϤĤǤǯ AmE ؤλָ褦μФ˰ĥ뤫ϡȯʸˡáˡʤɤˤäƤۤʤ뤬ȯˤĤƤϡʥѸϥꥫѸȶ̤ΤۤɤƤȸ롥ΤʤǡBrinton and Fee (426--30) ɸ५ʥѸ (Standard Canadian English; ʲ SCE ɽ) βŪħȤưʲ8˸ڤƤ롥
(1) Canadian Raising: ̵Ҳ [aʊ] -> [ʌu], [aɪ] -> [ʌɪ] Ȥʤ롥äơout and about ϡoat and a boat ˶ʤ롥ͭҲǤϾ夲ʤᡤγƥڥǤϰۤʤ2첻ʹ롥lout/loud, bout/bowed, house/houses, mouth (n.)/mouth (v.), spouse/espouse; bite/bide, fife/five, site/side, tripe/tribe, knife/knives. åȥѼѼMartha's Vineyard Ѽ (cf. [2015-02-22-1]) ʤɤˤƤ⡤褦ʾ夲ϴѻ뤬Canadian Raising ϤȤϴطʤΩѲȹͤƤ롥
(2) Merger of [ɑ] and [ɔ]: 85%ΥʥѸüԤˤߤ븽ݡ19ȾФѲȤ졤General American ǤƱݤѻ롥βѲˤʲΥڥϤƱȤʤäƤ롥offal/awful, Don/dawn, hock/hawk, cot/caught, lager/logger, Otto/auto, holly/Hawley, tot/taught. GA Ȱۤʤꡤ[ɹ] Ǥ [ɔ] ݤäƤȤħ (ex. sorry, tomorrow, orange, porridge, Dorothy) ͻˤĤƤϡ#484. ǿΥꥫѸ첻ͻȿǤ MWALED ȯɽ ([2010-08-24-1]) ȡ
(3) Voicing of intervocalic [t]: 첻˶ޤ줿 [t] ͭ [d] 뤤 [ɾ] Ȥʤ븽ݡ̤ȤơʲΥڥϤ줾ƱȤʤ롥metal/medal, latter/ladder, hearty/hardy, flutter/flooder, bitter/bidder, litre/leader, atom/Adam, waiting/wading. SCE Ǥϡβ¾δĶؤڤǤꡤfilter, shelter, after, sister, washed out, picture ʤɤǤ뤳Ȥ롥
(4) Yod dropping: SCE ǤϡҲθΤ錄겻 [j] κ (glide deletion) GA Ʊͤ s θǤ뤬GA Ȱۤʤ [t, d, n] θǤݻȤȤŪ˼ĥƤºݤˤϡGA αƶǡԤδĶˤƤ yod-dropping ƤƤȤ (cf. #841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1])#1562. Χߤ yod-dropping ([2013-08-06-1]))
(5) Retention of [r]: SCE ϰŪ rhotic Ǥ롥Ūˤ New England β (Loyalists) ˤäƤ⤿餵줿 non-rhotic ѼαƶäϤrhotic ʥꥹ̱ȤȤľܤ⤿餵줿аޤ⤢ꡤԤͥȤʤäΤ
(6) Marry/merry/Mary: ɸ।ꥹѸǤ3첻̤뤬ʥѸȥꥫѸΤĤѼǤϡMary merry [ɛr] ͻ礷marry [ær] Ȥƶ̤2ʬˡǤ롥ˡʥѸǤϱƽѼȰۤʤꡤBarry, guarantee, caramel ʤɤ [æ] 㤯Ĵ롥
(7) Secondary stress: -ory, -ary, -ery ǽ (ex. laboratory, secretary, monastery ) ǡGA Ʊͤˡ2ݤġ
(8) [hw] versus [w]: GA ηƱͤˡwhich/witch, where/wear, whale/wale, whet/wet θƬҲΩƱȤʤ롥
Τ褦˸ƤȡSCE ͭβŪħȤϡGA ȶ̤Τ¿Ȥ狼롥Ͷ̤ƤȤǡʬŪ˿ޤ㤦夲ơʥѸȼФȤȤBrinton and Fee (526) Bailey (161)) Ƹ褦ˡ"What is distinctly Canadian about Canadian English is not its unique linguistic features (of which there are a handful) but its combination of tendencies that are uniquely distributed" ȤȤ
ꥫѸȥꥹѸκˤĤƤ⡤٤ƱȤȻפäƤ롥#2186. Webޥε֥ѥõѸαƺԡס ([2015-04-22-1]) ǾҲ𤷤WEBޥ Lingua شƤǤҤ٤褦ˡŪˤꡤꥫѸȥꥹѸκۤϡñɽλѡԻѤȤƸΤǤϤʤλ٤ΰ㤤ȤƸۤˤפǤ롥Ѥ̵ͭǤϤʤʬۤΰ㤤Ѽ¾Ѽ狼̤ͭʻɸʤΤȻפҲŪʳǰǤѼפˡŪʴ⤦ȤΤǤСΤ褦̯ʺۤդʧȤɬפ
ʸ嵭2015/06/19(Fri) Bailey (162) ϡ٤ΰ㤤Ȥ˥ʥѸνѼ֤δطˤŬѤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥"The most useful perspective, then, is one in which Canadian English is viewed as a cluster of features that combine in varying proportions in differing communitites within Canada." (Bailey, Richard W. "The English Language in Canada." English as a World Language. Ed. Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1983. 134--76.)
Brinton, Laurel J. and Margery Fee. "Canadian English." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 6. Cambridge: CUP, 2001. 422--40 .
Bailey, Richard W. "The English Language in Canada." English as a World Language. Ed. Richard W. Bailey and Manfred Görlach. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1982. 134--76.
