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2018-12-31 Mon

#3535. ֤ͤʸפȤ⤢äƤ褤 [language_change][evolution][biology]

(ƽˡء֤⤷ʲΤդͤʤλŵ١ʹⶶŹ2016ǯˤʤɤΡäȴȴʪ򰷤äܤƤ褦ǶᡤФƤƵˤʤäΤǸ ɧʴƽˡڲ ˡؤͤ󡪡񤤤äʪ --- ̵ǰˤǤӤƤޤä ---١ʳҽǼҡ2018ǯˤǤ롥
ʤ餻ۤɤδ̯ʷ֤Υѥӥ˥䤬äƤϤäꤷʤǥȥɥ󡤱ͤʤΥޥʤɡɤƤ˿ʲΤȶ̣Ĥʤ120θʪ餷饹ȤȾФ륳ȤäƾҲ𤵤Ƥ롥
󥹥饤Ԥ֤ˡ (pp. 156--67) ǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤΤܤ

⤽ֿʲפȤϡɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤǤ礦
ñ˸СϤΤǤ
ѲĶƼѤƤȡ
äȴñ˸СֿʲȤѲפǤˤϥݥƥ֤ʰ̣⡤ͥƥ֤ʰ̣⤢ޤ󡥤ñʡѲפʤΤǤ
ޤޤѲѤ뤳Ȥǡ̿¿ͲƤ֤áʤǡʪˤʤäΡפȤפ밦٤ʪ򤿤߽ФƤΤǤ


ʸϤϡʪפָפѤƤ⡤ۤܤΤޤ򤹤뤳ȤǤ롥

⤽֡ʸΡ˿ʲפȤϡɤΤ褦ʤΤʤΤǤ礦
ñ˸СϤΤǤ
ѲĶƼѤƤȡ
äȴñ˸СֿʲȤѲפǤˤϥݥƥ֤ʰ̣⡤ͥƥ֤ʰ̣⤢ޤ󡥤ñʡѲפʤΤǤ
ޤޤѲѤ뤳Ȥǡ¿ͲƤ֤áʤǡʸդˤʤäΡפȤפ밦٤򤿤߽ФƤΤǤ


ѲĶƼѤƤפȤʬˤĤƤϡʸˡλҶײΩ줫ȿ佤ոФ뤫⤷ʤˤ᤹СΤޤǤ롥ѲϲʹѤȼʤѲǤꡤη̤Ȥ¿¿ͤʡȤ˶ðŪħİ٤줬ޤƤΤǤ롥
֤ͤʸפ̾ؤ顤üԤܤ줽Ρ֤ͤʡפʪξƱ褦мȤƤΰȷɰդΤäǤꡤषȿƤ롥ܸѸ⡤ȡ֤ͤʡʬϤΤޤΤΡ֤ͤܤ⤤ФƤȤ⤷ʤ̴ۤ롥
ѲβΩˤĤƤϡ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1])#2525. ָѲ롤ס ([2016-03-26-1])#2544. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ (3) ([2016-04-14-1])#3354. ָѲϥեǤס ([2018-07-03-1])#3529. Ͽ⤷ƤΤƤΤ ([2018-12-25-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Ǹ ɧʴƽˡڲ ˡؤͤ󡪡񤤤äʪ --- ̵ǰˤǤӤƤޤä ---١ʳҽǼҡ2018ǯ

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2018-12-30 Sun

#3534. <ae> ˤޤĤ륨ȥȥ [digraph][ligature][spelling][pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation_gap][diphthong]

Ƕ Merriam-Webster εȤ How to Pronounce 'Ae' in English Words ܤˤȤޤä2Ż (digraph) <ae> 뤤Ϲ (ligature) <æ> ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥϡ#2419. ꥷƥѸˤ <ae> ([2015-12-11-1]))#2424. digraph (2) ([2015-12-16-1])#2515. 첻Ǥ첻ʸǤбɽ ([2016-03-16-1]) ǰäƤεϤ褤­ˤʤ롥
ꥷƥѸŵŪˤߤ <ae> ֻϡ§ȤƤ /iː/ Ĺ첻б (ex. algae, Caesar, aqua vitae, arborvitae, antennae) ΤʤäΤ /iː/ ˲äơŪ2첻 /aɪ/ ȯ <ae> ⾯ʤʤ褦Ȥơalumnae, larvae, lacunae, Bacchae ʤɤ󤲤Ƥ롥㳰㳰§Ȥ /aɪ/ ȯ <ae> ͣαñȤƤϡmaestro /ˈmaɪstrəʊ/ 󤲤롥οꥢѸȤȤǤ㳰ޤ㳰ȤСñ첻ɤޤ aesthetic /ɛsˈθɛtɪk/ ⤢롥
첻Ĺɤޤ뵭ȤƤ <e> Ȥ˴դߤС<ae> /eɪ/ ȯ봷ȯãΤԼǤϤʤaegis ȯ /ˈiːʤəs/ ¹Ԥ /ˈeɪʤəs/ ԤʤƤ褦
Τ褦 <ae> Фȯɤ줬㤷Τϡ⤽⤳ֻ٤㤯ȯȷӤĤΤ˽ʬʵ˳ͤդʤŵѸ¿Ȥ¤⡤ɤ֤򤫤Ƥ롥ξʸ蘆ä <æ> ϡűѸǤϤ֤٤ʸäȤפС֤ȿषƤޤäΤʤȴѸǤȯʵˤȤƤ /æ/ Ͻʬ˹٤ʡ#1022. ѸγƲǤ١ ([2012-02-13-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ20Ĥۤɤ첻Ǥ٥󥭥󥰤4̤ϤʤʤΩɡ

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2018-12-29 Sat

#3533. ̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³Ʋ [prototype][category][pos][noun][verb][adjective][typology][conversion]

(70) ϡåƥ꡼ʤʻˤʤ顤̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³ܤƤ롥ζˤ˰꤬ꡤ¾ζˤ˰ưѲ1ĤϢ³ΤȤ

åƥ꡼ΩĴפϡγФξѤоݤȡѲȤʤȤΩ˸ФȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤǤϻ֤ηвǰꤷоݤꡤ⤦ǤϤΰưѲβγФ롥ΩȤ˹ͤȡ̾ΥץȥפϡѲΤʤꤷäоݤǤ롥ؼԤˤϡƤسԤΤʪΤǤ뤳ȤܤȤʤ롥ФưΥץȥפϡ֤ѲȤäǤ롥ҤԤΤϡΩäѲߤȤ줿礬ǤꡤŵŪˤϹ԰٤η̤ȤƸ뤫Ǥ롥äǤεǽȤ餳򸫤С̾餷פǰоݤ³ˤ뤿ΰꤷطʤߤư餷פϻ֤ǤѲˤäƵ֤οʹԤɽϤ餭ġ
Τ褦˹ͤȡ෿Ū˷ƻ줬̾餷ư餷δ֤ǡɤפ򼨤뤤ϼΩƥ꡼ȤƤϸ¤줿С⤿ʤȤ¿Ȥϡƻ줬ˡȻפ롥ƻϽŪˡ㡧֤󥴡סˤȽŪˡ㡧֥󥴤֤סˤξäƤꡤԤоݤ̤ơ̾餷פ¦ˡԤϡʹ԰٤ǤϤʤˤĤƤνҤ̤ơư餷פ¦˶ŤǤ롥ƳǰŪ˥ץȥפ鳰줿Ȥˤϡ̾ư줫ˤäɽ뤳Ȥ¿ʤ롥


ƻ줬̾ư˶ޤ줿ŪƤǤ뤬椨ˡȤˡ̾餷פ򡤤Ȥˡư餷פӤӤȤϤ롥ΰ㤤ŪˡȽŪˡ˸ƤΤǤϤʤȤƶԤޤ෿ŪˤäơƻȤƥ꡼ϸÿʸˡŪ񤤤ˤƸ֤ΰۤʤ꤬㤷Τ⡤Ūʥƥ꡼Ȥ⼨٤㤨СܸǤϷƻΩƽҸˤʤư˶ᤤǤ϶޷Ūˤ̾˶ᤤȹͤˡ
Τ褦Ϣ³ƲȤʻȤ館ȡʻž (conversion) ˤޤḤ̂䤽¾ηˤ⿷ʸƤ뤫⤷ʤ

סǧθء١ؽDz2002ǯ

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2018-12-28 Fri

#3532. ǧθΩη [cognitive_linguistics][history_of_linguistics][generative_grammar][typology][anthropology]

