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2ͤüԤβäˤơߤ˥ڥʤȯä蘆礬롥ФƲФФƼ뤤ϵݡФưФƱƤӤФֻȤäŪʥڥǤ롥̾ξȯäδ̵֤طƤȯäϤޤ뤳ȤϤʤ٤礦ΤʤΤǡ adjacency pair ȸƤ֡Ѹ줫
| adjacency pair (A and B) | A | B |
|---|---|---|
| question-answer | What time is it? | Seven o'clock. |
| offer-acceptance | Would you like a baked potato? | Yes, please. |
| greeting-greeting | Good morning. | Morning Mattie. |
| request-compliance | Can I have a jam sandwich then please dad? | Yes sunshine. |
| summons-acknowledgement | Mum, mum, mum, mum, mum? | Yes? |
Q1 S: What color do you think you want?
Q2 C: Do they just come in one solid color?
A2 S: No. They're black, blue, red, orange, light blue, dark blue, gray, green, tan[pause], black.
A1 C: Well, gimme a dark blue one, I guess.
Bȯä礱礬ͳˤĤƤϡ#1134. ĴθˤȤ ([2012-06-04-1]) Ǹ褦ͳ뤫⤷ʤˡʸˤäƤ adjacency pair 䵬§Ȥ¸ߤʤȤ⤢ΤǤϤʤĤޤꡤ嵭Τ褦 adjacency pair ϰ츫ȤɤθʸˤŪ¸ߤƤΤȻפ줬ºݤˤϳƸʸ˰¸ҲŪ˴줿 (norm or "normative requirement") ˤʤΤǤϤʤ
#1644. ٤̱ۤ² (2) ([2013-10-27-1]) Ǥ⸫Ȥꡤȯä˴ؤ봷Τʤˤʸ˰¸Τ롥 adjacency pair ʸˤ̣ͭɤϸ̤Ĵ٤ʤФʤʤȤ̣ͭǤäȤƤäBˤĤʸȤ˹ޤѥۤʤȤȤΤǤϤʤ㤨СεǡܸǤϿФФư٤ϤǤȤȿޤ뤳Ȥ뤷ФϤ餫 Madagascar θ춦ƱΤߤadjacency pair Τʸ֤ѰۤȤŦϡֶĴθפŪФ1ĤĩȤʤŪ ethnography of speaking θΤϡȷŪ§ȼҲŪϤȤäФƶŪʻͿȤȤˤΤǤϤʤ
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
ؤˤƱΧ (prosody) ȤϡĶʬŪ (suprasegmental) ʼβħΤȤؤʲˡ6褦 (Crystal 73--74)
(1) pitch, tone, intonation ʤɤβιϡʲ˾ܤ褦ˡŪŪѤƤ롥
(2) stress, loudness, accent ʤɤβζϡѸǤϸζʤɤ˸롥accent ϤФ stress Ʊ뤵뤬̩ˤϹ (pitch) ȶ (stress) ȤȤ߹碌ΧŪħǤ롥
(3) tempo ʤɤβ®٤ϡ®ж۵ޤΩ٤лθ䶯Ĵʤɤްդ롥
(4) rhythm beat ϡpitch, stress, tempo Ȥ߹碌ΧŪħǡ֤ѰۤѸΤ褦˶ֳ֤Ǹ stress-timed rhythmܸΤ褦˲ֳ֤Ǹ syllable-timed rhythm ʤɤζ̤롥
(5) pause, silence ʤɤεٻߤ⤢ΰտޤ䴶ɽ魯ΤѤ롥
(6) timbreʲˤϴɽˤϻΤΡ줿餷봷ŪΩŪǧʤΤǡŪȤϥѥŪ (paralinguistic) ħȤ٤Ǥ롥
ΤˤƤȤ櫓ŪͿŪǤ (1)--(4) ޤȤơΧŪħ (prosodic features) ȸƤǤ롥ǤϡαΧŪħεǽϲ͡ʵǽ뤬8Ĥ褦 (Crystal 76--78)
(i) ɽ魯ʳäͧߤʤ¿δ롥
(ii) ʸˡ¤ɸ롥ιٻߤʤɤˤꡤʸˡŪʺۤФ㤨СѸܸʤɡ¿θʿʸȵʸȤ̤Τˡ줾첼ĴҤȾ夬ĴҤ intonation äƤ롥Ϣơ#976. syntagma marking ([2011-12-29-1]) ȡ
(iii) ˷Ϳ롥ζ֤˴ؤ뵬§ĸǤϡƱ˴Ϳ롥Τ褦ʵ§⤿ʤѸΤ褦ʸǤ⡤#926. Ūǽ ([2011-11-09-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŪʵǽ̤
(iv) ΰ̣̤롥θȾʾĴ (tone language) ǤϡĴʤΰ̣ˤ̤̤Ƥ롥ܸΡȤסֶסüפκۤȡޤܸޤ¿θ줬ĴѤƤ롥
(v) ̣դʸΤ˱ΧŪۤͿ뤳ȤˤäơοŪʵǽ̤
(vi) äħŤ롥˥塼ƻ¶ⶵֵʤɤϤ줾ͭαΧ
(vii) ؽ롥ꥺശΤ褤ϤʤɤѤȡŵؽưפˤʤ롥äơΧŪħϡ콬ˤƤפ̤
(viii) ĿͤƱꤹ롥ΧϡüԤμҲŪʽ°üԤѤѰ (register) ؼ (indexical) ǽġ
ˤ뱤ΧϤФΧ䲻ڤӤ뤬ξԤ2ĤǷŪ˰ۤʤ롥1ˡڤϷ֤뤳ȤȤƺ뤬ˤĤƤ̾綠Τ褦Ϥʤ2ˡڤϸȡŪʲĴˤ˴ŤƱդ뤬αΧŪʤΤǤ롥
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
#1632. communicative competence ([2013-10-15-1])#1633. ٤̱ۤ²ء ([2013-10-16-1])#1644. ٤̱ۤ² (2) ([2013-10-27-1]) εǡethnography of speaking ʬСΰָϡȯäʸȤ顤⤦1Ĥ夲롥ȯù (speech act) ΰʸӤǤ롥
ȯù٤ϡAustin θŵŪʤΤ䤽ȯŸ Searle ΤΤΤƤHuang, pp. 106--08 ȡˡΤ褦ؤδؿϡȯù٤ȤüԤ˶ͭƤ뤳ȤƤ褦ˤʹ뤬ºݤˤ¿ȯù٤ʸ˰¸롥뺧ʤɤεŪŪʾ̤Ǥȯù٤ʸˤäưۤʤ뤳ȤưפۤɴƤʤ̤ˤȯù٤ˤʸ֤ϸ롥ʲHuang (119--25) ˽äơ4夲褦
(1) ʸ¸ߤȯù٤̤ʸ¸ߤʤ硥㤨С«Ȥȯù٤ϡܸˤѸˤ⤢뤷¾¿ˤ¸ߤ롥եԥΥ² (Ilongot) ˤϤ줬ʤ²μҲǤ¤俿¤ҲŪʴطΤۤŻ뤵졤̤Ȥ«Ȥȯù٤⤽¸ߤʤΤȹͤƤ롥⤦1СȥꥢΥܥꥸˡ² (Yolngu) ǤϡդȤȯù٤ʤȤ롥
ޤ¾ˤߤʤüȯù٤ʸ⤢롥ȥꥢΥܥꥸˡWalmajarri ˤơ̴ֿط˴Ť뤤ϵ̳Ȥ᤹פȤðۤȯù٤ꡤư (performative verb) japirlyung ˤäɽ蘆롥οưϡ"I ask/request you to do X for me, and I expect you to do it simply because of how you are related to me" ۤɤΰ̣ɽ魯ϡȤʸλȤΩƤ줿ȯù٤ͭ˰ۤΤȤʤ롥
(2) ƱФơʸˤäưۤʤȯù٤ʤ硥㤨СͤƧǤޤäȤΤǤ쥢Ǥ⡤̾ϼպȤȯù٤ʤ롥ȤեꥫΥ² (Akan) ǤϡպǤϤʤƱȯù٤ʤ롥ޤ˾ԤơǸˤȤޤȤѸǤϿؤδդȻҤ٤Τܸ̾Ǥϡ֤⤤ޤפȿ٤ǧȯ롥ƱͤˡܸǤϡ£ʪäȤʤɤˤϡդ֤ߤޤפμպΤۤࡥ
(3) Ʊȯù٤Фơʸˤäưۤʤȿ硥˫դҤ٤ȡѸǤϴդʤΤ̤졤ܸ졤ݡɸʤɤǤϼݤ㡧֤ޤƤʤǤ͡ס֤ޤäƤʤΤǡסˡʤߤˡФƥΡȤʤܸüԤʬ˸줿˫դˤϥΡȤȤȤΤ⤷
ޤФФ1٤ϵŪʵݤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤܸŪˤŵŪȿǤ롥ֿТŪʵݢТŪʵݢפȤή (adjacency pair) ΤΤʸŪޤƤȹͤcf. ܤˡ
(4) Ʊȯù٤ǤäƤ⡤ľŪˤʤ뤫Ūˤʤ뤫ٹ礤ʸˤäưۤʤ硥ꡤպᡤʿʤɤ face-threatening act (FTA) ˤĤưۤʤ֤Ӹ椬1980ǯʹߡȤ櫓 Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) ̾βǿ䤷ʤƤˤĤƤС8ĤθѼ (German, Hebrew, Danish, Canadian French, Argentinian Spanish, British English, American English, Australian English) ӤȤArgentinian Spanish ǤľŪǡAustralian English ǤŪä
ܸΡ褷ޤפϡʸ̤ˤϡ֤礦˽פȤ̣ɽ魯ȤѤдŪʵݤȯù٤Ȥʤ롥ϡΰФľܥΡȸˤܸˤȤäơŪŪάʤΤǤ롥ºݤˡ줬ƤγȯŸ㤬롥1974ǯ˥ΤƣФܤݻԾμͳƣŪʰ̣礤ǡ褷ޤפ I do my best. 줿θ塤ưʤܤФƥꥫ餻Ĥ˻äޤǤˡȯù٤ ethnography of speaking 褯椵졤̤ưʸΩηäȤξǾμãƤСΤ褦ʸʤä
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
Ѹäθ̤γˤĤơޤ¿εdzƼפƤ
[2012-09-03-1]: #1225. եѸʬۤð
[2012-08-11-1]: #1202. Ѹθäεȳ (2)
[2012-01-07-1]: #985. Ѹθäεȳ
[2011-09-18-1]: #874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ
[2011-08-20-1]: #845. Ѹθäεȳ
[2010-12-31-1]: #613. Academic Word List ˴ޤޤγ
[2010-06-30-1]: #429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ
[2010-05-16-1]: #384. ÿȥޥΨǸűѸȸѸθäӤ
[2010-03-02-1]: #309. Ѹδܸ100εȳ