ʥ University of British Columbia dzŤ줿 SHEL-9/DSNA-20 Conference (The 9th Studies in the History of the English Language Conference) ˻äƤȯɽ1ĤˡDCHP-2 ץȤ˴ؤ𤬤äDCHP-2 ȤϡŪ§ˤäԤޤ줿ʥˡμ Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles 2ǤǤ롥Ǥ1967ǯ˽ǤƤꡤ2013ǯˤŻҲ줿Τ DCHP-1 Ȥƥ־ǸƤ롥DCHP-2 UBC ΤȤʤäԻʤƤꡤ˶ŤƤ褦ʤΤǡ餺뤳ȤˤʤȯɽǤϡԻ˴ؤ UBC γʬŪ DCHP-2 ΥǥƤ줿ʤʤ¤ƤΤ褦
ȯɽǤϡʶˡ̣ˡ Canadianism ǤȤȤä Canadianism ȤߤʤΤȤˤĤơˤƤ绨ĤˤСʥǻѤѸǤʤꥫѸ졤ꥹѸ졤¾αѸѼΥѥоݤȤѤʥѤѸŪ˻ѤФäƤΤ Canadianism ȤߤʤȤˤӤƤ롥줾οͤϥդDzĻ벽졤ʣѥѤĹ꤬¤˳褫Ƥ褦Τ褦ʥդưפ褦ˤʤСѸѼ֤¿ŪӤ¥ʤ
ŪŪ Canadianism ȤߤʤƤˤĤƤϡ嵭ˤβǤȤ櫓ȽŪʸƤä졤ˤäƤ Canadianism ȤߤʤȤϤǤʤȤ뤳Ȥ⤢ȤCanadianism Ȥǧꤵ줿ΤˤĤƤϡѥŵηǺܤϤŪطʤˤĤƤܤҤܤ롥
DCHP-2 СʥѸ츦ƤߤĤȤϴְ㤤ʤʥѸ˸¤餺Ѹμ䥳ѥԻޤޤ赤ŤƤСѼ֤Ӥ⤷䤹ʤꡤʱѸ츦ƻϤǤ롥21ŪʱѸؤη1Ĥ
ޤΥץȤϡѼȤϲȤܼŪƸƤ뤹ƤƤ褦ˤפ롥 Canadianism ȤϲŪǤΤ뤤ϤҤȤ˼ҲŪǥŪˤǤʤΤLilles Τ褦˥ʥѸֿáפȤߤԤ⤤СºߤȼĥԤ⤤롥ϡCanadianism ˸¤餺Americanism, Britishism ʤɡ֡ˡפؤ -ism Τ٤Ƥ˴ؤǤ롥Ѽ (variety) ͤˤĤƤϡ#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1])#1373. variety Ȥϲ ([2013-01-29-1])#2116. ֱѸפεۣ ([2015-02-11-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
äơʥѸˤȳפˤĤƤϡ#313. Canadian English ([2010-03-06-1])#1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1]) ⻲ȡ
Lilles, Jaan. "The Myth of Canadian English." English Today 62 (April 2000): 3--9, 17.
thousand θ츻Ĥ줢äɴפǤ뤳ȤΤäѸ thousand űѸ þūsend ⡤hund(red) ƤȤ餷ʤäĴ٤Ƥߤ PGmc *þūs(h)undi- ̤Ȥʤۤ hund Ƥ롥ĸȤƤ *tūskm̥ti ƷƤꡤ1Ǥ *teu(ə)- (to swell, be strong) Ǥ롥ϥƥư tumēre (to swell) ߡ͡DZѸؤѤ졤tumour, tumult ʤɤäƤ롥ꥷͳ褹 tomb 衤͡פ⤢롥ޤޥ줫ѸؼѤ줿ȤƤ thigh, thumb ʤɤ롥ܤƻؤ⡤Ĥ줢äȸФΤȤơthousand ϡĤ줢äɴפۤɤΰդȤʤä
ƥ mille (thousand) ϡޤäۤʤꡤthousand ȤϤʤ褦Ǥ mille εϲȤȡ줬ԾܤǤ롥ĸˤϡפɽ魯ϺƷƤ餺μ¤ƱߤʤѸˤᤤʳ mile Ѥ졤millenium, millepede, milligram, million ʤɤθǤ combining form (cf. #552. combining form ([2010-10-31-1])) ȤѤʤɳƤΤ¿촴Ǥ롥
hundred ɽ魯캬ˤĤƤϡ#100. hundred ȰӸء ([2009-08-05-1])#1150. centum satem ([2012-06-20-1]) ȡ
ޥκǤ褯Τ줿ʬϡޥ졤̡ؤ3ʬˡǤ롥ϵ2--4Υޥ̱²εサϤȤΤǡAugust Schleicher (1821--68) 1850ǯΤǤ롥Ūˤϡ쥲ޥ dags ʥȸˡ̥ޥ dagr ʸťΥɸˡޥ dæg ʸűѸˤˤߤѲ̾ñʸηŪħ˴ŤƤ롥
3ʬˡˤ餫¿1951ǯ Ernst Schwarz (1895--1983) ϡ2ʬˡƤ̤ҤäȡΥɸ̥ޥפȤƤޤȤᡤޥʡޥפȤƤΩ3ʬʳȤơ̤ޤȤơޥפȤͭϤ⤬1955ǯ Hans Kuhn (1899--1988) ˤ줿
嵭Τ褦˥ޥɤȤؤޥʥ٥ƤƤΤΡ¤ϰ䤨ʤäΤޥ췲ζʬǤ롥ޥ췲ϡˤߤѲ̾ñʸξüΤۤҲʣʤɤβ (ex. PGmc *satjan > OE settan) ͭ뤬Ǹ췲γ֤꤬礭Ȥ𤬤롥㤨иűѸȸŹɥĸγ֤礭ϡ̥ޥγ֤礭äųؤޤ˲ȤҤ˴ŤߤͭϤʸˤȡޥ餫ǤϤʤ3롼פʬƤȤ롥̳ޥ (North Sea Germanic, or Ingvaeonic)饤ޥ (Weser-Rhine Germanic, or Erminonic), ޥ (Elbe Germanic, or Istvaeonic) 3ĤǤ롥ϡFriedrich Maurer (1898--1984) 1952ǯΤǤ롥
ˤ衤ޥ֤δطϡñʷȤϺǤꡤߤʬ«֤ܿơʣʴطʤƤȤϴְ㤤ʤʾϡ (7--11) εҤΤǸ Maurer ˴Ťʬ (7--8) ѤƤޤȤ褦
(1) (a) 쥲ޥ
[1]ޥ졧ȸʤ
(2) ޥ졧롼
(b)[2]̥ޥťΥɸ
Υɸ졧ťɸ졤ťΥ륦
Υɸ졧ťǥ졤ťǥޡ졤ťȥɸ
(c) ޥ
(i)[3]̳ޥ졧űѸ졤ťեꥸ졤ťʡɥĸ졤ťϥ
(ii) Φޥ졧
[4]饤ޥ졧Źʡ˥ɥĸťեťʡե
[5]ޥ졧Źʡ˥ɥĸťХťޥ
Ϣơgermanic γƵӡ#9. ȸGothicˤȱѸˡ ([2009-05-08-1])#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#785. ޥ٤¬뤿10ܡ ([2011-06-21-1])#857. ޥ²κħ ([2011-09-01-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡޤޥʬϿޤ Distribution of the Germanic languages in Europe ɤ *
إޥ١Ʋ2012ǯ
ˤĤƤϡǶᡤʲεƤ (##2219,2220,2226,2238)
#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])
#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1])
#2226. ѸǸƬͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1])
ѸˤƬͭ ("Southern Voicing") ʬۤϡߤʬۤ⤺äΰ褬ˤޤdzȤäƤؤºݤޤʬۤεڤ⤢äˤζؤȲᤵ줿Ȥаޤ롥ؤβᤷޤơǤʤ "Southern Voicing" ʤäΤ