1980ǯʹߡΤǧθءοؤΩطʤˤϡ͡ʳŪȯŸȴͿä (8) ʬ䤹ޤƸ褦

Birth of Cognitive Linguistics

ĤȤ⤤륤ץåȤϡFranz Boaz Edward Sapir ɽؤαƶؤǤ롥ʸȸδط˸ƤλۤϡǧθؤθѤĴ¤Ȥ¿
οؤαƶޤ줿Τꥫ¤ؤǤ롥̣ξݤʬϤ1βȤ֤ǤϸϼΧŪʤΤȤƤȤ館졤ͤμǽϤΩΤȤİ줿
1950ǯꥫ¤ؤ֤ΤϡNoam Chomsky ʸˡäͤμȤƤȤ館ʤǥˤηϲ뤳Ȥ˸Ӥạ̈ڻ뤷μ¾μȤϴͿʤΧŪʤΤȤƤȤ館ƤȤǤϡ¤ؤȰۤʤȤʤä
μμΧ˵ȶ̣򾧤ָפȶǧθؤΩ夲СȤʤ롥1980ǯȾλƳԤȤơGeorge Lakoff Ronald W. Langacker פ̤Ф1990ǯˤϹݳز
ǧθؤΤ⤦1Ĥαƶϡ1970ǯȾθ෿ζδǤ롥ӡоȤ̤ơˡ§ظˤưŤˤĤƤδؿޤꡤǧθؤ˻ɷͿ
ߡǧθؤϹǧβʳؤΤʤݤ1ΰȤ֤ŤǤ롥ޤΰˤ͡Ω줬ꡤ1Ĥ̾ǤäƤ褤ΤȤ⤢롥˸ؤѲʤɤˤ⾯ʤ̥ѥȤͿ褦ˤʤäƤƤꡤ1ĤĬήƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
Ϣơ#2835. ¤ʸˡǧθؤ3ѷ ([2017-01-30-1]) ⻲ȡ

סǧθء١ؽDz2002ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-24-1]

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2018-12-27 Thu

#3531. ֺ¡αѸ졡硼إ󥿥٥ʪ١פΤΤ餻 [notice][chaucer][asacul][link]

112ڡˤ15:00?18:15ˡī㡼󥿡ɶˤơֱѸˡפꤹ륷꡼ֺ¤1ƤȤαѸ졡硼إ󥿥٥ʪ١򳫹֤ޤʲΤ餻ʸϤǤ

ѻȾΤ른ե꡼硼ˤʸؤηإ󥿥٥ʪ٤Ƭ򡤱Ѹˤμ䤤ʤѸθʸ̣襤ޤƬսϱʸػ˾̾⤤ʸϤȤ졤γĴ⤵侮̣褤Χ¤˴ǽ뤿ˤϡʸ˿뤳Ȥ礫ޤ󡥥硼αʸϡΥĤĤСѸμɤ߿ʤ뤳Ȥʬ˲ǽǤֺܹ¤ǡ󥰥ɤʤƤߤޤ礦

1. ե꡼硼λΥ󥰥
2. إ󥿥٥ʪ٤ι¤
3. إ󥿥٥ʪ٤αΧ
4. ͭ̾Ƭʬɤ
5. ƬʬѸŪɤ
6. Ѹ줫򤭤ۤѸε


ƬΤߤǤϤޤإ󥿥٥ʪ٤ʸɤߤѸȤΤ˿ƤߤŪʸغʤ̤ƱѸˤǽѸ˱ѸˤδꤿʤɡѸ졦ʸؤ˴ؿꤵСäȳڤޤդäƤä
Chaucer ˴ؤƤܥ֥Ǥ chaucer νľܡܤ¿夲ƤޤȤ櫓ʲֺ꤬ܹ¤ȴطΤǡȤ

#290. Chaucer ˴ؤ Web resources ([2010-02-11-1])
#257. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ ([2010-01-09-1])
#298. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ (2) ([2010-02-19-1])
#534. The General Prologue Ƭθ߷ȴλ ([2010-10-13-1])
#791. iambic pentameter Υ ([2011-06-27-1])
#2275. ѸβηϤ The General Prologue ([2015-07-20-1])
#2667. Chaucer Ѥä10--15%ե󥹼Ѹ ([2016-08-15-1])
#2788. General Prologue 7ܤμܴӡ ([2016-12-14-1])
#3449. Chaucer Ϣǯɽ ([2018-10-06-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2019-01-14-1]

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2018-12-26 Wed

#3530. ѲϡּҲŪ˾ޤ˿ʤǤΤݤ [language_change][sociolinguistics]

ε#3529. Ͽ⤷ƤΤƤΤ ([2018-12-25-1]) ³ƤꡥAitchison ϡִʸפǤʤʾ塤줬⤷ƤΤƤΤȽǤ뤳ȤϤǤʤεθ塤ǤϡʹѤȼäֿפפȤѸϲ֤Ƥ줬Ѳ³ƤȤڵϤΤꤷľä˰ѲƤڵϤʤȤ˻롥ȤȤϡѲˤĤƤϡֿפȡפΩϤɤפȡְפΩʤС־פȡֲפ⡤ֺפֱפⲿʤȤȤˤʤ롥ѲΤǤ롤ȡ
ȤκǸ Aitchison (246) ϡ֤ĤξˤϡѲϼҲŪ˾ޤʤȤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

   Continual language change is natural and inevitable, and is due to a combination of psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic factors.
   Once we have stripped away religious and philosophical preconceptions, there is no evidence that language is either progressing or decaying. Disruption and therapy seem to balance one another in a perpetual stalemate. These two opposing pulls are an essential characteristic of language.
   Furthermore, there is no evidence that languages are moving in any particular direction from the point of view of language structure---several are moving in contrary directions.
   Language change is in no sense wrong, but it may, in certain circumstances, be socially undesirable. Minor variations in pronunciation from region to region are unimportant, but change which disrupts the mutual intelligibility of a community can be socially and politically inconvenient. If this happens, it may be useful to encourage standardization --- the adoption of a standard variety of one particular language which everybody will be able to use, alongside the existing regional dialects or languages. Such a situation must be brought about gradually, with tact and care, since a population will only adopt a language or dialect it wants to speak.

   
Aitchison ϡִʸפǤʤˡֿ⡦פȤΩ̵̣ǤּҲŪ˾ޤ˾ޤʤפȤΩϤǧƤȤȤϡּҲŪ˾ޤפǤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ꤹ뤳ȤϡִʸפεƱ餤񤷤褦˻פΤɤ
ϰˤäơޤġθ춦ƱΤˤäơּҲŪ˾ޤ׸λѤϰۤʤɸ⡤ޤŪΤ褦˻פ롥

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.

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2018-12-25 Tue

#3529. Ͽ⤷ƤΤƤΤ [language_change][language_equality]

ѲȤɾΤ Language Change: Progress or Decay 路 Aitchison ϡäѲϿʤΤ뤤ʤΤȤˤĤ͡ʳ٤Ƥ롥κǽϤǡԤϿǤǤʤȷŤ롥ͳϡʤʤȤǰˤϡܻؤ٤ʥפ¸ߤȤ뤬ˤƤ줬ʤΤˤĤưפ򤬤ʤĤޤꡤִʸפȤΤǤС¤θѲ˸äƤʤСֿפǤꡤդǤСפǤȽҤ٤뤳ȤǤִʸפʤΤˤĤƤζ̤λ򤬤ʤ¤ꡤȤȤȽǤǤʤϤ
ǤⲾˡִʸפ򡤺¤ñǸΨŪ˥ߥ˥򤳤ʤȹͤ뤳Ȥϲǽ⤷ʤξˤ礭꤬ΩϤ롥ޤäƸñ㤵ʤ뤤ʣˤ¬ΤȤ꤬cf. #293. ٤¬뤫 ([2010-02-14-1]) #1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#2820. 񤷤ˤĤơ ([2017-01-15-1])ˡƱΨŪʥߥ˥ȤäƤ¬񤷤
ľ Aitchison (237--38) ε˼򷹤褦դλ𤬾ɽƤ롥

The term 'progress' implies a movement towards some desired endpoint. What could this be, in terms of linguistic excellence? A number of linguists are in no doubt. They endorse the view of Jespersen, who maintained that 'that language ranks highest which goes farthest in the art of accomplishing much with little means, or, in other words, which is able to express the greatest amount of meaning with the simplest mechanism'.
   If this criterion were taken seriously, we would be obliged to rank pidgins as the most advanced languages. As we have already noted, true simplicity seems to be counterbalanced by ambiguity and cumbersomeness. Darwin's confident belief in the 'inherent virtue' of shorter and easier forms must be set beside the realization that such forms often result in confusing homonyms, as in the Tok Pisin hat for 'hot', 'hard', 'hat' and 'heart'.
   A straightforward simplicity measure then will not necessarily pinpoint the 'best' language. A considerable number of other factors must be taken into account, and it is not yet clear which they are, and how they should be assessed. In brief, linguists have been unable to decide on any clear measure of excellence, even though the majority are of the opinion that a language with numerous irregularities should be less highly ranked than one which is economical and transparent. However, preliminary attempts to rank languages in this way have run into a further problem.
   A language which is simple and regular in one respect is likely to be complex and confusing in others. There seems to be a trading relationship between the different parts of the grammar which we do not fully understand. This has come out clearly in the work of one researcher who compared the progress of Turkish and Serbo-Croatian children as they acquired their respective languages. Turkish children find it exceptionally easy to learn the inflections of their language, which are remarkably straightforward, and they master the entire system by the age of two. But the youngsters struggle with relative clauses (the equivalent of English clauses beginning with who, which, that) until around the age of five. Serbo-Croatian children, on the other hand, have great problems with the inflectional system of their language, which is 'a classic Indo-European synthetic muddle', and they are not competent at manipulating it until around the age of five. Yet they have no problems with Serbo-Croatian relative clauses, which they can normally cope with by the age of two.
   Overall, we cannot yet specify satisfactorily just what we mean by a 'perfect' language, except in a very broad sense. The most we can do is to note that a certain part of one language may be simpler and therefore perhaps 'better' than that of another.