[2009-11-15-1]: #202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ
[2009-11-14-1]: #201. ѸμѸεȳ (2)
[2009-08-19-1]: #114. ѸμѸεȳ
[2009-08-15-1]: #110. ѸμѸεȳ
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1526. Ѹܸθûоɽ ([2013-07-01-1]) Ǹ褦ˡѸܸθäӤˤɤäƤƤꡤ̤ȤƸζŪʸùˤⶦ롥ϡѸȤӤΤˡܸθ̤γߤ褦ŪˤμθפΤܸɴŵ (420--21) ˵ʤ3Ĵ̤γѤ
(1) 龼¤ˤƤ3ι켭ŵظ١22ǯ1889ǯˡ켭ŵ١ʾ31ǯ1956ǯˡ켭ŵ١ʾ44ǯ1969ǯˤμϿ̤˿椬롥ϡظ39,103켭ŵ40,393س켭ŵ60,218 Ǥ롥ʲ˳ɽȿޤ
| ¸ | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ظ | 55.8% | 34.7 | 1.4 | 8.1 |
| 켭ŵ | 36.6 | 53.6 | 3.5 | 6.2 |
| س켭ŵ | 37.1 | 52.9 | 7.8 | 2.2 |
| ¸ | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ۤʤ | 36.7% | 47.5 | 9.8 | 6.0 |
| ٸ | 53.9 | 41.3 | 2.9 | 1.9 |
| ¸ | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ۤʤ | 46.9% | 40.0 | 10.1 | 3.0 |
| ٸ | 71.8 | 23.6 | 3.2 | 1.4 |
#1632. communicative competence ([2013-10-15-1]) ȡ#1633. ٤̱ۤ²ء ([2013-10-16-1]) ǡethnography of speaking Ȥʬ˿줿ءҲءʸؤˤΰǡԤ͡ʸʸǤʤեɥȵҤ礿̤ȤʤäƤ롥εǡۤʤ ethnography of speaking ĸҲĤҲ𤷤Ϥʬ˷Ȥեɥ並ԤʹƤߤ褦εǿ줿Τ¿⡤Hudson ¹롥ޤϡɤ Puliya βۤˤĤơ
Peter Gardener (1966) did some fieldwork . . . in southern India, among a tribal people called the Puliya, describing their socialization patterns. There is no agriculture and no industry, and the society is neither particularly cooperative nor particularly competitive; so children are led neither to be particularly interdependent nor to be aggressively competitive with each other, but simply to busy themselves with their own concerns in reasonable spatial proximity. He observed that, by the time a man was forty, he practically stopped speaking altogether. He had no reason to speak. People there, in fact, just didn't talk much and seldom seemed to find anything much to talk about, and he saw this as a consequence of the particular kind of socialization pattern. (116)
ˡɥͥ Roti Τ٤깥ʸҲˤĤơ
For a Rotinese the pleasure of life is talk --- not simply an idle chatter that passes time, but the more formal taking of sides in endless dispute, argument and repartee or the rivalling of one another in eloquent and balanced phrases on ceremonial occasions . . . Lack of talk is an indication of distress. Rotinese repeatedly explain that if their 'hearts' are confused or dejected, they keep silent. Contrarily, to be involved with someone requires active verbal encounter. (117)
ʥꥫͤȲۤʥǥޡͤвäȤΡԤ㤤ˤĤơ
An . . . enthnographer (sic) describes staying with in-laws in Denmark and being joined by an American friend who, despite warnings, insisted on talking with American intensity until 'at 9 o'clock my in-laws retired to bed; they just couldn't stand it any more'. (117)
ˤ٤Τ1ͤǤȤQäƤԤˤȤäơAntigua θưϰͤ˱Ǥ
Antiguan conventions appear, on the surface, almost anarchic. Fundamentally, there is no regular requirement for two or more voices not to be going at the same time. The start of a new voice is not in itself a signal for the voice speaking either to stop or to institute a process which will decide who is to have the floor. When someone enters a casual group, for example, no opening is necessarily made for him; nor is there any pause or other formal signal that he is being included. No one appears to pay any attention. When he feels ready he will simply begin speaking. He may be heard, he may not. That is, the other voices may eventually stop and listen, or some of them may; eyes may or may not turn to him. If he is not heard the first time he will try again, and yet again (often with the same remark). Eventually he will be heard or give up. (117)
Ʊ Antigua ǤϡäǤβ˴ؤ봷¾¿θҲȤϰۤʤäƤ롥
In a brief conversation with me, about three minutes, a girl called to someone on the street, made a remark to a small boy, sang a little, told a child to go to school, sang some more, told a child to go buy bread, etc., all the while continuing the thread of her conversation about her sister. (118)
äƤԤ̤ͥΩĤΤξξФˤ뤳Ȥ̤ȤʤäƤҲTuvalu ˤ롥
[G]ossips on Nukulaelae Atoll frequently withhold important pieces of information, such as the identity of a person, from their gossip narratives, thus manipulating their audiences into asking for the missing information, sometimes over the space of several turns, as information is revealed in small doses, requiring further questioning . . . .