βᤷʬۤ˴ؤ Danelaw ΰȴϢŤΤε ([2015-05-26-1]) Ǥ̾ Poussa Ǥ롥Poussa ϡ#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1254. ѸäդθѲϽդߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1]) Ǥ夲Ѹ쥪첾μĥԤǤ롥Poussa (249) ηϡ
In sum, I submit that, whereas the original advance of the initial fricative voicing innovation through the OE dialects is a natural and not unusual phonetic process (it has its parallels in other Germanic dialects on the continent), the halting and then the reversing of such an innovation in ME is an unexpected development, requiring explanation. It can only be explained by some kind of intervention in the dialect continuum. The Scandinavian settlement of the north and east Midlands in the late OE period seems to supply the right kind of intervention at the right place and time to explain this remarkable linguistic U-turn.
Poussa ζŪʵ2롥1ĤϡťΥɸȤܿˤԥ뤤ϥ쥪벽桦αѸѼˤƤϡȤŪͭɸǤƬͭϺѤʤäȤ (Poussa 238) ⤦1ĤϡѸ East-Midland μҲŪʱƶϤɥɸѼη礭褦ˤʤˤĤơƬ⤿ʤƱΰҿޤäˡζ˲줿ΤȤҲŪǤ롥פˡθƬͭϿˤդ路ʤȯȤɾȽEast-Midland üԤ濴˳ȤäȤȤǤ롥
Poussa (247) ѤƤ˼ҲؤʹͻȤƶ̣
It seems to me that the voicing of initial /f-/, /s-/, /θ-/ and /ʃ-/ in OE and ME, which Fisiak convincingly argues are caused by one and the same lenition process, is precisely the type of rule which is typically jettisoned when a language is pidginized or creolized, and acquired only partially by learners of a new dialect. Furthermore, why should the speaker of a Danelaw dialect of English want to sound like a southerner, whether he lives in his home district, or has been transplanted to London? It would depend on what pronunciation he (or she), consciously or unconsciously, regarded as prestigious.
If this explanation is accepted as the reason why such an expansive lenition innovation stopped at approximately the Danelaw boundary during the late OE or early ME period, then the reason why the area of voicing subsequently receded southwards is presumably related: migration of population and the rise in the social prestige of the East Midland dialect meant that the phonologically simpler variety became the standard to be imitated.
Poussa, Patricia. "A Note on the Voicing of Initial Fricatives in Middle English" Papers from the 4th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Eaton, R., O. Fischer, W. Koopman, and F. van der Leeke. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1985. 235--52.
Ѹ go home ˤ home ϡʸˡǤȤƤ뤬Ūˤϡ#783. home ̾Ūгʤ ([2011-06-19-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡֲȡפɽ魯̾гʤǤ롥űѸǤϰưɽ魯гʤˡꡤгʤñȤŪǽ̤ȤǤűѸ hām Ѳ̾гʤȼʤƱäˡ̾줬ΤޤŪѤƤ뤫Τ褦ª졤ĤȤƺƲᤵ˻ä
be home stay home Ȥɽˤ home ˤĤƤϤɤŪȤƺƲᤵ줿Τϡưɽ魯гʤȤƤ hām Ǥ롥ֺ𤷤ơȤˡפΤȤŪʰ̣Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤϡhome Ȥª褦ˤʤäΡ̣ŪؤγĥȤȤǡ֤ޡפ I'm home. ϡֺäƤ (= I've come home.) ۤɤ̣ŪȤưŪʰưδޤߤűѸгˡȤϢ³ʤʤĴ櫓ǤϤʤΤˤĤ OED home, adv. ̣ͿƤƤΤǡҲ𤷤褦
OED ʸʤɤ礹ȡŪȤƤ home ȯãˤϡ2Ĥηϩͤ롥1Ĥϡ衤ưŪǤ뤫 go come ʤɤΰưưȶΤֹ̤Ԥפ˶ᤤưŪʰ̣Ѥ줿 be ȶ뤳Ȥ϶ѸǤ⤢äI'll be home. Now I'm home to bed. be ȶƤ뤬be ˤ home ˤưŪʰ̣ѤƤ롥Τ褦ʹʸȤʤꡤhome ưȶ褦ˤʤꡤŪʰ̣ȯŸǽ롥뤤ϡФаưưä˽ưθǾά줿ˡI'm (gone) home. Τ褦ʴλˤưưξάüȯΤȤ븫⤢롥