Ͽ⤷ƤʤС⤷ƤʤѲƤΤϢơ#1382. ָѲϤѲǤס ([2013-02-07-1])#2525. ָѲ롤ס ([2016-03-26-1])#2544. ѲФ뻰Ĥιͤ (3) ([2016-04-14-1])#3354. ָѲϥեǤס ([2018-07-03-1]) ε⻲ȡ

Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-31-1] [2018-12-26-1]

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2018-12-24 Mon

#3528. ˡưŤͤ줿 [auxiliary_verb][grammaticalisation][speed_of_change][syntax]

ѸǤϡwill, shall, can, may ʤɤˡưŤͤѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤˡư1ĤΤߤѤ졤θưθ³ȤƤʤĤˡư2ĽŤͤ뤳ȤǤ夬ä
(350) 򻲾Ȥ (89--90) ꡤѸ줫򼨤

a. Shall ̤ + Will ְջ֡
   whase wilenn shall þiss boc efft oþerr sitþe written
   'whoever shall wish to write this book afterwards another time' (?c1200 Orm D. 95)
b. Shall ̤ + Can ǽϡ
   I shal not konne answere.
   'I shall not be able to answer.' (c1386 Chaucer, C. T. B 2902)
c. Shall ̤ + May ǽϡ
   Hu sal ani man ðe mugen deren?
   'How shall any man be able to injure thee?' (c1250 Gen & Ex 1818)
d. May ֲǽ + Can ǽϡ
   it may not kon worche þis work bot ȝif it be illuminid by grace
   'it may not be able to do this work unless it be illumined by grace' (?a1400 Cloud 116, 14)


ߤˡưϤȤȤϰưˤʤäŪˡưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ƥаޤ롥ư줫ˡưؤƤΰܹԤϡˤڤؤ櫓ǤϤʤ饸奢ʲäˡΰܹԴˤƤϾ嵭Τ褦ξƤ碌ä褦ʡ2ĽŤ͡פƤ줿ȤȤѸʹߡι¤ѤƤ
ʸǤϡ2ˡưˤĤơġνư֤ˡư첽®٤ۤʤäƤȤطʤˤȵƤ롥ۤʤΩ줫δϢȤƤϡ#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1])#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) 򻲾ȡ

סرѸ II١Ѹ9罤۽Ź1972ǯ
͵4ϡʬˤʸˡʬ --- ˡưȯã濴 ---סʸˡ --- Ÿ ---ٽ ¼ݺ ƻͺԡˡĬҡ2005ǯ75--108ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-06-26-1]

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2018-12-23 Sun

#3527. ƾΤΥݥ饤ȥ̻ͥѲ̾ϥͥƥء̾ϥݥƥ [address_term][politeness][t/v_distinction][emode][title][honorific][face][personal_pronoun][solidarity]

̾ (65--72) ϡ1640--1760ǯޤǤ gentry comedy ޤॳѥǡƾ (address_term) ɽĴ
ƾΤϡ礭 negative politeness ظ "deferential type" positive politeness ظ "familiar type" ˶ʬ롥ϡ2;̾Ǥ you thou ζ̤̾ʶˤǤСȤ Lord dear ζ̤ (cf. #2131. ƾθΥݥ饤ȥͥɸ ([2015-02-26-1])) Ūʻ¤ȤƤ⤷Τϡ̾̾ʶˤθƾΤѲ˴ؤơĴ줿Ѹ顤θθѸӸѸˤơۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ̾Ǥϡ褯ΤƤ褦 negative politeness Ż뤵줿Τ褦 thou ǤϤʤ you ̲Ȥ̾ʶˤǤϡष dear ̾ (first name) ǤθƤӤΤ褦 positive politeness Ż뤵ơߤ˻äƤ롥̾ (69) λŦȤꡤnominal address terms Ѳ pronominal address terms ѲȵդȤȡפǤ롥
2;̾˴ؤơʤ thou ǤϤʤ you ǰ̲ΤˤĤƤϡ#1127. ʤ thou ǤϤʤ you ̲ ([2012-05-28-1])#1336. ʤ thou ǤϤʤ you ̲ (2) ([2012-12-23-1]) ˤƤ˿ää褦˻פ롥Ĥޤꡤʤ̾ʶˤθƤӤɽǤϡष̩ (familiarity) ķ (solidarity) 򼨤򤵤줿Τ϶뤤ŪʥХ󥹤ȤȤ

̾ ҡ3ϡ˸ˤʸˡȸѲסʸˡ --- Ÿ ---ٽ ¼ݺ ƻͺԡˡĬҡ2005ǯ59--74ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-01-02-1]

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2018-12-22 Sat

#3526. ǥȤϡ [idiom][terminology]

ǥ (idiom) Ȥϲʣθ줫ʤñ̤ǡΤΰ̣ƹǤΰ̣¤ȤϤʤʤΡȤΤŪǥˤ¾ˤ͡ü롥Chafe Ƥ뽩 (38) ˵ꡤ4Ĥü󤲤Ƥߤ褦

1. ǥΰ̣ϳʬΰ̣¤ϽФƤʤ ([T]he meaning of an idiom is not some kind of amalgamation of the meanings of the parts of that structure.)
2. ǥ¿ѷʤ ([M]ost if not all idioms exhibit certain transformational deficiencies.)
3. ǥˤŪ¤ĤΤ롥 ([T]here are some idioms which are not syntactically well-formed.)
4. ǥबǥỤ̄ʸ̤ΰ̣äƤ硤ƥپ塤Ԥ̾¿ ([A]n idiom which is well-formed will have a literal counterpart, but the text frequency of the latter is usually much lower than that of the corresponding idiom.)


2 ǤѷפˤĤƤleave no legal stone unturned Τ褦˽äꡤtouch a couple of nerves Τ褦˿̲ꡤThose strings, he wouldn't pull for you Τ褦경Τ֤ꡤWe thought tabs were being kept on us, but they weren't, Τ褦̾ؼǤʤɤŪΤȤǤ롥ѷɤٵݡƤ뤫ϸġΥǥˤäưۤʤꡤǥüȤϤǤ롥ѷε٤㤤Τ⤤Τء3Υǥबʽp. 39ˡ

I. Fixed idioms: eat one's words, kick the bucket, make a fool of, . . .
II. Mobile idioms: break the ice, spill the beans, make much of, . . .
III. Metaphors: add fuel to the fire, make headway, pay attention, . . .

 
¼2ϡʸˡỌ̇̄Ѳסʸˡ --- Ÿ ---ٽ ¼ݺ ƻͺԡˡĬҡ2005ǯ27--58ǡ
Chafe, Wallace. "Idiomaticity as an Anomaly in the Chomskyan Paradigm". Foundations of Language 4 (1968): 107--27.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-09-05-1]

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2018-12-21 Fri

#3525. Ū칽ʸ¿ [construction_grammar][polysemy][prototype]

ʸʸˡǤʸŪ¿ (constructional polysemy) Ȥͤ롥Ʊιʸۤʤ뤱ɤطʣΰ̣ȷӤĤƤؤ濴Ūʰ̣ηỤ̄зʤ¿ (polysemy) ƤȤªʸʸˡˤץȥ (prototype) ˤۤʤʤ
S V O1 O2 ȤŪ칽ʸ¿ˤȤ濴Ụ̄ϡgive ιʸɽ褦ˡS (= agent) O1 (= recipient) O2 (= patient) ǽưŪ˼褯ư뤳ȤǤ롥濴Ụ̄ȤƤϡpatient ˶ŪʪꤵƤ뤬ŪسȤ teach Τ褦ư줬˲äʲ濴Ụ̄ Goldberg (38) οޤˤ꼨

Constructional Polysemy of Double Object Construction

濴Ụ̄¿¤򤫤ưΩΤüԤε̳ͿΤݾڡס«פʤɤ̣뺸BǤ롥षưΩʤȤȡֵݡפ̣뱦CȤʤ롥ư̤λǵ뤳ȤȤˤϡD롥ޤưֵפΤǤϤʤֲǽˤפȼ㴳ȡֵġפɽ魯E롥Ǹˡưΰտޤްդˤϡ¦FΤ褦ưιʸ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤ롥
Τ褦˸ΰ̣Ǥʤʸΰ̣⡤ץȥˤä濴ŪʤΤŪʤΤؤƤ̤ȤƶŪ¿ӤӤ褦ˤʤȤΤconstructional polysemy ΥݥȤǤ롥

Goldberg, Adele E. Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.