Madagascar ǤϡäƤۣˤơΤʤȤ롥
[I]f A asks B 'Where is your mother?' and B responds 'She is either in the house or at the market', B's utterance is not usually taken to imply that B is unable to provide more specific information needed by the hearer. The implicature is not made, because the expectation that speakers will satisfy informational needs is not a basic norm.
Ǹ2ǤϡδŪʵǽȰ̤˹ͤƤ־ΡפȤƤ䤬̤Ƥʤεǽ⡤ҲŪʴΤۤȤȤ
ǸƤ褦˳ƸҲˤȯäʤȼε§롥ε§ (rule) ϡˤäȤƤäȳʤ櫓ǤϤʤŪ˼٤ưȤƹǧƤȤ̣ǡ (norm) ȸƤ֤ΤŬڤȯäνϤΤäƤ뤳ȤθʼҲˤ communicative competence ͭƤ뤳Ȥˤۤʤʤ嵭ϡҲˤä͡ȯäεϤȤȡεϤŪʤΤǤȤȤƤ롥
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
#1640. Ѹ name ȥꥷ onoma (2) ([2013-10-23-1]) ˤƬ (laryngeal theory) ˤĤơ⤦⤹롥
ԤϡFerdinand de Saussure (1857--1913) Ǥ롥Saussure ϡ1879ǯΰĸư첻ؤ˴ؤ븦 (Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes. Leipzig: 1879) ǡŪƷμˡˤꡤĸ (IE) Ĺ첻ϡ첻 e/o ȤIJ ("coéfficients sonantiques") ȤηˤäΤǤȲꤷIJϥǥޡΥޥؼ H. Mó ˤꡤ ə ɽ빢Ƭ (laryngeal) Ӥ줿βϤФ餯δ֤ܤʤä20Ƭ Hittite ȯȲɤˤȤʤʡ#101. ӸؤΥޥ --- Tocharian Anatolian ([2009-08-06-1]) ȡˡ˸ ḫ ιƬǤϤʤȵ褦ˤʤä
ƬˤСIE Ĺ첻 ē, ā, ō ϡschwa indogermanicum ȾΤ뤳 ə ³û첻ȷӤĤȤˤäΤȤιƬϡHittite ޤྯ Anatolia ɤθ˺פΤߤ¾ΰǤϼ줿ˤ첻βѲ (coloring) ǤȤƤꡤθ¤ˤƴŪ˴ѻ뤳ȤǤȤ롥
ƬDzꤵƤ빢ƬοȲˤĤƤ͡ʵ뤬ͭϤˤȡh1 (neutral, e-coloring), h2 (a-coloring), h3 (o-coloring) 3बꤵƤ롥줾βϡ̵ĺ̵ƬͭƬǤȤ⤬ (Fortson 58)
Ƭϰ첻β˹ƤHittite θ椬ʤˤĤ졤Τ٤ƤŷǤϤʤȡ ḫ ҲŪ (schwa consonanticum) ĤȤʬäƤơƬ뤹äƤߤ˻ޤǡƱϰӸؤˤǽפ1ĤȤʤäƤ롥
ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
Campbell, Lyle and Mauricio J. Mixco, eds. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2007.
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
#1550. ȾóȻްռ (3) ([2013-07-25-1]) ȡ#1569. óȻSؤȽ (2) ([2013-08-13-1]) ǤˤѲγ˴ؤóȻǥ (lexical_diffusion) ȤơóȻSΥդˤYϲؤΤȤ䤬롥Xϻ֤ɽ魯ȤȤǰʤYɽ魯ѿˤ͡ʤΤͤ롥
ޡܤˤĤƵ֤Ȥͤ褦ɤܤѹȸƤӡ(ITEM) ɽ롥ޤ /O/, /N/ ɽ魯Ȥ褦θѲϡŪ "(ITEM): /O/ /N/" ɽǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ơθѲꤵSΥդˤơYβǽͤƤߤ褦óȻȤ̾ޤפ⤫֤ΤϡΥդϡ1ͤüԤˤĤѲä˥褦˿ʹԤƤ椯ȤɽƤ롤ȤȤǤ롥ξ硤YѲڤӤäΤ100%Ȥ뼴Ǥꡤ֤ȤȤ¿θˤ /N/ /O/ ֤Ƥ椯ˤĤ졤YͤƤ椯ȤդɤߤȤʤ롥SϡѲ "lexical gradualness" ɽ路Ƥ롥
̤Yͤ롥üԤΤ夲θˤ /N/ /O/ ֤ƤȤȤºݤˤϤθΤ٤ƤˤĤơޤ /O/ äΤˤʤä /N/ ؤѲ櫓ǤϤʤष/O/ /N/ ΨʲΤ褦ʳŪѲƤ椭̤Ȥƿ֤äƤߤ /O/ /N/ äƤȤΤ¤
| Time | t1 | t2 | t3 | t4 | t5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| /O/ | 0% | 15% | 50% | 85% | 100% |
| /N/ | 100% | 85% | 50% | 15% | 0% |
[T]he overall smooth S-curve for a change is an abstraction from (a) individual lexical curves, and (b) variable and phonetically gradual phonetic implementation along these curves. But the final historical effect is a levelling-out, so that the single-curve abstraction in fact BECOMES TRUE of the change as a whole. Thus we distinguish, in the broader historical perspective, between the change-as-a-whole and the piecemeal mechanism of its implementation.