⤦1ĤηϩϡűѸʰˤΰ̳ʷͳ褹ȤΤűѸޤǤ˰̳ʤͿʤ˵ۼƤθͿʷˤѲ̾Ȥͽۤ hāme ¤ǡŤ̳ʷȿǤȻפ hām (ex. æt hām) ʸڤ롥Ūε hām(e) ˵뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤºݡOld High German, Middle Low German, Old Icelandic ʤɤƱϸǤϡгʤͿʡʰ̳ʡˤˡȷ֤ζ̤ʸڤƤꡤűѸʿǧ뤳ȤԲǽǤϤʤ⤷ʤ
2Υ롼ȤϡŪʰ̣ȯθȡ줬褦˻פ롥Ūˡν OED Ǥ16ȤʤäƤꡤMED hōm (adv.) 㤫ŪˡϳǧʤʹߤȯǤʤСűѸʰˤΰ̳ʤͳ褹Ȥ2Υ롼Ȥꤷˤʤ롥ͭϤʤΤϡ1Υ롼Ȥ
ʤ֤ޡפȤƤ I'm home. СưȤȤѤŪ home ϡꥫѸǤλѤ¿ꥹѸǤ at home Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿褦
ʤ the apple ̤ [ði ˈæpl] ȯ졤[ðə ˈæpl] ȤʤˤΤˤĤƤϡ#906. the ΰۤʤȯ ([2011-10-20-1])#907. 첻 the εŪȯ ([2011-10-21-1]) ǤĤθҲ𤷤Ƥβ (euphony)[i] ĴŪİŪΤ϶θ̤ʤɤͿƤΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ̾ (68--72) 첻ζĥдˤȤ顤äƤ롥
Ѹ첻ˤϡĥ (tense) д (lax) Ω롥첻Ǥ [i(ː)] ĥ첻[ɪ] д첻ñdzơĶϲŪˤ褽ޤäƤ롥㤨̵ˤƤ happy [ˈhæpi] Τ褦˶ĥ첻Τ̤θ˲³ happily [ˈhæpɪli] Τ褦д첻뤳Ȥ¿ˤäƤϡд첻 [ɪ] Ϥд˲[ə] ˻뤳Ȥ⤢С첻üƤޤȤ餢롥
˲³Ǥ⡤β첻ǻϤޤˤϡhappier [ˈhæpiə] Τ褦˶ĥ첻ݤΤ§Ǥ롥ϡĥ첻ĴŪˤİŪˤΤǤꡤ³첻ͻ礷æƤޤΤɤƯƤΤĥ첻ϡζ̤ݻΤΩĤȤȤ³Τ첻Ҳǡĥ첻д첻ؤϡcreate [kriˈeɪt] vs cremate [krɪˈmeɪt], react [riˈækt] vs relate [rɪˈleɪt], beatitude [biˈætitjuːd] vs believe [bɪˈliːv] ʤɤˤ⸫ȤǤ롥
the ζĥ첻 [i] д첻 [ə] (or [ɪ]) θؤ⡤Ʊ褦˹ͤ뤳ȤǤ롥첻³ˤϡthe βΩݤĤ˶ĥ첻 [i] Ѥ졤the apple [ði ˈæpl] Τ褦ˤʤ롥Ҳ³ˤϡthe 첻дˤȤƤⲻΩݤ뤿ᡤĥ첻ɬܤȤϤʤʤ衤괧̵Ǥ뤫ȯޤꡤд첻ȼä the grape [ðə greɪp] Τ褦ˤʤΤϡԤǤ롥
̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Ѹˡˤϡ3ʸ§פȸƤФ롼뤬롥Ķ٤εǽñ3ʸʾ֤ʤФʤʤȤΤѸǤ "the three letter rule" 뤤 "the short word rule" Ȥ롥Jespersen (149) εҤϤ褦
4.96. Another orthographic rule was the tendency to avoid too short words. Words of one or two letters were not allowed, except a few constantly recurring (chiefly grammatical) words: a . I . am . an . on . at . it . us . is . or . up . if . of . be . he . me . we . ye . do . go . lo . no . so . to . (wo or woe) . by . my.
To all other words that would regularly have been written with two letters, a third was added, either a consonant, as in ebb, add, egg, Ann, inn, err---the only instances of final bb, dd, gg, nn and rr in the language, if we except the echoisms burr, purr, and whirr---or else an e . . .: see . doe . foe . roe . toe . die . lie . tie . vie . rye, (bye, eye) . cue, due, rue, sue.
4.97 In some cases double-writing is used to differentiate words: too to (originally the same word) . bee be . butt but . nett net . buss 'kiss' bus 'omnibus' . inn in.
In the 17th c. a distinction was sometimes made (Milton) between emphatic hee, mee, wee, and unemphatic he, me, we.
2ʸȤʤꤦΤϵǽ줬ۤȤɤǤ뤿ᡤε§ưŤƤװȤơƸȵǽȤäβ̶ʬͿƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
ΰѤκǸ Milton hee he ̤ƤȤ¤ϡ⤦1ĤưŤβǽ롥ʤǽΤߤ2ʸ֤줦ȤΤϡǽ줬ƤȯȤƤûȤȤֻȿǤǤϤʤȡȴϢơoff of ȤƤƱζȼͳ褹뤳ȤפФ (cf. #55. through θ츻 ([2009-06-22-1])#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1])#1775. rob A of B ([2014-03-07-1])) Milton John Donne 顤;̾ζȼֻȿǤƤƤߤ褦 (Carney 132 ѡˡ
so besides
Mine own that bide upon me, all from mee
Shall with a fierce reflux on mee redound,
On mee as on thir natural center light . . .
Did I request thee, Maker, from my Clay
To mould me Man, did I sollicite thee
From darkness to promote me, or here place
In this delicious Garden?
(Milton Paradise Lost X, 737ff.)
For every man alone thinkes he hath got
To be a Phoenix, and that then can bee
None of that kinde, of which he is, but hee.
(Donne An Anatomie of the World: 216ff.)