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2018-12-20 Thu

#3524. ʸʸˡ3Ĥħ [construction_grammar][semantics][pragmatics][linguistics]

ε#3523. ʸʸˡˤ빽ʸȤϡ ([2018-12-19-1]) ǡʸʸˡħ1ĵ󤲤ʸʸˡϡäʸˡΤ˰ۤʤΤȤƤȤ館ʤȤѤΩġι¤ι¤ǤϳΤʣϰۤʤΤΡȵǽڥ󥰤ñ̤Ǥǰ㤤ϤʤȹͤΤǤ롥
ʸʸˡθѤȤơۤˤħŪʤȤ롥1Ĥϡ̣ȸΤΤʶʬߤʤȤȤ̣ŪʾϡꡤѰȤäŪʾȤȤɽƤȤΩȤ롥
ʸʸˡκҤȤĤħϡ츫ȰճʤȤˡʸˡˡŪ (generative) ΩȤäƤ뤳ȤŪפȤϡʸˡŪ˵Ƥ̵¤ɽ褦ȤǡƤʤ̵¤ɽӽ褦ȤƤ뤳ȤؤʸˡΤ褦ˡѷŪ (transformational) ǤϤʤȤդɬפǤ롥졦̣Ūʷ顤餫ѷФɽؤη߽ФȤꤷƤʤ
餫ˡʸʸˡʸˡǤϤʤǧʸˡΩΤ褦˸뤬#3511. 20γƸɤ򼴾˥ץåȤ ([2018-12-07-1]) οޤǤߤ褦ˡˤ⽽ʬʤ򼨤ƤǤŪʸˡȤ⤤ܤƤʸˡХ󥵡Ūʰּˤ뤳Ȥ̥ŪʤΤ⤷ʤ

Goldberg, Adele E. Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.

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2018-12-19 Wed

#3523. ʸʸˡˤ빽ʸȤϡ [construction_grammar][terminology][grammar][lexicon]

ʸʸˡ (Construction Grammar) ˤʸ (construction) Ȥϡ¾γɤ̤Ǥ빽ʸȤϰۤʤäγǰѸǤ롥Goldberg (4) ˤСΤ褦롥

C is a CONSTRUCTION iffdef C is a form-meaning pair <Fi, Si> such that some aspect of Fi or some aspect of Si is not strictly predictable from C's component parts or from other previously established constructions.


Goldberg (4) ϼΤ褦³롥

Constructions are taken to be the basic units of language. Phrasal patterns are considered constructions if something about their form or meaning is not strictly predictable from the properties of their component parts or from other constructions. That is, a construction is posited in the grammar if it can be shown that its meaning and/or its form is not compositionally derived from other constructions existing in the language . . . .


פˡȵǽˤơθδ¸νǤŪƤȤߤʤʤС٤ƹʸǤȤȤˤʤ롥ȤȤϡGoldberg (4) ³褦ˡΤ褦ʷ˵夹롥

In addition, expanding the pretheoretical notion of construction somewhat, morphemes are clear instances of constructions in that they are pairings of meaning and form that are not predictable from anything else . . . . It is a consequence of this definition that the lexicon is not neatly differentiated from the rest of grammar.


ˤСǤ⡤Ǥιʤ¿⡤Τ˳ƹǤ餽η䵡ǽͽ¬ǤʤΤ顤ʸȤȤˤʤ롥Τ褦˹ʸʸˡħ1ĤϡʸˡʤɤȰۤʤꡤ (lexicon) ʸˡ (grammar) Τʬʤˤ롥

Goldberg, Adele E. Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-20-1]

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2018-12-18 Tue

#3522. Ѹˤˤ֤εǽ [syntax][word_order][inversion][pragmatics]

Stein ϱѸ2 (inversion) Ȥꤢ줾줬Ūˤʤ뵡ǽѲ뤲ƤƤ롥Stein (135, 139) ΰäֹ¤ϡ type A type B Ǥ type A ϿƳ̤type B 򶯤̤ѸƬƤΤǤꡤűѸֹ¤ľܤ˼Ѥ줿ΤǤϤʤ

[ type A ]

In came Chomsky.
Down with the rebound comes . . .
Beyond it rose the peopled hills.
Developing offshore drilling in California are two Texas oil men.

[ type B ]

Rarely did I hear such overtones of gratitude as went into the utterance of this compound noun.
Not until the Book of Splendour did appear in Spain in the thirteenth century did a formidable metaphysical text on cabalism appear.
Often did she visit the inhabitants of that gloomy village
Only of late have I learned about the complexities of subjectivity
Never did I hear about cabalism.

ֹ¤ŪܤϡStein (146--47) ˤм̤Ǥ롥

Prior to the central structural process, the grammaticalisation of SVO, inversion (or not) did have non-propositional meaning, which is best described as 'textual' or discourse meaning, but no affective meaning. . . After the dissolution of the Old English types of inversions, the late Middle English situation shows an incipient tendency for use as a focussing device. The modern developments include the rise of the B type (the emotional type), expressive and subjective in meaning, as well as the rise of the A type, with a discourse-cum-affective type of meaning. The latter type is in part a renaissance of a discourse meaning that was present in the Old English (VSO) pattern, which did not have the affective component. To that extent the development has gone full circle.


ʾޤȤСŪ˸礬ŪͳäűѸǤϡ֤εǽŪʤΤòƤSVOظѸǤŪǽϼƾεǽȯãSVO礬ΩˤƤϴŪʵǽ̤ǽФƤȤȤˡʬŪŪʵǽ褷ƤȤή
֤ηǤϤʤǽŪܤȤΤ⡤ͤùǤȤ⤷ʤ񤷤ˤ

Stein, Dieter. "Subjective Meanings and the History of Inversions." Subjectivity and Sbujectivisation: Linguistic Perspective. Ed. Dieter Stein and Susan Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 129--50.

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2018-12-17 Mon

#3521. ͥåȤǹޤäƤƤĽɽ [writing][direction_of_writing]

ܵνĽɽ
1216ˤ俷ʹīˡWebޤؽĽ񤭡١פȤǺܤƤ֥֥饦1 Vivaldi ϡǶᥦ֥ڡĽɽѴ뿷ǽɸܤ򽸤Ƥ롥ȤϤºݤ˽ĽɽǤ뤫ɤϸġΥڡ礭¸Ƥꡤ̵ʾ¿ȯŸ˴ԤƤ롥
URL ꤹȡΥڡĽɽƤݼ WebפȤӥ⤢롥Ѥܥ֥ΥȥåץڡĽ񤭲Τܥ֥ϱѸѤ¿طǡǰʤĽ񤭤ˤϤޤŬʤؤʴˤʤΤȶ̣ˤäƤϤʤʤ褤ȻפΤ⤢롥ȤС#3389. ܸ٤ܼ ([2018-08-07-1]) Ľɽϡܤܼ餷礬褤#3080. إڥ󥰤αѸˡ٤ξϤȤγס ([2017-10-02-1]) Τ褦ʤ٤ĹܸʸĽɽɤߤ䤹
Ľɽ露ȿ͵ƤƤΤϡĽ񤭵ʤιݲʤǤȤƸǤǥŪˤ⤷Ȥɾ餷Ľ񤭥ڡκѤϢ륵ӥƤС̲Ƥ˻פ롥쥤Ȥμ䵻ѲˤĤƤϡ̳ʤW3CʤɤֽĽWebڰѰȤȤͤˤʤ롥
ν¿ˤĤƤϡ#2448. (1) ([2016-01-09-1])#2449. (2) ([2016-01-10-1]) Ϥᡤdirection_of_writing γƵ򻲾ȡ

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2018-12-16 Sun

#3520. ֳŬפ [exaptation][terminology][language_change]

#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) 䤽¾εǾҲ𤷤Ƥ褦ˡǯθѲǤŬ (exaptation) ȤѸ졦ǰФʹ롥Lass ʲʪؤؤ˼ͭäơξޤޤʰո蘆ƤLass ϶޷ˤѲ뤿˳ŬФΤιͤޤˤĤơѲؤŬѲǽŦ褦ˤʤäƤŬθؤؤαѤ˲ŪԤ¿Velde and Norde (1) ˤСɤ3Ĥ롥
ޤʲʪؤγǰؤ˱ѤΤϡŪˤäƸǤϤʤȤΩ줬롥ʪʲȸѲδ֤ˤ˿¤ꡤ䤹䤹Ӥ٤ǤϤʤȤͤϡؼԤΤʤˤϡSchleicher θͭΤɽ19ΡָʪפȤѤؤȲ󵢤ƤޤΤǤϤʤ԰¤ФԤ뤳Ȥ򼨺Ƥ뤫⤷ʤ
ˡ⤽ʲʪؤΰˤƤ顤ŬͭʳǰǤϤʤȤո롥Lass Ͽʲʪؤ褯򤷤ʤޤޤˡ®˳ǰؤ˱ѤƤޤäΤǤϤʤȤȽǤ롥
3ĤˡŬλȤѲϡǤ¾Ѹ䳵ǰǽʬ˥СǤΤǤꡤƳɬϤʤȤȽ롥㤨СŤƤƤΤŪǶΤΤޤƴطοѸ󤲤Сregrammaticalization, degrammaticalization, functional renewal, hypoanalysis, renovation, morphologization/grammaticalization-from-below, lateral shift, refunctionalization and adfunctionalization, demorphologization, morphosyntactic emancipation, regrammation, secretion ʤɥ꤬ʤ (Velde and Norde 10--11) ˿˥äƺ𤵤ΤϡʤΤȤո
ѲˤȤäƳŬϤɤΤ褦˰֤Ť٤ؿΤϡNorde and Velde ˤäԤޤ줿ŬܳŪʸΤǡ򻲾Ȥ줿

Velde, Freek Van de and Muriel Norde. "Exaptation: Taking Stock of a Controversial Notion in Linguistics." Exaptation and Language Change. Ed. Muriel Norde and Freek Van de Velde. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2016. 1--35.