/O/ /N/ ȤѲɽϡѲλϤޤȽΤߤάǤ롥ºݤˤϡΤʤˡ͡ʥ٥ˤ̵вޤޤƤ롥ΤʤäѻƸѲ褦ȤΩ줬 diffusionist˷̤ȤƤѲȤ館褦ȤΩ줬 Neogrammarian ξԤΩΰ㤤ˤѲȤƵäƤ뤳Ȥ1ĤʤΤǤ롥Τ褦˹ͤСε#1641. Neogrammarian hypothesis lexical diffusion ͻ¡ ([2013-10-24-1]) ȤˤнǤ
Lass, Roger. Phonology. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
ǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ϡֲѲ㳰ʤפȾβ "phonetically gradual and lexically abrupt" ǤȼĥФóȻ (lexical_diffusion) Ԥϡ˴ŤѲȤǰƬˡѲβ "phonetically abrupt and lexically gradual" ǤȾοøΩ2ĤΩͻ礷褦ȤߤϡޤǤʤƤ㤨С#1532. ȾóȻްռ (1) ([2013-07-07-1]), #1533. ȾóȻްռ (2) ([2013-07-08-1]), #1154. ѲΥȢȤƤ analogy ([2012-06-24-1]) ʤɤεǡ嵭Ωβä褦ĴҲ𤷤
Lass ϡΩ̤Ȳȴ֡ΩˤȤ館ʤ1ĤθѲ2Ĥΰۤʤ¦̤ȹͤ
[T]he problem with the Neogrammarian model is that it is non-historical: it neglects TIME. That is, our 'punctual' model of the implementation of a change is wrong. Changes, apparently, need time to BECOME exceptionless; they don't start out that way. / What are we suggesting? A model in which a change is not be be looked at as an EVENT, but as a PERIOD in the history of a language. (326--27)
Neogrammarian 'regularity' is not a mechanism of change proper, but a result. The Neogrammarian Hypothesis might better be called the 'Neogrammarian Effect': Sound change TENDS TO BECOME REGULAR, given enough time, and if curves go to completion. (329)
ǯָóȻ椷ƤѲˤĤơŪ Lass ιͤ˻Ǥ롥˵äѲߤ鿶֤äƤߤȡ̤Ȥơ㳰ʤפȸ㤬ꡤΤ褦㤬 Neogrammarian ŪȤƤФоҲ𤵤ˤʤȤʤʤäˤĤƤϡͿ벻ˡ§ʬꡤѤʤɤ̤θФƲᤷ褦Ȥ뤬ϤषѲ쵤ˤǤϤʤʤʳФƿʹԤȤóȻθ˶Ť
Lass, Roger. Phonology. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
ε#1639. Ѹ name ȥꥷ onoma (1) ([2013-10-22-1]) ˰³ꥷ onoma θƬ첻 o- 롥
ͻˤ뤬name κƷ줿ĸ *nomn-, *nomen- ʤɤȤƵƤ뤳Ȥ¿ӸؤΤŪΩ줫ϡᤤʳη֤Ȥơ̤βƬ¸ߤϤȼĥƤ롥εǤ⻲Ȥ Watkins ΰ캬ꡤսǤ褦

ȤʤΤϡ1ܤΤäˤ "Oldest form" Ǥ롥n ˡə1 Ȥ椬롥εϻͽˤäƤ H1 h1 Ȥ롥ϡӸؤĹ餯ƤιƬ (laryngeals) ǡŪˤɤΤ褦ĴäƤΤˤĤƤϵ뤬¿η֤ΤŪˤҤȤꤷʤФʤʤȹͤƤ벻Ǥ롥
1879ǯ Saussure ĸˤ뤳ιƬ¸ߤͽȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ΡֹƬ (laryngeal theory) ܤޤǤˤϡ1915ǯ Hittite ʸβɤȼб빢Ƭμºߤ餫ˤΤԤʤФʤʤäSaussure 衤Meillet, Kuryłovicz, Benveniste, Szemerényi ʤɤٳؤƬʬۤĩǤޤ˲ˤϻäƤʤƱ뤹Ω⤢ꡤΤ褦ʳŪΩΰ㤤ˤꡤĸΰۤʤäƷʤ֤ȤʤäƤʡرѸ츻ŵ, p. 1655ˡ
ƬˤСƬǻҲ֤ιƬϡGreek, Armenian, Phrygian Ǥ첻¾¿θǤ첻˾ü (Fortson 57) äơκƷ줿Ƭ ə1 ϡѸޤ¿θǤϾüפĤƤʤꥷʤɾθǤ첻ƻĤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥㤨СLaconian Greek ǤϿ̾ȤƤ énuma ĤäƤꡤͽۤȤꡤƬ e 롥Greek ónoma ϸƬ e ǤϤʤ o ϸ³θ첻˱ƶơ e 岽Τȹͤ (Pokorny 321) Fortson (111) βѤ褦

Τ褦ˡѸ name Ф륮ꥷ ónoma θƬ첻ˤϡƬȤ֤Фɬפ롥ƬΤΤޤ˵ƤΤǤꡤ嵭Ȥơޤ1ĤβǽȤƤȤ館Ƥ٤⤷ʤ
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
Watkins, Calvert, ed. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. 2nd Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
Pokorny, Julius. Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. 2 vols. Tübingen and Basel: A. Francke Verlag, 2005.
105դǡѤʵפ˴줿ꡥ
Online Etymology DictionarynameĴ٤ޤȡ"PIE *nomn-"ȤꡤۤȤɤθˤ"n"ǻϤޤäƤޤGreekʤɰ"n"첻ΤԻĤ˻פޤΤȻפޤȤ줷Ǥ
Ѹ name ϴøȤơ¿ΰƱ² (cognate) ߤ롥ʲϡOED Ʊ²Ǥ롥
Cognate with Old Frisian nama, noma (West Frisian namme), Middle Dutch name, naem (Dutch naam), Old Saxon namo (Middle Low German nāme, nām), Old High German namo, nammo (Middle High German name, nam, German Name), Old Icelandic nafn, namn, Norn (Shetland) namn, Old Swedish nampn, namn (Swedish namn), Danish navn, Gothic namo, and further with Sanskrit nāman, Avestan nāman-, ancient Greek ὄνομα, classical Latin nōmen, Early Irish ainm (Irish ainm), Old Welsh anu (Welsh enw, henw), Old Church Slavonic imw (genitive imene), Russian imja (genitive imeni), Old Prussian emmens, etc.