Carney (133) ϡ3ʸ§κݤä㳰Ȥ <ox> (cf. <ax> or <axe>)̵ε§ǤϤʤȤǧʤ⡤Ʊ§Τ褦˸Ƥ롥
Lexical monosyllables are usually spelt with a minimum of three letters by exploiting <e>-marking or vowel digraphs or <C>-doubling where appropriate.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
#2227. ʤ <u> ǽñ줬ʤΤ ([2015-06-02-1]) Ǥϡ㳰ŪֻȤƤ <you> ˤĤƿ줿§Ȥ <u> ǽϤʤΤκǽ̤Τ褦Ǥ롥˴Ϣο⤦1Ĥθ⡤Ʊ㳰Ť2;ñ̾ <thou> Ǥ롥꤬⤷ʤäƤط뵭ҤõƤߤȡUpward and Davidson (188) ˤĤƴñ˿Ƥ롥
OU and OW have become fixed in spellings mainly according to their position in the word, with OU in initial or medial positions before consonants . . . .
OU is nevertheless found word-finally in you and thou, and in some borrowings from or via Fr: chou, bayou, bijou, caribou, etc.
The pronunciation of thou arises from a stressed form of the word; hence OE /uː/ has developed to /aʊ/ in the GVS. The pronunciation of you, on the other hand, derives from an unstressed form /jʊ/, from which a stressed form /juː/ later developed.
Upward and Davidson ˤϤʾεҤäˤʤäΤǡ˾ܤĴɬפ롥ŪˤߤС*<yow> ֤ˡ⤢뤫⤷ʤֻ§˾Ȥ餹 /jaʊ/ бƤޤԹ礬<ewe> <yew> ֻϡǤˡֻӡס֥פ̣ȤƻȤƤ롥ۤˡ*<yue> Τ褦ֻϤɤʤΤʤɤȤͤƤߤ롥ͭʤ <your> ϸ <ou> Ȥֻ§Ū˵Ƥ뤬ֻ§§äƤΤǤСбȯ */jaʊə/ ȤʤϤǤꡤǤ꤬롥ϿޤФ
ΰѤǤƤ you ȯˤĤơܤϡ#2077. you ȯˡ([2015-01-03-1]) ȡ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
ѸˤǤϡŪѲȤȤ˰ʲΤ褦˰ܤѤäƤȤ褯ΤƤ롥Jespersen ͭ̾ʷϩUkaji (453)
(1) ic ne secge.
(2) I ne seye not.
(3) I say not.
(4) I do not say.
(5) I don't say.
(1) űѸǤϡ ne ư֤(2) ѸǤưθŪ not ä2Ĥ꼭Ƕ߹褦ˤʸΤŵŪä(3) 15--17δ֤ ne 岽üʳưˤäƤ18ޤ¸³(4) ӡ15Ⱦ do-periphrasis ˤ꤬Ϥޤä (cf. #486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1])#1596. ʬˤβ ([2013-09-09-1])) (5) 1600ǯˡ don't
(2) ʲʳǤϡ줬ưθ֤ƤȤ롥ȤǤϤ뤬Ѹ줫ѸˤơŪħæ I not say. Τ褦ʹʸUkaji (454) ΰƤĤ褦
I Not holde agaynes luste al vttirly. (circa 1412 Hoccleve The Regement of Princes) [Visser]
I seyd I cowde not tellyn that I not herd, (Paston Letters (705.51--52)
There is no need of any such redress, Or if there were, it not belongs to you. (Sh. 2H4 IV.i.95--96)
I not repent me of my late disguise. (Jonson Volp. II.iv.27)
They ... possessed the island, but not enjoyed it. (1740 Johnson Life Drake; Wks. IV.419) [OED]
衤δ̯θϡűѸαʸȿǤΤǤȤĴǤȤ(1) ʳη³ǤȤ͡ƤUkaji (3) (4) ʳĤʤ "bridge phenomenon" ȤΤ(3) (4) δ֤ˡ(3') Ȥ I not say ߹Ȥǥ
ϡˤ⼫ȤмǤ롥(3') I not say ϡdo ȼʤ (3) I say not ȶ̤Ƥꡤnot ̣ôưʤξ sayˤ֤Ƥ (4) I do not say ȶ̤Ƥ롥(3) (4) Τ礭褦˴뤬(3') ꤹСϤϥࡼ
Ukaji ʸ褯ɤǤߤȡζϤȤͤϡ (3) (3') (4) ʳľŪȯŸȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤ褦Ukaji ϡ(3) (4) ؤΰܹԤϡϤҤȤӤȹͤƤ롥ŪˡϤ褦ʡΥå¤餲褦ʤǡ(3') ȯȤͤäơȯλŪȤƤϡष (3) (4) (3') ꤷƤ롥Τ褦˲᤹뺬ȤơUkaji (456) ϡ(4) ʳãƤʤ have be ʤɤư (3') ⼨ʤȤʤɤƤ롥(3) (4) ؤΰܹԤλСϤȤƤ (3') פȤʤꡤäƤȤˤʤäȡ
Ѹˤˤ붶ϤΤ⤦1ĤȤơUkaji (456--59) "compound numeral" Ƥ롥(1) űѸ줫ѸޤǰŪä twa 7 twentig Τ褦ɽ(2) 16Ƭ˰̲ twenty-three ʤɤɽ˰ܹԤȤϤꤵ (1') twenty and nine 15濴ˤʤ٤ѤƤȤ(1) (2) ؤΰܹԤλȤϤȤƤ (1') פȤʤꡤäƤäȡ
2Ĥ㤫̲Τޤ⤷ʤUkaji (459) Ѳζ̣Ƥʤ顤Τ褦ʸǤ롥
I conclude with the hypothesis that syntactic change tends to be facilitated via a bridge sharing in part the properties of the two chronological constructions involved in the change. The bridge characteristically falls into disuse once the transition from the old to the new construction is completed.
Ukaji, Masatomo. "'I not say': Bridge Phenomenon in Syntactic Change." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 453--62.