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2018-12-15 Sat

#3519. ???????????????????????????? [optative][interrogative][exclamation][tag_question][syntax][word_order][construction_grammar][inversion]

2֤ε#3517. if Ȥ鷺 V + S Ȥ ([2018-12-13-1])#3518. ȵʸζᤵ ([2018-12-14-1]) ǡỤ̄Ūʴֵס³ˡסִ˾ס־פõäƤ֤ˡ⤦1ġִòפȤɤ⻲ä
òʸǤϡʸŵŪ˵ V + S θ礬ФкѤ롥Jespersen (499) ʸ󤲤褦

Sh Merch II. 2. 106 Lord, how art thou chang'd
Sh Merch II. 3.16 Alacke, what heinous sinne is it in me To be ashamed to be my Fathers childe
BJo 3.133 what a vile wretch was I
Farquhar B 321 What a rogue is my father!
Defoe G 44 what fool must he be now that they have given him a place!
Goldsm 658 What a fool was I, to think a young man could learn modesty by travelling
Macaulay H 2.209 What a generation of vipers do we live among!
Thack N 180 What a festival is that day to her | What (how great) was my surprise when they were engaged!
Bennett C 2.12 What a night, isn't it?


ǸʸǤղõ䤬ĤƤ뤬ʤɤϤޤ˴òʸȵʸͻȤ⤤٤òȵ䤬蘆ä#2258. òʸ ([2015-07-03-1]) 㤬˭٤Ǥ롥
ޤòȴ˾ߤ˶ᤷȤפʤmay ʸ V + S 򼨤Τ⡤ò V + S Ȳ餫δط뤫餫⤷ʤ
may ʸȴϢơJespersen (502) ˡDickinson, European Anarchy 74 ζ̣ʸäΤǵ󤲤Ƥ

"The war may come", says one party. "Yes", says the other; and secretly mutters, "May the war come!"


may ϡʸŵŪ V + S 򡤴˾䴶òΤ˥ꥯ롼ȤȹͤƤߤΤ⤪⤷

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 5. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1954.

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2018-12-14 Fri

#3518. ȵʸζᤵ [conditional][word_order][syntax][assertion][construction_grammar]

ε#3517. if Ȥ鷺 V + S Ȥ ([2018-12-13-1]) ǡV + S ξưŵŪ³ˡˤȯãˤĤƼꤢѸǺǤ̤ V + S θȤΤϵʸǤ롥Ȥȡȵʸδ֤˲餫ΤʤΤȤ䤬ͯˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦
ȵʸϡΤ˶ᤤطˤ롥ޤܵƳ³ if Ѥ뤳ȤפHe asked if I liked Chinese food. ϻȿҤͤפ Let me know if she is coming 뤫Τ餻ƤפʤɡԤǤ if ?ɤפ̾ƳΤ?ʤСפƳΤʸ̮˱ưۤʤȤξŪޤˤξ־פȡֵפȤʤΤǤ롥ܸ˸뷸֤פ⡤ŵŪ˵ɽ魯Ȥա
̣Ū뤤ŪˤС⵿ʸ "nonassertive" ǤȤǶ̤Ƥ롥Ĥޤꡤ̿ˤĤꤷƤʤȤȤǤ롥̿Ȥ̤βǽްդȤǡ"alternative possible worlds" ȤƤȸƤ褤ξԤۤʤΤϡϤǤϲȯù԰٤ˤʤʤʸǤϤǡֵ䡦פȤȯù԰٤Ȥʤ뤳ȤĤǤˤСִ˾פ̿ɽ魯֤ޤäƤʤȤȤΤ nonassertion Τ⤦1ĤŵǤ롥may ʸʤɤñȤǡִ˾פȯù԰٤Ȥʤǵʸȶ̤롥
Τ褦˹ͤƤȡʤ᤬ʸƱͤ V + S θȤΤܤʤξԤƤΤǤϤʤεǤ⼨̤ꡤֵס³ˡסִ˾ס־פȤɤϸߤ˥󥯤Ƥ褦
(non)assertion ˤĤƤϡ#679. assertion and nonassertion (1) ([2011-03-07-1])#680. assertion and nonassertion (2) ([2011-03-08-1])#950. Be it never so humble, there's no place like home. (3) ([2011-12-03-1]) ε򻲾Ȥ줿

Leuschner, Torsten and Daan Van den Nest. "Asynchronous Grammaticalization: V1-Conditionals in Present-Day English and German." Languages in Contrast 15 (2015): 34--63.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-15-1]

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2018-12-13 Thu

#3517. if Ȥ鷺 V + S Ȥ [syntax][word_order][conjunction][construction_grammar][conditional][subjunctive][inversion]

Ѹˤϡɽ魯Τ if Ѥˡư֤Ѥ빽ʸ롥ʸ󤲤褦

Were I to take over my father's business, I would make a drastic reform.
Had World War II ended two years earlier, how many lives would have been saved!
Should anything happen to him, call me at once.


ѸǤϡwere, should, had ǻϤޤΤ˸ꤵƤꡤ̣ŪˤȿŪ˶Ƥ뤬ĤƤϵʸηƱͤ˰̤ư줬֤뤳Ȥ⤢äΩŪˤѤ줿Leuschner and Nest (2) ꡤűѸѸ줫󤲤褦

Fulga nu se mete ðære wambe willan, & sio wamb ðæs metes, ðonne towyrpð God ægðer. (YCOE: Cura Pastoralis, late 9th cent.)
"If the food now follow.SUBJ the will of the belly and the belly that of the food, God annihilates both."
Do þu hit eanes awei; ne schalt tu neauer nan oðer swuch acourin. (PPCME2: Hali Meidhad, c. 1225)
"If you get rid of it once, you will never (re)gain anything like it."
Deceyueth me the foxe / so haue I ylle lerned my casus (PPCME2: Caxton's History of Reynard the Fox, 1481)
"If the fox deceives me, I have learned my lesson badly."


ǽ2Ĥʸˤơ֤Ƥư³ˡηǤ롥
ʤɽ魯Τ֤ΤȤˤĤƤϡJespersen (373--74) ֵʸҲ𤷤Ƥ롥

A condition is very often denoted by a clause without any conjunction, but containing a verb placed before its subject. This construction, which is found in all the Gothonic language, is often explained from a question with implied positive answer: Will you come? [Yes, then] we can start at once.---A clear instance of this is AV 1. Cor. 7.27 Art thou bound vnto a wife? seeke not to bee loosed. Art thou loosed from a wife? seeke not a wife.


Jespersen (374) ϡֵʸǤʤȤͤƤꡤ³ơ³ˡȤƤˡβǽˤڤƤ롥

But interrogative sentences, though undoubtedly explaining much, are not the only sources of our construction. Pretty frequently we find a subjunctive used in such a way that it cannot have arisen from a question, but must be due to a main sentence expressing a desire, permission, or the like: AR 164 uor beo hit enes tobroken, ibet ne bið hit neuer | Towneley 171 Gett I those land lepars, I breke ilka bone | Sh Merch III. 2.61 Liue thou, I liue with much more dismay | Cymb IV. 3.30 come more, for more you're ready | John III. 3.31 and creep the time nere so slow, Yet it shall come, for me to doe these good.