ޥ졤ƥϤȤ¿θǸƬ n ʳˤ Tocharian A ñom, Tocharian B ñem, Hittite lāman Ԥ nāman θƬҲΰ۲ˤˤʤɤ⡤Ƭ n ֤ȤߤƤ褤ꥷ ὄνομα ɮƬˡ嵭ѤθȾ˵äƤǤ n 첻Ƥ롥첻ϲʤΤ
ͻäơname θ캬ͥåȥDZѸäƤ (ʲWatkins 59 ˡޤϡޥĸ namōn- űѸ nama ФơѸδø name 롥ˡƥ nōmen (name, reputation) 顤nominal, nominate, noun; agnomen, binomial, cognomen, denominate, ignominy, misnomer, nomenclator, nuncupative, praenomen, pronoun, renown ʤ¿θ줬Ѹ˼ѤƤ롥ơꥷ onoma, onuma ϡonomastic, -onym, -onymy; allonym, anonymous, antonomasia, eponym, eponymous, euonymus, heteronymous, homonymous, matronymic, metonymy, onomatopoeia, paronomasia, paronymous, patronymic, pseudonym, synonymous äƤ롥Ǹˡťɸ ainm moniker (name (humorously)) Ѹ˼ޤ줿
嵭Τ褦˱ñˤ⥮ꥷϤ onoma ¿ȿǤƤΤǡκǽ o ǤΤϳΤ˵ˤʤȤǤ롥رѸ츻ŵ٤ǤϡGk ónoma o- ϸƬźò (prosthesis) ǤϤʤȤƤ뤬ӸؤǤϤޤ̤εŸƤ롥ˤĤƤϡεǡ
Watkins, Calvert, ed. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. 2nd Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
եѤȯϡ#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) Ǹ褦14Ǥ롥ΥߥˤĤƤϡ#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1]) #1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1]) εˤ褦ˡɤˤƱѸ줬ƤȽŤʤ롥ޤǥե줬ôäƤҲŪʵǽѸ줬ꤹ뤳ȤˤʤꡤǡȤ̤θäɬפȤʤäȤ롥եäƤɤβ²ˤȤäƤϡѸؤθ (language shift) äƤȤ⤤ʡ#1540. Ѹˤء ([2013-07-15-1]) ȡˡ
ƥѤȯϡ#478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ ([2010-08-18-1]) #1226. Ѹˤäǯʬۡ ([2012-09-04-1]) Ǹ褦ˡ16Ⱦ濴ȤǤ롥Υߥϡޤǥƥ줬ôäƤҲŪʵǽȤ櫓⾰ʽʪθˤդ路ȤƤϰ̤Ѹ줬˸ꤷϤȽŤʤ롥ͥˤ뿷μȯΤǡȤ̤θäɬפˤʤꡤѸɤĤɤۤɸǤƥ줫餽ΤޤäѤΤäΤ褦˥ƥǮޤ˹ޤä֤СΤȤޤǤ˿͡ΰŪʥƥѤǤȤ롥μͤδ֤ˡ̣ǥƥ줫ѸؤθؤäƤȤͤ롥
Ĥޤꡤեȥƥ줫̸üѤκϰۤʤäƤϤΤΡ̹ȤơֱѸؤθءפ褦˻פ롥ǤΡָءפʸ̤ξ괹ǤϤʤޤ줬äƤҲŪʵǽѸ줬ꤹ褦ˤʤäȤۤɤΰ̣ѤƤ롥Ŧ Fennell (148) ƶαԤɾ
As is often the case when use of a language ceases (as French did at the end of the Middle English period), the demise of Latin coincides with the borrowing of huge numbers of Latin words into English in order to fill perceived gaps in the language.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
ǯ3 Leuven ؤ Hendrik De Smet ˤ The Corpus of Late Modern English Texts, version 3.0 (CLMET3.0) 줿ԼԤ˥ǻѵĤ館̵ǥɤѤǤ롥1710--1920ǯΥꥹѸ쥳ѥǡ3,400줫ʤ른ХѥǤ CLMETEV 1500줫˳ˡץ졼ƥȤȥդƥȤۤƤꡤ70ǯ֤ʬ3ĤλʬȤ˥ҥåȿ Perl ץȤ°ƤꡤȤꤢȤΤǤ롥ѥιϰʲ̤ꡥ
| Sub-period | Number of authors | Number of texts | Number of words |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 | 51 | 88 | 10,480,431 |
| 1780--1850 | 70 | 99 | 11,285,587 |
| 1850--1920 | 91 | 146 | 12,620,207 |
| TOTAL | 212 | 333 | 34,386,225 |
| Genre | 1710--1780 | 1780--1850 | 1850--1920 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Narrative fiction | 4,642,670 words | 4,830,718 | 6,311,301 |
| Narrative non-fiction | 1,863,855 | 1,940,245 | 958,410 |
| Drama | 407,885 | 347,493 | 607,401 |
| Letters | 1,016,745 | 714,343 | 479,724 |
| Treatise | 1,114,521 | 1,692,992 | 1,782,124 |
| Other | 1,434,755 | 1,759,796 | 2,481,247 |
| Sub-period | between | betwixt |
|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 | 4,869 words (464.58 wpm) | 657 (62.69 wpm) |
| 1780--1850 | 5,457 (483.54 wpm) | 109 (9.66 wpm) |
| 1850--1920 | 7,672 (607.91 wpm) | 51 (4.04 wpm) |
3ǯβƤˡܥ˥إĥӥ (Bosnia and Herzegovina) ȥ (Croatia) ιλĤ륵饨 (Sarajevo) λԳ⤭줿ԥ (Zagreb) ֥ɥꥢοפȸƤФ仺˻ꤵ줿ջԻԥɥ֥֥˥ (Dubrovnik) ǿᤷѸҤˤȤäƤʿ¤˸뤳ϰϡߤ˻ޤŪ褤䤨ʤʸ̤βˤǤ³ƤȤ櫓1990ǯƬ³桼ΰ衤ˤ⡤ϰ Language is a dialect with an army and a navy. ΰ⤤Ǥ褯θ롤ҲؤˤƺǤͭ̾ϰ1ĤȤʤäƤ롥
1918ǯ˷桼餫¿̱²¿ȤäΥϥΥХ˥ޤྯ줬¿¸ߤȤäƤΤϤָ췲ʡ#1469. Хȡָɡʰ²ˡפε[2013-05-05-1]ȡˤǤꡤߤϢ³ (dialect_continuum) Ƥޥɥ˥ȥ˥Ϥϡפ2̱²̾ȤäƸˤ Serbo-Croatian ȤҤȤ˸ƤФ줿
̱²ķܻؤιϡȤ̱²Ƚδ礭3ɤʬƤΥ (Croatia) ϥȥå̤ǡɽ˥ƥʸѤкŪˤŪ˭Ǥ롥Υӥ (Serbia) ϥꥷ̤ǤꡤʸѤŪˤϺǤ̤ͥǤʡ#1546. ʬۤȽʬۡ ([2013-07-21-1]) ȡˡΥܥ˥إĥӥʤϥඵ̤¿ȼʸäƤʺǿǤϤʤϰνʬۤϿޤʲ˷ǤˡΤ褦˼ҲŪطʤϰۤʤΤΡ3ԤϤƱ Serbo-Croatian äƤʸˡȯˤĤ礭ۤʤȤʤäˤƤ줾˹ߤ뤬ǽǤ롥įС1ĤθȤߤƺ٤ʤ

1990ǯƬˡӥͤŪͥäơ¾̱²ΩΤΤ夲1991ǯ Slovenia Croatia Macedonia 1992ǯ Bosnia and Herzegovina Ωӥȥƥͥˤ뿷桼2006ǯ˥ƥͥ (Montenegro) Ωäƽᤷ2008ǯ˥ӥ饳 (Kosovo) ΩȤäʬФƤ롥
ߤΤϰθ𡤤Ȥ櫓̾ƱͤʣǤ롥桼Τʾ塤桼θθ̾Ǥ Serbia-Croatian Ѥ뤳ȤϤǤʤӥͤ Serbian ȸƤӤͤ Croatian ȸƤӤȻ¾Ʊäܥ˥ͤˤȤäƤϡθ Serbia-Croatian, Serbian, Croatian Τ̾ΤǻؤȤ⤿롥ǡBosnian ȤƾΤޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ桼ʬȤŪʲˤꡤŪˤ1ĤȤߤʤƤ褤ʼºݤ1ĤȤߤʤƤ˸줬̾ξ3Ĥΰۤʤ (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian) ؤʬ줿ΤǤ롥ޤˡLanguage is a dialect with an army and a navy Ǥ롥