ɸβˤĤơ#1674. ѲȶοʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1])#2017. foot ʣϤʤ feet (2) ([2014-11-04-1])#2225. hear -- heard -- heard ([2015-05-31-1]) ǿƤϤ⤦ܤβϡi-mutation ˡ餯űѸ (pre-OE) θȤ벻ѲǤꡤűѸβ礭ʱƶڤܤLass (98) üŪˤСHVD (High Vowel Deletion) ϰʲΤ褦ˤޤȤ롥
The fates of short high */i, u/ in weak positions are largely determined by the weight of the preceding strong syllable. In outline, they deleted after a heavy syllable, but remained after a light one, in the case of */i/ usually lowering to /e/ at a later stage.
촴Ťrhyme 3⡼ʾ夫ʤ˾ˡ³夤ι첻 (/i/, /u/) üȤǤ롥Ԥ촴ŤˤϡǤΤȤƽŤΤ顤˹첻³;פ˽Ť櫓ˤϤʤȲᤷƤ褤ơ촴ηڽŤˤꡤ³첻̵ͭڤؤ륱뤳ȤȤʤäLass (99--100) ͤˡűѸ줫褦HVD Ѥ֤ǼƤ롥
| Syllable weight | pre-OE | OE |
|---|---|---|
| heavy | *ðα:ð-i | dǣd 'deed' |
| heavy | *wurm-i | wyrm 'worm' |
| light | *win-i | win-e 'friend' |
| heavy | *flo:ð-u | flōd 'flood' |
| heavy | *xαnð-u | hand 'hand' |
| light | *sun-u | sun-u 'son' |
| heavy | *xæur-i-ðæ | hīer-de 'heard' |
| light | *nær-i-ðæ | ner-e-de 'saved' |
(i) a-stem neuter nom/acc sg: light scip-u 'ships' vs. heavy word 'word(s)', bān 'bone(s)'.
(ii) ō-stem feminine nom sg: light gief-u 'gift' vs. heavy lār 'learning'.
(iii) i-stem nom sg: light win-e 'friend' vs. heavy cwēn 'queen'
(iv) u-stem nom sg: light sun-u 'son' vs. heavy hand 'hand'.
(v) Neuter/feminine strong adjective declension: light sum 'a certain', fem nom sg, neut nom/acc sg sum-u vs. heavy gōd 'good', fem nom sg gōd.
(vi) Thematic weak verb preterites . . . .
ΤѸˤޤ HVD θ̤³¸ƤϤ鷺Ǥ롥ʬ heard ʣ sheep ˲餫Ե§ȤǤϤĤƤ HVD αƶŪˤΤäƤΤǤ롥
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ư (preterite-present_verb) ˤĤƤϡ#58. ưθ߷Ȳ ([2009-06-25-1]) ȡ#66. ư ([2009-07-03-1]) ǤߤƤθűѸˤǤ wāt (to know) mōt ΥѥįƤȡˤʤ뤳Ȥ롥ưβϡѲưǤ뤫Τ褦˻ (dental suffix) դΤǡ줾 *witte, *mōtte ʤɤȤʤꤽʤΤºݤ˸űѸʸڤ֤ wiste/wisse, mōste ʤɤǤʰʲɽǤϡϢβս֤ǼƤˡ-st- Τ褦 s ΤϤɤ櫓
| Present Indicative | ||
| Sg. 1 | wāt | mōt |
| 2 | wāst | mōst |
| 3 | wāt | mōt |
| Pl. | witon | mōton |
| Present Subjunctive | ||
| Sg. | wite | mōte |
| Imperative | ||
| Sg. | wite | |
| Pl. | witað | |
| Preterite Indicative | ||
| Sg. 3 | wiste, wisse | mōste |
| Pl. | wiston, wisson | mōston |
| Preterite Subjunctive | ||
| Sg. | wiste, wisse | mōste |
| Infinitive | witan | |
| Infl.inf. | to witanne | |
| Pres.part. | witende | |
| Pa.part. | witen | |
In the pret. of wāt, forms with -st- are more frequent than those with -ss- already in EWS, except in Bo, although -ss- is the older form, reflecting PGmc *-tt- . . . . Wiste was created analogically by the re-addition of a dental preterite suffix at a later date; such forms are found in the (sic) all the WGmc languages. Pa.part. witen is formed by analogy to strong verbs . . . .
ޥĸǤϡꤷ褦 *witte, *mōtte ƷƤ뤬 -tt- -ss- ؤѲ褦ԤűѸʸڤ wisse ϢʤäȤȤƤθ˻ t դƲǤ뤳ȤΤűѸǰŪ˸ wiste Ȥ櫓Ǥ롥ơmōste ϲư֤ȤƤ wiste äΤȤ (Hogg and Fulk 306)
̤˲ưβϡ츻ŪˤϡŲפȾΤ뤳ȤǤ뤬wiste, mōste ˴ؤƤϡηаޤ˴դߤơֻŲפȸƤ٤ΤǤϤʤ
Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
516դΡѤʵפˡ<s> <x> ֻȤ̵Ҳ /s, ks/ ǡȤͭҲ /z, gz/ ȯˤĤƼ䤬줿Ƭ <s> ɬ /s/ б롤Τ첻Ԥʤ <x> /gz/ б뷹ʤɡŪ˻ͤȤʤ뵬§⤢ˤϤ뤬ǽŪˤñ줴Ȥ˷ޤäƤ륱¿Ūʥ롼ߤʤΤǤ롥Τ褦ˤϡŪۤʤ
ѸŪˤϡ/(k)s, (g)z/ ˤȤɤޤ餺֤ƤӸƤɬפ롥ȤΤϡŪˡűѸǤΩϤʤäȹͤƤ뤫Ǥ롥űѸˤȤ /s/, /θ/, /f/ ۤβǤäбͭ [z], [ð], [v] ͭ˶ޤ줿Ķˤ۲ȤƸ줿ˤǤȤΩƤʤä (cf. #1365. űѸˤ뼫IJˤϤޤ줿̵ͭ ([2013-01-21-1])#17. դ٤űѸ֤ȯ ([2009-05-15-1])ˡʸϲñ̤бΤ̾Ǥ뤫顤ʬۤʤ̵ͭγƥڥФ1ĤʸǤбƤнʬǤꡤ<s>, <þ> (or <ð>), <f> ʾ塤<z> <v> ʤɤʸפä