ֵס³ˡסִ˾ס־פȤɤ餫ηǸߤ˷ӤĤƤȤФ롥VS ȯãϡǶ夲Ƥ may ȯãˤꤲƤ뤫⤷ʤ (cf. #3515. Ѹεʸ2 [2018-12-11-1]#3516. ˡ may Ʊ ([2018-12-12-1]))

Leuschner, Torsten and Daan Van den Nest. "Asynchronous Grammaticalization: V1-Conditionals in Present-Day English and German." Languages in Contrast 15 (2015): 34--63.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 5. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1954.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-15-1] [2018-12-14-1]

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2018-12-12 Wed

#3516. ˡ may Ʊ [optative][subjunctive][auxiliary_verb][construction_grammar][may]

ε#3515. Ѹεʸ2 ([2018-12-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸε깽ʸˤϡˡѤΤ may ѤΤ2郎¸ߤ롥ŪˤԤΤۤŤʸŪ귿ŪȤħͭƤꡤƱʸ̮ǤȤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ȤСMay they get home safely, Heaven help us! Τ褦ʻ㤬롥ۤξ깽ʸƱ路Ƥ㤬ٹ (159fn) ˵󤲤Ƥ롥

God help her; May God help her!---Trollope;
Long life to them both! May Edward the Atheling reign, but Harold the Earl rule!--Lord Lytton.


2ĤǡٹϡȾ Harold the Earl rule! ˡȲᤷƤ褦may η֤򤱤ȤŪǽ⤷ǤƱλȤƵ󤲤ΤϤդ路ʤȤˤʤ뤬 "May SV, but SV!" Ȥ¤̤γ٤ߤС³줿2ĤβˡƬ may ΩäƤȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤmay ϡŪ˿षƤˡεǽ䶯뤿Ƭդ줿ɸ (optative marker) Ǥª뤳ȤǤϡʸ1Ȥߤ뤳ȤǤ롥

ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-13-1]

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2018-12-11 Tue

#3515. Ѹεʸ2 [optative][subjunctive][auxiliary_verb][syntax][word_order][punctuation][may]

ٹ (158--59) ˤСѸˤϡߤޤ̤Ρ֤Ҥʴꤤפɽ魯ˡ (optative) ηȤơ2郎ǧ롥1ĤϲˡŪ³ˡ (subjunctive)ˤѤˡʰʲ (a)ˡ⤦1ĤϸƬ may ΩƤơּưפ³ˡǤʰʲ (b)ˡ줾򼨤

(a) ̾ʸƬΩơˡߤưҸȤ롥κݶΤƻ졦ʤɤΩƼȽҸȤž֤뤳Ȥ¿ȤС
   Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done.---Matthew, vi. 10.
   God bless and reward you for all your kindness.---Stowe.
   God forgive me!---Miss Mulock.
   Long live the Duke!---Charles Reade.
   Mine be a cot beside the hill!---Rogers.
   So be it, O Queen!---H. Hoggard.
   So help me God!---Hardy.
Τ褦ʤΤΤϾѤ줿ǤϤ뤬ǤϻӾθꤷΤۤϤޤ¿Ѥʤ˰äդ٤ϡΤ褦ʼͤθǤϺʤ̤ѤȤȤǤ롥
   Murrain take thee!---Scott.
   Devil take me!---Lamb.
   Generosity be hanged!---Thackeray.
   Dauphin be damned!---Shaw.
(b) ξ硤ˡѤȤ mayѤ롥ξ may ϤĤΩĤΤǤ롥ȤС
   May no evil dream disturb my rest!---Evening Hymn.
   May he rest in peace!---Irving.
   So may it be for ages!---William Morris.


ˡѤˤˡư may Ѥˤ衤ˡ (mood) ؤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ФСˡ (optative mood) ȸƤФʤǤ롥ޤ(a) ξϿդ(b) ξɬ֤ȤħŪϡ̾νҤǤϤʤȤͭɸȯù԰٤Ǥ뤳Ȥ򼨤ޡȤƵǽƤΤǤϤʤȻפ롥񤭸դǤϡ̾ﴶò (exclamation mark) ȼȤħ⤢롥
ʤmay бɥĸ mögen ³ˡ1⡤may ƱͤŪ񤤤򼨤ȤСMöge das neue Jahr viel Glück bringen! ʿǯ¿Ǥޤ褦ˡסMöge er glücklich werden! ˹졪ˤʤɡ

ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-13-1] [2018-12-12-1]

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2018-12-10 Mon

#3514. ˤֵפν [optative][mood][swearing][taboo][speech_act][hortative]

ؤǡֵפȤСѸǤ optative ȤѸ줬ƤƤꡤ͡롥ȤϤޤä1Ĥȯù԰٤Ǥ롥ޤthe optative mood ȸ褦ˡˡ (mood) 1ĤǤ⤢롥ˡꥷʤɤθǤϵˡɽ魯̤ưζ޷ꡤηؤ optative ȸ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ѹ˶ᤤȤСI hope/wish/would like . . . . ʤɴ˾˾ɽ魯ɽϤ٤ƵǤȤ⤤롥ˤֵפˤϡǽΤȤʤΤΤȤʤΤΤȤʤΤʸΤ褦ʤ礭ñ̤ΤȤʤΤʤɡƤɬפ褦˻פ롥
̣ŪˤСȤָ̤ΥݥƥʤΤŵͥƥʵ⤢롥ּפΤǤ롥顤 (swearing) 䥿֡ (taboo) ˤĤʤäƤLet's . . . ɽ봫ˡ (hortative mood) ɽ魯ǽȤ᤯ФжܤƤǤ롥
ïФƵȯä뤫ȤǤϡܤˤʹФƤȤȤ⤢뤬ȤȤȯ뤳Ȥ⤢ˤϲ뤳ȤʤƬΤʤǾ¿ΤǤϤʤû˵񤭵Ȥ⾯ʤʤͤϾ˲˾˾ʤƤȤ̣Ǥϡʸdz߲뤫ɤ̤ȤơȤΤϼ¤Ϥʤ٤ι⤤ǽǤʤΤǤϤʤŪʵǤ⡤٤η㤷ΰ㤤Ϥˤ衤ºݤˤϤϤ٤ʤΤǤϤʤ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-01-05-1]

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2018-12-09 Sun

#3513. come some ֻ [spelling][spelling_pronunciation_gap][final_e][minim]

ɸ2Ĥιٸֻˤϡ˰츫פȻפ e դƤ롥ʤ e ΤȤȡʤʤ񤷤Ǥ롥ŪˤⶦŪˤ <o> ɽ路Ƥ첻û첻Ǥꡤ"magic <e>" νФϤʤäϤcf. #1289. magic <e> ([2012-11-06-1]
Ȥ one, none, done 󤲤줽#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŪĹ첻äƤȤ㤤롥θ <e> ϡĹ첻ȿǤ magic <e> Ǥ뤳ȤǤ뤬come, some Ϥ⤤ʤޤؤäƤΤ <-me> ǤΤǡ#1827. magic <e> Ȥ̵ط <-ve> ([2014-04-28-1]) Ǥߤ <-ve> Ȥ𤬰ۤʤ롥
̡ <e> ϤƤ<o> = /ʌ/ ʬܤСϡ#2450. Ѹˤ <u> <o> ˤѡ ([2016-01-11-1]) #2453. Ѹˤ <u> <o> ˤ (2) ([2016-01-14-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ˭٤٤ŪǽǤ롥 "minim avoidance" Carney (148) ˤ⡤<o> = /ʌ/ ˴ؤƼΤ褦ʵҤ롥

   The use of <o> spellings [for /ʌ/] seems to be dictated by minim avoidance, at least Romance words (Scragg 1974: 44). Certainly, TF [= text frequency] 90 per cent, LF [= lexical frequency] 76 per cent of /ʌ/ <o> spellings occur before <v>, <m> or <n>. Typical <om> and <on> spellings are:

become, come, comfort, company, compass, somersault, etc.; conjure, front, frontier, ironmonger, Monday, money, mongrel, monk, monkey, month, son, sponge, ton, tongue, wonder, etc.

On the other hand there are equally common words with <u> spellings before <m> and <n>:

drum, jump, lumber, mumble, mumps, munch, mundane, number, pump, slum, sum, thump, trumpet, etc.; fun, fund, gun, hundred, hunt, lunch, punch, run, sun, etc.

There are also a few <o> spellings where adjacent letters do not have minim strokes: brother, colour, colander, thorough, borough, other, dozen. In the absence of context-based rules, such spelling can only be taught by sample lists . . . .


<e> Ϥޤ褵ʤޤޤǤ롥

Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.