ŪʬΥƤϡӥȥϡ#1545. "lexical cleansing" ([2013-07-20-1]) ˽ߤθ۵äʹ䶵ʽӽȤײʤƤξԤϤޤȥ륳ϸäӽʤƤ뤬ܥ˥إĥӥʤǤϤषȥ륳ϸäǻȤ褦ˤʤäƤ롥
ʾ塤Trudgill (46--48) Wardhaugh (27--28) ȤƼɮ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ε#1634. ֥ӥפ equation ([2013-10-17-1]) Ǽ夲 /-ʃən/ /-ʒən/ ȯˤĤơֻȤδϢʬۤĴ٤ƤߤŪˡ equation <-tion> /-ʃən/ б<-sion> /-ʃən/ 뤤 /-ʒən/ б褦˻פ뤬ºݤΤȤϤɤʤΤ
ɤܤĴΤϻ֤ϫϤפȻפΤǡɤǽΤˤĤƤϼ礿ȯΤߤȤȤäʬۤФˤȤɤ뤳ȤˤѤǡ١1191. Pronunciation Search ([2012-07-31-1]) Ǥ롥"SH AH0 N$" (/-ʃən/) "ZH AH0 N$" (/-ʒən/) ȯҥåȤֻ̤˥ޤϡ/-ʃən/ 줫鸫Ƥߤ褦
| -cean | 3 |
| -chen | 6 |
| -cian | 25 |
| -cion | 4 |
| -shane | 2 |
| -chian | 1 |
| -shion | 2 |
| -shan | 7 |
| -shen | 3 |
| -shon | 5 |
| -sian | 4 |
| -sion | 24 |
| -ssion | 46 |
| -szen | 1 |
| -tian | 16 |
| -tion | 974 |
| -xion | 2 |
| -sian | 10 |
| -sion | 73 |
| -ssion | 1 |
| -tion | 1 |
1. <-sion> = /-ʃən/ 24
apprehension, ascension, comprehension, compulsion, condescension, convulsion, dimension, dissension, emulsion, expansion, expulsion, extension, hypertension, hypotension, l'expansion, mansion, misapprehension, overexpansion, pension, pretension, propulsion, revulsion, suspension, tension
2. <-sion> = /-ʒən/ 73
abrasion, activision, allusion, aversion, cablevision, circumcision, cohesion, collision, collusion, computervision, conclusion, confusion, contusion, conversion, coopervision, corrosion, decision, delusion, derision, diffusion, disillusion, dispersion, diversion, division, envision, erosion, evasion, excision, exclusion, excursion, explosion, extrusion, fusion, illusion, immersion, implosion, incision, inclusion, incursion, indecision, infusion, intrusion, invasion, inversion, lesion, macrovision, misprision, multivision, occasion, occlusion, persuasion, perversion, precision, profusion, provision, recision, rediffusion, reperfusion, reversion, revision, seclusion, suasion, subdivision, submersion, subversion, supervision, television, transfusion, univision, version, vision, worldvision, xyvision
<-sion> ľֻȯĴ٤Ƥߤȡ/-ʃən/ Ǥɬ n l ԤƤȤħ롥/-ʒən/ Ǥ첻ʻˤ r ԤƤ롥ʬۤŪˤĺޤäΤϾܤĴ٤Ƥߤʤʬʤ餯Ѹ /s/ /z/ ɤʬۤȤȤʤäƤȻפ롥
ؤä狼롪Ķ֥ʸŵ٤ȤʸˤäƤѤѤɤǤ顤֥ӥפιǡ֥ӥפȯͤ¿ȤΥȤˤܤˤȤޤäѸǤ exhibition /ˌɛksɪˈbɪʃən/ ʤΤǡ֥פȯǼѤ줿Ϥե奢Ȥʤɤθ鵻ϳΤ˻ФʤΤʤΤǡvision /ˈvɪʒən/ ǡ֥פȯ줿줿ꤹ뤳Ȥ¿ʤäΤǼˤСӥ13ӥ7ҥåȤ
ǥαñ <exhibition> Ȥ뵬ŪԤǤСѸ <-tion> /-ʃən/ ˸̩б/-ʒən/ б뤳ȤϤʤΤǡ// ȵ뤫⤷ʤ§ȤƤϤ̤ʤΤѸˤ <-tion> = /ʒən/ б㤬1Ĥ롥equation /ɪˈkweɪʒən/ Ǥ롥
ΤˤСequation ˤ /ɪˈkweɪʒən/ /ɪˈkweɪʃən/ ξȯΤֻȯε§æԤΤۤŪˤ褯Ȥ롥LPD ˤȡꥫѸǤ90% /ɪˈkweɪʒən/ ȯȤ

ξȯɤǤ롥ѸǤϡˤ /-ʃən/ /-ʒən/ Ȥɤ줬ѻ줬ʤʤǤ롥㤨Сconversion, dispersion, version, Asian ʡ#919. Asia ȯפε[2011-11-02-1]ȡ, Persian ʤɤɤ줬롥դ٤ϡɤθֻϡ<-sion> <-sian> Τ褦 <s> ĤΤۤȤɤǤꡤequation Τ褦 <-tion> ĤΤϤʤȤäƤ褤<s> 餳 /ʃ/ /ʒ/ ΤɤΤǤäơ<t> Ǥϸ§Ȥ̵ /ʃ/ ǸΤϤֻȯε§ȤСֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) ΰϤˤ equation /ɪˈkweɪʒən/ ήԤȤȤϹͤˤºݤ˸ͥǤȤȤϡֻȯε§Ϳʾˡ<-sion> ɽ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ ɤΤۤ˶ޤƤޤäꤹΤ겼ˤϡequation ޤȯɤˤĤơɤȯȤθʬۤʤɤ̻ŪĴɬפ롥
ӡ֥ץɤˤȤäƤϻǰʤȤˡѸ exhibition ˤϤޤ */ˌɛksɪˈbɪʒən/ ȯϸƤʤ̾⤸äåХ ExhiVision ϼºߤ롥
¤̳ˡؤä狼롪Ķ֥ʸŵ١PHPPHPʸˡӡ2012ǯ.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
ε#1632. communicative competence ([2013-10-15-1]) κǸ ethnography of speaking ȤҲؤ1ʬ˿줿communicative competence ǤˡäƤ褤ΤɤΤ褦äϤФ褤Τۤ٤ɤΤ餤äƤ褤Τʤɤμޤޤ뤬εϤϸʸˤä礭ۤʤ롥͡ʸʸˤ뤽Τ褦ʵϤҤӤΤethnography of speaking ŪǤ롥
Wardhaugh (254--59) μ褦եꥫΥ֥å˽ޤ !Kung ʥ²ˤϡĤǡ٤˹⤤ͤͿƤ롥ʪ夲뤳Ȥˤϴؿʤˤä£ʪ£Ϳ俩ʪäࡥϡĤμҲطʿ¤ݤĤˡƾɺǤˡ٤¤Ѥ롥
ƥ⡼ü˽ Roti ⡤٤κδӤȤ̱²Ǥ롥̵äϤƤ顤٤͡ͷӤޤǡҤä롥ǤۤŪ˸롥ʥ British Columbia Bella Coola ο͡⤪٤˲֤ͤ Araucanian ͺۤº֡ɽ Antigua Ǥ⤪٤꤬ΰǤꡤǤ֤Τ٤˻äΤäʵϤ롥Ǥˤ٤Ƥ֤äƹԤΤ̤ʰɬפʤ⤽⡤äȤФơϤդʧ뤳Ȥʤ䤪äϤȡʹƤ館뤫⤷ʤʹƤ館ʤ⤷ʤʹƤ館ʤС⤦夲뤫⤷ʤʹ˲뤫⤷ʤäϤȤˤϡǤ˵äƤäȴطʤʤä˳ä뤳ȤϼǤϤʤθȤƤߤʤͭƤ롥
嵭äʿ͡оŪȤƤΤƹ Arizona Western Apache Ǥ롥ϡ¤硤षۤ롥Ʊ²οͤǤ졤οͤǤ졤Τ̿ͤ˲ۤΤϤǤ롥ϡưפ˿Ҳط뤳ȤʤҶɳع鵢ʤǤ⡤²ΰۤǤʤ졤Ҷ¸ߤˤʤǤޤǤϲäʤʤФƤ⡤ȿۤǤʤʤФʤʤȤʼĤǤäƤ⡤ȤФDZ뤳Ȥϡ֤Ȥͤ뤫ᰦۤǤʤ졤Ȥ櫓ۤǤĤŤ뤳ȤԤ롥ĤդդȤ鷺ۤɽ롥
ۤˤĤƤФ˶ü㤬ɤ Puliyanese ˸롥ϸĿͤºʸäƤꡤ40ФĶ뺢ˤϤۤȤäʤ֤ˤʤȤӥ Aritama ϡۤǤФǤʤˤϤƤȤ館ɤΤʤɽѤȤޤŪ˸դˤ뼫ʼĥȻפƤ벤ʸΤʤǤ⡤ǥޡͤۤߡĹä˿ͤƱʤƤ뤳ȤǤȤˤϡäɬפʤäʤȤϤ¸ߤ롥