ͭϡѸˤƲDz (phonemicisation) θˤĤƤϽ⤬ƤƤ뤬פʤΤȡȤΤŪʱѡæŻҲ (degemination)ˤƬͭ (cf. #2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])#2226. ѸǸƬͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1]))ͭĥեäμѤʤɤǤʤ˴ؤǿʸȤơHickey Ȥ줿ˡʲǤϤȤ櫓եäμѤȤװǰƬˤƵʤ롥
ͭǤϰ̤ȡбΩʸǤԹ礬褤/v/ ˤĤƤϡȤͤե줬 <v> ʸäƤˡѸ <v> Ƴ뤳Ȥ⤿䤹ä⡤եǤ /f/ = <f>, /v/ = <v> ʼºݤˤ <<v>> ¤ <<u>> Ѥ줿ˤδطꤷƤᡤƱ괶Ѹˤܿ졤ᤤʳ夷ߤ˻롥Ѹ /f/ = <f>, /v/ = <v> 㳰ƾʤͳǤ (cf. of)
/z/ ˤĤƤϻ𤬰ۤʤäƤűѸǤťեǤ <z> ʸϤä/s, z/ ΤβФƤ <s> ѤΤ̤äեǤ /s/ = <s>, /z/ = <z> ΰꤷطۤƤʤäΤǤꡤѸ /z/ DzǤ⡤/z/ = <z> δطꤢưŤ /v/ = <v> ξ夫äȻפ롥̤Ȥơ<s> ̵ͭΤɽ魯ȤűѸ줫νѸˤ줺Ρפߤˤޤ³Ƥ롥
/ð/ ˤĤƤϡ˻𤬰ۤʤ롥űѸ <þ> <ð> ϸǽǡⲻ /θ/ ΰ۲ [θ] [ð] ɽ魯ȤǤѸꡤ̵ͭ줾ΩǤˤʤäƤ⡤줾ΩʸǤͿ褦ȤʤäͳΰϡöŪǤϤ뤬եˤβ¸ߤʤäȤ
/v/, /z/, /θ/ ΩʸǤͿ줿ɤȤǰۤʤ뿶Τϡեб벻ǤʸǤδطäɤȤ礭ƤۤˤϳơβDzߤ˰ۤʤ륿ߥǡۤʤװˤ줿餷ȤͿƤDzᤵȡǤȿʸǤȤδطΰȤϢưƤ褦ˤ⸫롥ѸˤȯֻδطˤäƤϡŪ˹ͻ뤳Ȥפ
Hickey, Raymond. "Middle English Voiced Fricatives and the Argument from Borrowing." Approaches to Middle English: Variation, Contact and Change. Ed. Juan Camilo Conde-Silvestre and Javier Calle-Martín. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2015. 83--96.
ε ([2015-06-03-1]) ˰³ޥ륿αѸˤĤơޥ륿 ESLǤȤäƤ⡤ɤʥꥢΤ褦ŵŪ ESLȤϰۤʤꡤĤðäƤ롥衼åѤ˰֤ESLǤ뤳ȡ衼åѤͣѼαѸĤȤϺεǿ줿̤Mazzon (593) Ϥ˲ä3ޥ륿θðŦƤ롥Ȥ櫓ꥢȤ diglossia Ĺˤȥޥ륿Ωˤβ⤬פǤ롥
There are various reasons for the peculiarity of the Maltese linguistic situation: 1) the size of the country, a small archipelago in the centre of the Mediterranean; 2) the composition of the population, which is ethnically and linguistically quite homogeneous; 3) its history previous to the British domination; throughout the centuries, Malta had undergone various invasions, its political history being intimately connected with that of Southern Italy. This link, together with the geographical vicinity to Italy, encouraged the adoption of Italian as a language of culture and, more generally, as an H variety in a well-established situation of diglossia. Italian has been for centuries a very prestigious language throughout Europe, since Italy has one of the best known literary traditions and some of the oldest European universities. Maltese is a language of uncertain origin; it was deeply "restructured" or "refounded" on Semitic lines during the Arab domination, between 870 and 1090 A.D. It has since then followed the same path as other spoken varieties of Arabic, losing almost all its inflections and moving towards analytical types; the close contact with Italian helped in this process, also contributing large numbers of vocabulary items.
ߤΥޥ륿ȱѸ2ѾطʤˤϡåʸȤƤαѸؤοƶᴶ롥¿ESLϰˤơѸФ븫ɬŪȤϸ¤ʤޥ륿ǤϾۤʤäƤ롥ˤϡ̱ "integrative motivation" ͿƤȤ
The role of this integrative motivation must always be kept in mind in the case of Malta, since the relative cultural vicinity and the process through which Malta became part of the Empire made this case somehow anomalous; many Maltese today simply deny they ever were just a "colony"; young people seem to partake in this feeling and often stress the point that the British never "invaded" Malta: they were invited. There is a widespread feeling that the British never really colonialized the country, they just "came to help"; the connection of the Maltese people with Britain is still quite strong, not only through the British tourists: in many shops and some private houses, alongside the symbols of Catholicism, portraits of the British Royal Family are proudly displayed on the walls. (Mazzon 597)
Τˡޥ륿ESLϰΤʤǤðۤ¸ߤΤ褦Ǥ롥ޥ륿θʱѸ˻ϡҲ˸Ū˶̣Ǥ롥
Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.