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2018-12-08 Sat

#3512. ǧưμ٤̻ŪѲ [frequency][verb][comment_clause][semantic_field]

(162) Ѹ줫鸽Ѹˤǧưμ١פɽǤ褦ɽ (p) "personal"(i) "impersonal" ˡ򼨤ʤɽϡֳƻǰ줿ưٽˤäѤ˼ΡפȤΤȤǤ롥

14th15th16th17th18th19th20th
knowesupposeknowknowthinkthinkthink
witentrustthinkthinkbelievesupposeknow
thinke (p)trowtrowfind supposeknowsuppose 
semeunderstandtrust/wotbelieveknowbelievebelieve
wenewotbelievesupposeguessguessguess
trowehopewenefancy   
thinke (i)knowsupposeguess   
understondedeme/think/weneguesstrust   
demedeme     
menedoubt     
trustbelieve     
hopeguess     
gessen      
leve      
undertake      
suppose      
beleven      


̻ŪʷȤƤϡǧʽp. 162--63ˡ

1. think know Ӥ¿ȤƤ롥
2. suppose 15ˤϺǤ¿Ȥ줿θƤ18ʹߤ¿ʤäƤä
3. believe Ѹ (Chaucer)15ˤϤۤȤɻȤʤä17ʹ¿Ȥ褦ˤʤä
4. guess ϰӤƤۤ¿Ϥʤ
5. witen, wene, wot 17򶭤˻Ȥʤʤä
6. trowe 17򶭤˻ȤʤʤäޤưϤۤȤ as ? ηǻȤ줿
7. ɽˤϤϤäȤɽƤʤfancy ϸѸǤϻȤʤʤä


(170) ϡư̻Ū򡤰̣ (semantic_field) 붥Ȱ֤ŤƤ롥

witan, wene ο think 礬طޤ know η̤Ǥ⤢ȹͤ롥Fancy 17餷Ф餯ȤƤ20ȡepistemic phrase ȤƻȤʤʤäΤϡimagine ʤɤưɤ줿ꡤ뤤Ϥθ켫Ȥ¾ˡfancy restaurant Τ褦̾졤ƻŪˡˤȯãǤȹͤ롥դ˶طݤƤΤϡƱΤʬԤäƤꡤΥХ󥹤ξ˵ǽƤ뤫ȹͤ롥Think, believe, suppose, know, guess comment cl ϤΤ褦ʬ줿֤ˤƵǽƤ뤫Ǥ


ǧưȤ٤ηȤäƤ⡤̻Ū˼٤ɤäƤߤ뤳Ȥạ̇̄ξζȤʥߥåʸݤѻ뤳Ȥ˴

¼8ϡComment clause ΤޤȤסComment Clause λŪ桡εǽȯãٽ ¼ԡˡĬҥե˥å2010ǯ161--72ǡ

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2018-12-07 Fri

#3511. 20γƸɤ򼴾˥ץåȤ [linguistics][history_of_linguistics][generative_grammar][saussure]

塼˻Ϥޤ20θؤϡθǯ͡Ÿ򼨤ƤŸλϥ衼åѤȥꥫȤǤʤۤʤΤΡηϡŻγɤˡŻγɤΩˤȤ館Ȥ狼䤹ʤ餽֤˰֤ŤŪʳɤ⸽Ƥơ2021ˤ¿̤ʸؤֺ餯Ȥˤʤäʲⶶ (pp. 4--5) ˤäƼ

ޤ20Υ衼åѤγƸɤˤĤơηϽŻʺ¦ˤˡŻʱ¦ˤξˤȤ뼴ξ˰֤ŤޤǤ褦

ηϽŻ롡ˡŻ

塼롡

ڥϡ󡡡ե󥹡ץ顼ɡɥ
ɡ͡ɡŪǽ

³ƸΥꥫγƸɤˤĤơŻʺ¦ˤˡŻʱ¦ˤξˤȤ뼴ξ˰֤Ťޡ

Ż롡ˡŻ


ʸˡ¤Ż뵡ǽʸʸˡǧʸˡýŻ뵡ǽ

21κθؤˤĤơⶶ (6) ϼΤ褦ͽۤƤ롥

Τ褦ˡ20Υ衼åѤθؤ⡤Υꥫ濴Ȥؤ⡤ءǧβʳؤҲءʸؤʤʬߤ˱ƶ礤ʤ顤¤Ż뤹뤫ǽˡŻ뤹뤫ˤäơѡʸˡѤ礭ۤʤꡤ⡤1Τߤʤ餺¿˿뿶ҤΤ褦ѲȯŸƤΤȻפ롥


ⶶ 顦 ůͺֽϡؤȤϲ ůͺԡˡظīоȸإ꡼ 3īҽŹ2012ǯ1--8ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-20-1]

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2018-12-06 Thu

#3510. Ƭ en- ưʻž֡ [conversion][prefix][suffix][word_formation][derivation]

Ƭ en- ưˤĤơ#1877. ưƬ en- -en ([2014-06-17-1]) Ǽ夲ϡƬˤĤƷδꤿ
Ǥϡֱ¦§ (right-hand head rule: RHR) Ȥ§Ūˤߤ졤ˤȡŪʣʸμϱ¦ǤǤȤ롥̤θ򤹤С¦ǤΤʻꤹȤȤǤ⤢롥ȤСsinger μϱ¦ -er ǤꡤϹ԰ټԤɽ魯ƬǤ뤫顤Τ̾Ȥʤ롥peaceful μϤϤ걦¦ -ful ǤꡤˤΤƻȤʤ롥ŪˤСʻǽϤäƤ뤳Ȥ¿ȤȤǤ롥
ǤϡƬˤĤƤϤɤƬ屦¦ǤȤʤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤΤǡʻǽϤ⤿ʤϤǤ롥ε ([2014-06-17-1]) 󤷤褦ˡΤƬ en- դưϾʤʤƵ󤲤СΤ̾졤ƻ졤ưΤΤޤ encase, enchain, encradle, enthrone, enverdure; embus, emtram, enplane;, engulf, enmesh; empower, encollar, encourage, enfranchise; embitter, enable, endear, englad, enrich, enslave; enfold, enkindle, enshroud, entame, entangle, entwine, enwrap ʤ¿롥ϡ嵭ΰȿơֺ¦§פŬѤƤ뤫Τ褦˻פ롥
ФŪнˡ1ĤȤơΤˤʻž (conversion) 뤤ϥβꤹȤΤ롥ƻδ rich Ƭ en- դư enrich ǹͤƤߤ褦нˡˤСƻ rich ˤϡޤư를դ졤ˤɽŪˤϷ֤Ѥ̤ޤưز롥ơθ塤äʻǽϤĤ櫓ǤϤʤƬ en- ղä줿ˤʤȹͤΤǤ롥Τ褦˲᤹Сư를θκǤⱦ¦ǤȤʤꡤ줬ΤʻǽϤĤȲꤹ롤ᦧŬʾ3ƥåפηֲޤȤСΤ褦ˤʤp. 54ˡ

(i) lexicon: [rich] A
(ii) suffixation: [[rich] A + 0] V]
(iii) prefixation: [en + [rich] A + 0] V] V


ǤϡƬ en- εǽϤäʤΤȤϻĤ롥Ūˡϡembolden, enfasten, engladden, enlighten ʤɡ -en դƤǤư첽ƤΤФƤƬ en- դ륱ˤĤƤݤƤǤƤ롥
Ϣơʻž䥼ˤĤ conversion γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿

ůͺ2ϡι¤ˤĤơ ůͺԡˡظīоȸإ꡼ 3īҽŹ2012ǯ39--63ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-06-22-1] [2023-05-31-1]

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2018-12-05 Wed

#3509. ΧߤȰư [metrical_phonology][stress][phonology][prosody]

Ѹ fifteen /fɪfˈtiːn/ Τ褦2˥Ȥ뤬fifteen boys Ȥʤ /ˌfɪftiːn ˈbɔɪz/ Τ褦 boys ˺Ǥ⶯Ȥ֤fifteen ˤƤ21ΤۤŪ˶ʤ롥ϡ1ȤǤ2ȤǤ졤2ĤΥȤܲϢ³ƸΤ򤱤뤿ˡȰ֤ĴǽưǤ롥
ΥȰ֤ĴǽΧ (metrical_phonology) Ω줫꼰褦Ȥȡ㤨мΤ褦ˤʤʹⶶpp. 34--35ˡޤ fifteen ñΤˤĤƤοޤ (1) ˵󤲤褦

(1) fifteen

 *μ祢
**
fifti:n


οޤ fifteen αΧåɤ򼨤Ƥ롥Ȥ򵭽ҤΤˡʳγؤѰդΤΧħǤ롥Ǥϡָ쥢ȡפȡָμ祢ȡפȤ2ĤγؤѰդƤ롥Ʋľˤߤơ¿դƤ벻ˡ궯Ȥ֤ȤޤĤޤꡤfifteen 2᤬궯1᤬夤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ˡboys ä̾ȤƤߤ褦

(2) fifteen boys Ĵ

  *
 **μ祢
***
fifti:nboiz


(1) β boys 1ʬäˡֶ祢ȡפγؤ褻ΧåɤǤ롥Ѹ̾Ǥϼ boys ˺Ǥ⶯Ȥ֤뤬3ĤǼƤ롥 ѸαΧε§Ȥơܤ2᤬Ȥ2ġʰʾˤäƤ뤳ȤϵƤʤʤȹͤƤˡˤꡤ֤Ǽ褦ˡܤ4ĤΥޥܤ֤Τϥ롼ȿȤʤ롥ǡȿ򤹤ˡϺ롥Ĥβǽ뤬ǤϺ֤1ޥˤꤷƤȡĴˤ꼡 (3) αΧåɤ롥