ºݡ¿ʸˤơۤϲʪΤȤƤ롥ۤϥξǤϤʤʸˤäƶŪƤϰۤʤ뤬ɰա¤餮ٱ硤ոؤȿС¤ʤɤͭʼʤǤ롥ʿŪʲƿͤ٤ۤº֤ȤܿͤϡβͤǧᡤºݤѤƤ롥Western Apache Aritama Τ褦ĶʸȡȻפ虜ʤ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Ǥ2Ǥ졤üԤŬڤʸưʤˤϡʸˡäΤäƤǤԽʬǤ롥㤨СΤʸˡμäƤȤƤ⡤ɤΤ褦ʥߥäƤ褤Τۤ٤ĤɤΤ褦ʰ٤ɤٷĥäѤ٤ɤľŪ˸äƤ褤ΤʤɡŪʸ챿Ѥ˴ؤμäƤʤȡߥ˥߳˿ʤ뤳ȤϤǤʤι̣Ǥθ챿ѤˤμǽϤϡꥫοؼ Dell Hymes ˤäơ"communicative competence" ̾դƤ롥ϡʸˡäʤɤθŪμǽϤؤ Chomsky Ѹ "linguistic competence" ռѸȤ櫓2ؤ֤ˤäƤ linguistic competence ̤դʧcommunicative competence νˤⵤŤƤɬפ롥GumperzJ. J. ("Sociolinguistics and Communication in Small Groups." Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings. J. B. Pride and J. Holmes. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1972. p. 205.) ϼΤ褦˸äƤ롥
'Whereas linguistic competence covers the speaker's ability to produce grammatically correct sentences, communicative competence describes his ability to select, from the totality of grammatically correct expressions available to him, forms which appropriately reflect the social norms governing behavior in specific encounters.' (Wardhaugh 264)
Ǥϡcommunicative competence ϶ŪˤϤɤΤ褦ǽϤޤΤSaville-Troike, M. ("The Ethnography of Communication." Sociolinguistics and language Teaching. Ed. S. L. McKay and N. H. Hornberger. Cambridge: CUP, 1996. p. 363) ܤƤ롥
Communicative competence extends to both knowledge and expectation of who may or may not speak in certain settings, when to speak and when to remain silent, whom one may speak to, how one may talk to persons of different statuses and roles, what nonverbal behaviors are appropriate in various contexts, what the routines for turn-taking are in conversation, how to ask for and give information, how to request, how to offer or decline assistance or cooperation, how to give commands, how to enforce discipline, and the like --- in short, everything involving the use of language and other communicative dimensions in particular social settings. (Wardhaugh 264--65)
ɤΤȤcommunicative competence ǽϤϲȤϡDzǤΤεǽϲȤȤؤäƤ롥εǽˤĤƤϡ#523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1]) #1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) ȡ
ʸˤꡤüԤ˵ communicative competence 礭ۤʤ롥̱²Ū˰İĵҤӤС communicative competence Τ褦ʤΤܻؤʬҲؤ1ʬǤ ethnography of speaking Ǥ롥
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
#1628. ʤ code-switching 뤫 ([2013-10-11-1]) (2) ǡcode-switching Сå׳ΩΤ˵ǽƤ뤳Ȥߤ2ĤΥɤڤؤ亮碌ϥΤ褦ˤߤ뤬code-switching ƤԤδ֤ǤϤ褽ۤΤλƤХΤ褦ʤΤꡤΥХϸߤ˻褦ʸĶǰäƤƤʤ¤궦ͭʤΤǤ롥դˤС code-switching ߤ˼ƤԤϡ¾ͤζͭʤķռäƤȤȤˤʤ롥
ˤСϤߤƱ2ǻ褦 code-switching ʤäƤȤƤ⡤뽸Ĥ̤νĤǤϡڤؤ亮碌ΥХۤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤξˤϡʬ code-switching ¾νĤ code-switching Ȥߤ˰ۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤΤ褦ˡcode-switching ϡϤʥǥƥƥɸεǽͭƤ롥Wardhaugh (104) ¹Gumperz, J. J. (Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: CUP, 1982. p. 69) ˰ʲʸϤ롥
Residents of such large Spanish-English-speaking communities as San Francisco or New York, which include immigrants from many Latin American regions, in fact claim that they can tell much about a person's family background and politics from the way that person code-switches and uses borrowings. What the outsider sees as almost unpredictable variation becomes a communicative resource for members. Since bilingual usage rules must be learned by living in a group, ability to speak appropriately is a strong indication of shared background assumptions. Bilinguals, in fact, ordinarily do not use code-switching styles in their contact with other bilinguals before they know something about the listener's background and attitudes. To do otherwise would be to risk serious misunderstanding.
code-switching Ȥ٤켫Τ˸ƥǥƥƥɸǽͭƤΤߤʤ餺code-switching λ° code-switching Ĥ¾ code-switching ĤȤ̤뵡ǽͭƤȤȤ϶̣code-switching ¿ͤʥǥƥƥɸǽäƤꡤ٤˼ҲŪʸݤȤȤˤʤ롥
Ƥ Wardhaugh (98) ¹Gal, S. ("The Political Economy of Code Choice." Code Switching. Ed. M. Heller. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1988. p. 247) ϡcode-switching ҲŪάȤư֤ŤƤ롥
[C]odeswitching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations.