ޥ륿¹ (Republic of Malta) ϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ衼åǤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ιǤ롥Ʊ衼åѤǤϢˮ˽°ƤǤ⤢ (cf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡ˥衼åѤͣȤäƤ褤ѼαѸ줬äƤǤ⤢롥ޥ륿ȱѸȤζ̩ʴؤˤϡ1814ǯʻ礵줿ȤŪطʤ (cf. #777. Ѹάǯɽ ([2011-06-13-1])ˡŪˤŪˤ⡤¾ ESL ϰȤϰۤʤäƤȤܤͤ뤬ޥ륿αѸˤĤƤξܤϤޤ긫ʤϢʸ1ɤൡäΤǡ˴Ťƥޥ륿αѸάҤ
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[S]ince the year 1950, the most important steps in language policy have been in the direction of the promotion of Maltese and of the extension of its use to a number of domains, while English has been more and more widely learnt and used for its importance and prestige as an international language, but also as a "fashionable, chic" language used in social gatherings and as a status symbol . . . .
Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.
Ѹˤϡ§Ȥ <u> ʸǽñ줬ʤºݤˤϼѸʤɼŪñǤϤꤦ뤬̾ѤäˤϤߤʤϤʤ
פطʤ1ĤȤơѸˤˤĹ餯 <u> <v> ƱʸȤưƤ¤롥2ĤʸѸʹѤƤñǤΰ֤ˤäƻȤʬäȤϻ¤Ǥ롥#373. <u> <v> ʬ (1) ([2010-05-05-1])#374. <u> <v> ʬ (2) ([2010-05-06-1]) ǤߤƤ褦ˡʬۤʤʸȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤäΤ϶ѸǤꡤʤɤǤ19äƤޤǤƱʸǤȤưƤۤɤä<u> <v> ϡĹ֤Ȥ첻Ҳɽ路ΤǤ롥
ξˤƤϡ㤨Ѹ <lou> ȤֻߤȤˡ low Τ뤤 love ΤȤʤΤۣȤʤ롥Τ褦ФơѸǤβˡ2ढäȻפ롥1Ĥϡ#1827. magic <e> Ȥ̵ط <-ve> ([2014-04-28-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ<u> ñȤǤϤʤ <ue> ֤뤳Ȥˤä /v/ Ūɽ魯ȤˡǤ롥<e> ȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])) ŪѤȤ䵤ˤꡤlove <loue> ֤뤳Ȥˤʤꡤlow ȶ̤䤹ʤ롥 -<ue> ֻϡ˺ǽʸ <v> ֤졤-<ve> ȤƸߤ˻롥
ˡŪ˻Ҳ /v/ ɽ綠ȤϤȤС⤦1ĤˡŪ첻 /u/ ɽ綠ȤϤǤ롥ϡä˸ˤ첻ȤƤ <u> ۣӽ <w> Ѥ뤳ȤäΤǤϤʤ <ou> ˸¤餺 <au>, <eu> ʤɤ첻ϸˤ <ow>, <aw>, <ew> ֤褦ˤʤä<u> <v> ʬƤʤСľ <lov> "love" <lou> "low" ȤФˤʤäƤ⤷ʤʬƤʤäˡ줾ˤĤȼβˡϺ졤̤Ȥ <loue> <low> ȤֻФ뤳ȤˤʤäΤΤ褦ˤơ <u> 뵡뤳Ȥˤʤä
ҤȤĹͤΤϡˤ <i> ΰŪԻѤȤʿ̾ˤ <i> <y> <ie> Ѥ롥ϡ <u> <w> <ue> ѤΤӤ롥<i> <u> ʸ˶̤ΤϡνΤǤϤ (minim) ǹ뤳ȤԤʸˤޤޤˤϡϢ³Ƹ뤳ȤˤʤȽ̤ˤǡ<y> <w> ȤȽ̤䤹ʤ뤷ǤŪȤʤꡤԹ礬褤cf. #91. ʤ;ñ̾ I ʸǽ ([2009-07-27-1])#870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])#1094. <o> ֻ /u/ 첻ɽ魯 ([2012-04-25-1])ˡޤ̤첻³Ѥȡ<ay>, <ey>, <oy>, <aw>, <ew>, <ow> ʤɤΤ褦2첻Ǥ뤳ȤӤɸ뤳ȤǤåȤ롥
ʾΤ褦ʾޤäơ̤Ȥ <u> ˸ˤʤäΤȿ¬롥פ㳰1ĤΤǡ̾ (45) 夲Ƥ
ʤɤ̤ȤơѸθϴŪ u ǽ뤳ȤϤޤǤ w Ȥ (au, ou, eu aw, ow,ew), blue, sue Τ褦ˡe դơu ǽʤ褦ˤޤyou ϱѸٶϤƤ˳ؤñǤ¤ u ǽ֤ñȤȤˤʤޤ
̾ ϡرѸʸ֤ꡦȯΤߡ١ҡ2014ǯ
#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1]) Ǽ夲"Southern Voicing" ȸ븽ݤˤĤƺƤӡεǤϡβʤʤäΤȤöŪʴʤȤѶŪʸƤϤʤäԤδؿ붽̣ͻĤΤǾҲ𤹤롥
βȤơΦϥޥ줫αƶ⤬Ƥ롥Nielsen (246--47) ˤСLow Franconian ǤϾʤȤ1100ǯޤǤƱͭƤڵꡤΦۤɤŤΤǤϤʤȤѸˤƤϡͭθ̤եѸˤϤۤȤɤߤ줺ͭˤߤ뤳Ȥ顤βϸűѸ줫ѸˤƵäȤ롥ΥߥϡΦŤȤˤȤäԹ礬褤
Since there are other indications of late linguistic cross-Channel relations between the south of England and the Netherlands, there is nothing extraordinary about interpreting the presence of initial voiced fricatives in both places in terms of late contact. . . . / Samuels . . . is probably right in placing the innovatory centre within Franconian. The voicing of fricatives has perhaps spread from here into Upper German . . . , and similarly it may have crossed the Channel --- from Flanders to the south of England. (Nielsen 247)
Nielsen ûΤʤǤβˤĤƹͻƤˤڵϽʬȤˤϤۤɱ̣ǤϤ롥εƤȹ碌ȡΦؤꡤ̤ؤŸťΥɸ첽ͭʲĶäƤؤϿƩʤäȤڽ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Nielsen, Hans F. Old English and the Continental Germanic Languages: A Survey of Morphological and Phonological Interrelations. Innsbruck: Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenshaft, 1981.
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