(3) fifteen boys Ĵ

  *
* *μ祢
***
fifti:nboiz


ϡºݤ fifteen boys ΥȤμȰ֤ΤɽƤ뱤ΧåɤȤʤ롥ʾΥƥåפͣβǽǤϤʤʤȤι⤤1ĤǤϤʾ夬Χǥȡʰưˤ򰷤ݤδŪʹͤǤ롥

ⶶ ͺ1ϡι¤ˤĤơء ůͺԡˡظīоȸإ꡼ 3īҽŹ2012ǯ9--38ǡ

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2018-12-04 Tue

#3508. 塼Ωǰ3 [saussure][terminology][langue][diachrony]

¤ؤȤ٤塼 (Ferdinand de Saussure; 1857--1913) ϡʸˤ˴ؤ͡Ωǰ󼨤ǤȤ櫓פ3ΩˤĤơɽηǤޤȤƤʹⶶ pp. 3--4 ˡ

(1) (langue) ȥѥ (parole) Ω

ѥ
ηŪ (systematic)ηŪ (not systematic)
ƱŪ (homogeneous)ۼŪ (heterogeneous)
§Ū (rule-governed)§Ū (not rule-governed)
ҲŪ (social)ĿŪ (individual)
Ū (conventional)󴷽Ū (not conventional)
Ū (invariable)ѰŪ (variable)
̵ռŪ (unconscious)ռŪ (conscious)


(2) (form) ȼ (substance) Ω

η (system)̵η (no system)
Ϣ³Ū (discrete)Ϣ³Ū (continuous)
?????? (static)?????? (dynamic)


(3) (synchrony) ̻ (diachrony) Ω

̻
̵Ū (ahistorical)Ū (historical)
?????? (internal)???? (external)
ѲŪ (unchanging)ѲŪ (changing)
(invariable)Ѥ䤹 (variable)
¸Ū (coexistent)³Ū (successive)


塼ϡΩ󼨤ʤ顤츦ˤƤϺν¦̤ͥ褹٤ȹͤĤޤꡤ󥰡Ż뤹٤ʤΤǤ롥
(1) ΩˤĤƤϡ#2202. langue parole ([2015-05-08-1]) (2) ˤĤƤϡ#1074. Hjelmslev θء ([2012-04-05-1]) 򻲾ȡ(3) ˴ؤƤϡ#3326. ̻ŪȶŪ ([2018-06-05-1]) ĥäεɤΩԻ׵ĤΩ#3264. Saussurian Paradox ([2018-04-04-1]) ⤪⤷

ⶶ 顦 ůͺֽϡؤȤϲ ůͺԡˡظīоȸإ꡼ 3īҽŹ2012ǯ1--8ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-10-23-1] [2021-10-23-1]

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2018-12-03 Mon

#3507. NURSE Merger [sound_change][phonetics][centralisation][vowel][merger][ame_bre]

herd, heard, stir, word, nurse, myrrh ʤɤ <Vr> ֻñˤơб벻Ϥ /əː(r)/ Ȥʤ롥ȯֻδط1¿פȤʤѸؽˤƤʸݤʤΤ϶Ѹ NURSE Merger 岽 (centralisation) ȤˤȤѲη̤Ǥ롥ѸޤǤϡθϤ褽ֻ˼̤첻äƤꡤȯߤ˶̤ƤȤͻ (merger) ٤Ʊ첻˵ƤޤäֻϤĤƤ첻бޤ޸ꤷƤޤäΤǤ롥
ͻ礬Ϥޤäϡ/ɪr/, /ɛr/, /ʌr/ γơˤäƤˤäƤۤʤäƤ/ɪr/, /ɛr/ ˤĤƤ15ᤫ³ǻϤޤäƤꡤ16ˤϥɥ¯ˤߤ줿ɸѸǤ16ȾФϤޤäƤ褦/ʌr/ ͻ٤17ȾФϤޤꡤĿͤˤäƤ18ޤǶ̤ݤäԤ⤢äShakespeare ϶̤ƤˡΤȤƤСɸѸˤ3Ԥͻ18ޤǤ˴λƤȤߤƤ褤p. 304--07ˡ
ʤ/ɛr/ ˤĤƤϡѸ˲Ф /ar/ Ȥδ֤ɤ줬ߤ졤ɤ줬ߤޤǼѤ줿̤Ȥơclerk Υꥹȯ /ˈklɑ:k/ ȥꥫȯ /ˈklə:rk/ ʤɤκޤƤ¾Ȥ Derby, Berkeley, sergeant, person/parson, vermin/varmin(t), university/varsity ʤɤˡˤĤƤϡ#211. spelling pronunciation ([2009-11-24-1])#1343. ѸαƺʼȤȯȸáˡ ([2012-12-30-1])#2274. heart ֻȯ ([2015-07-19-1]) ε򻲾ȡ
NURSE Merger ˤĤơǤϤ줬Ƥ餺ޤѸ첻ζ̤ݤƤ륱¿ȤդäƤȤХåȥɱѸǤ stirred /stɪrd/, heard /hɛrd/, word /wʌrd/ ʤɤȯߤǤ (Gramley 381) 饹αؤƤϡֻ̤ȯǤ狼䤹פȴưΤǤ롥ŪˤϥåȥɱѸ줬ֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) ѤƤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ뤬ŪˤϥåȥɱѸ줬ŲݻƤˤʤ

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ

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2018-12-02 Sun

#3506. ƥβŪΩ [suffix][latin][phonotactics]

ƥˤ첻ǻϤޤΤ¿ˤϻҲǻϤޤΤ¿ (113--14) ɤޤǡλ¤ˤϵŤʤäκۤطʤˤϡƸηŪħȡȴϢ벻λ𤬤褦

PE ΥƥϤƬˤ첻ǻϤޤΤŪ¿ϥƥϤηǹ¤󡦲˽äƤѸ줫顤θ촴ݤĤȤͥ褷ơФˤ촴˻ҲĤʬϤ򤹤뤿Ǥȹͤ롥ȤСdivinity ξ硤ƻ divine Ȥطռ졤divin-ity Ȥդ첻ڤ뤳Ȥǡ-ity Ȥȹͤ롥Lieber (2005: 384--388) ΥꥹȤǤϡƥϤȤưʲ26ĤƤ뤬-ment /mənt/ -ure /jə/ 2İʳϤ٤첻ǻϤޤäƤʲĤƱ۵صŪ˶̤Ρˡ

-able, -age, -al1, -al2, -an/-ian, -ance/-ence, -ant, -ate, -ation, -ee, -ery, -esque, -ess, -ette, -ic, -ify, -ism, -ist, -ite, -ity, -ive, -ize, -ment, -ory, -ous, -ure

ϻҲǻϤޤΤ¿ϸΩΤǤ岽ˤʤäǤȹͤ롥嵭 Lieber ΥꥹȤȤƤƤ14ĤΤĤΩǤäȹͤΤϰʲ7Ĥ롥줾̤Ǹ츻򼨤

-dom (< dōm 'jurisdiction, state, statute'), -ed, -en1, -en2, -er, -ful (< full), -hood (< hād 'state, rank, order, condition, character'), -ish, -less (< lēas 'devoid of'), -ly (< līc 'body'), -ness, -ship (< -scipe 'shape'), -some (< -sum 'same, one'), -y


ˤ첻ǻϤޤϾʤ櫓ǤϤʤ嵭ΩϤޤǷȤ򤹤ɬפ뤬طʤ˳ƸηֲħȤŦϰ̣ĹǤ롥
βǻȤƤСספȤѸˤĤƤϡ#3480. С ([2018-11-14-1]) 򻲾ȡ

ůȡ6ϡѲä ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ106--30ǡ

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2018-12-01 Sat

#3505. THOUGHT-NORTH-FORCE Merger [sound_change][phonetics][vowel][merger][lexical_set]

ɸ3ɽơ lexical set ϡѸǤϸߤ˰ۤʤ첻ʤ r ϢˤäƤ餬Ѹ˥󥰥ʤɤ /ɔː/ ؤͻ (merger) ʥȷϡɽ硤ꥫȯʤɤǤͻ礷Ƥʤˡͻ˻ޤǤˤĤβѲͿƤꡤȯŸηаޤϰճʣǤ롥Gramley (190) ꡤʳβѲ򼨤

 THOUGHTNORTHFORCE
EModEɒːɒroːr
Pre-R lengthening-ɒːr-
Pre-R breaking and laxing--ɔər
Phonetic shiftɔːɔːr-
R-dropping-ɔːɔə
1st FORCE Merger (smoothing)--ɔː
Mod RPɔːɔːɔː


ɽ "1st FORCE Merger" Ȥ뤳Ȥ鼨褦ˡ"2nd FORCE Merger" ⤢ꡤϸ߿ʹǤ롥ϡyour, poor, moor ʤɤ /ʊə/ 경 (smoothing) /ɔː/ ͻ礷ƤѲǤ롥̤Ȥ sure = shore = /ʃɔː/ ʤɤȤʤ뤬߿ʹȤȤ⤢ꡤñˤäѲФ롤Фʤΰ㤤ߤ롥

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

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