ͤƤߤСΰѤ "[C]odeswitching" "Linguistic behaviour" ֤ƤߤƤ⡤̿οͤѤʤcode-switching ̤ʸ츽ݤǤϤʤȤȤ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ѸȤƥƥͳ褹륤 (inkhorn_term) ȸƤФؼԸ줬̤˼Ѥ줿ȤФäȤϡ#1408. ([2013-03-05-1]) #1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1]) ʤɤεǿ줿Bragg (116) ɾˤС"This controversy was the first and probably the greatest formal dispute about the English language." ȤȤä
ܸˤƻ褦꤬ʸȤƤ롥ȥʸˤĤƤϡ#1615. 礹ߡ2 ([2013-09-28-1]) ȡ#1616. ʸ礹ߡ2 ([2013-09-29-1]) Ǽ夲ѸäμƤϡ褽褦ӤӤΤ餷ؤ⤦1ĿäμƤäȤСܤο꤬פ⤫֡ε#1629. ([2013-10-12-1]) ǤˤȤ뿷Ǥ롥
ʹߡä衤ѸϤȤ̤θΤˡƼƤμͤ˴ؤܤäǤ롥äƤϡδѤꡤW. Lobscheid ΡرѲڻŵ٤Ȥ㤨Сʸء顤ա顤ʤɡˤн褷Τ⤢äФ礬¿ä̤οϡִ浯̱̽ˤޤDZƶڤܤȤˤʤä
㤨Сܸɴŵ (453--54) ˤСʹ1ʷ41ˤˡֺϺΤηݵ˻ޥǡĥեȥߡñϥζæȭۥƥʥɡΥ省ޥإʥҹեȥʥפȤʹ줿ش١2ˤˤϡ˳ʸ˿ʥꡥߥīᡤηեꡤθĥ˻ޥǡ¿˴ʥƥפȤ롥ز¿١14. 9. 30ˤǤϡյǭϴ̵ҡפȤޤǤ롥Τ褦˿줬ήԤƤ褦̱ɤƤϵǡ֥ץפȤޤǸƤФƤۤɤǤ롥"inkhorn terms" ֥ʸפȤƾΤӤ褦ơ礹ߤ1ĤȤơȽǤ줿Ȥ⡤¾2ȶäۤɤ褯Ƥ롥
ܸΥʸΤˡ16ȾΥɤ19ȾܤθȤ뤳Ȥϡ̣Τ뤳Ȥ
Bragg, Melvyn. The Adventure of English. New York: Arcade, 2003.
ܸɴŵ١İ ɧۤ ԡ罤ۡ1988ǯ
#1624. Ѹΰ ([2013-10-07-1]) ѸΰǤñμѤ˴줿ܸ줬ѸФϤ褦ˡˤޤĹ餯ܸˤʤǤ줬ǥȤʤäơ줬߽ФƤȤϡޤäʤȤǤ롥ѸξƱͤˡ줬Ǥ뤫ݤˤܸ줪ˤʸŪʹ;ڤɬפȤʤꡤ䤹ǤϤʤȤˤСδǤǽ⤤ȤʰʲϤ٤ơܸɴŵ pp. 1029--30 ˡ
ʡǡȡñ㡤Ũ롤ܡֹ桤ˡ̡̳ΩȽǧġΩ桤롤桤ʼñۡϫΡСʪ¡סơӡ¸Ωʸ֡ĹСꡤزáᡤ㡤աưϡաơư
ܤʸʪɽ⡤ȹͤƤ褤ȤƤϡʸϼ֡ǽڡ̣ƻƻƻʤɤ롥
ޤʲδβǽĤܤδ֤ǤΰܽФδطʣǤꡤΥꥹȤȤƤ¿ϡˡѸʤɤݤ˴Ƽ줿Ȥͳ褹롥
ż⡤Ⱦ¡˰¡ݸࡤطʡܼšɬסɸ졤ɽ衤Ĺưȶáʬҡݡǡޡ絤ĻΡñƻеĴϼȡż֡áήŻҡưꡤ⾦оݡоȡˡ͡ȿưȿȿ͡ȿơʷϵꡤ塤ʣԡ硤άǰĬϧηࡤȡΡ̱͡ʡġط¬ǰǯ𡤹ǼݡˡǡӡήҶϡ泰ǿСءʡϭ۶ʡáҡ̡䡤ѶˡĴࡤġײ衤աꡤüܡۡꡤšݡڡ졤ܡʽܡǡʭˡ˶С⺧סͻĥ١ʲʲŸиʵٻٴ̮ǤƬ軻СǸءǼ顤ġʳءķ衤ҴѡΡꡤ֡סȻ¢¢ˡǰۡҡϳءΩλγζμ硤ڡء̡衤ս̩١ȵ̱ˡҴ̿ꡤۼΡ칻ɸŪơߡǽưǽΨˡǯ١ήɸȽ衤濳۵롤ɾʿ̡ɾȡʬΡūڹȡ̡ҡǮӡͳʡǤ̿ΡĶˡȡҸȽڡءֳءܹܹԡ֡´¶ȡ̡δѡԾ졤Ĺ֡깩ȡǡĬѡǺࡤ®١®Ƚõøΰ顤Ŵ졤סơްơߡ١ʸˡʸء̵ԡʪࡤ˦ݡ¡ݡʼСħɡöˡʡ̡ꡤء桤ǽ롤ʡסذ̡δϡ䡤Сա۶ˡǡ̳ΡIJİıҡˡԡ产ܡͥء֡ͷΥͽ塤ǡݡ§ҡᡤưư졤ĸ̳Ÿůءڷޡľѡľܡľ¡ľήȡɸƳؿۡ¡̡ۡŹȡɮѡ糰硤ư
Ѹˤˤ衤θ줫ľܤθüѤ˽ʬʤǤȡ٤ϤǥȤƼθä߽ФȤƤƤ롥θݤޤƤȹͤиüȿȤʤ뤷θʤƤȹͤлȤʤ롥ϡ¸ߤܸ줬Ѹμʤ⼡˿ʤʳˤ뤳ȤΤȤƲᤷƤ롥
ܸɴŵ١İ ɧۤ ԡ罤ۡ1988ǯ
ε#1627. code-switching code-mixing ([2013-10-10-1]) ǡcode-switching طʤˤ͡װѤƤȽҤ٤ϡcode-switching ϤʤΤɤΤ褦ʤȤΤȤˤĤơȤ (27--36) ˵ʤ顤ҲŪʴꤿ
ޤջ̤μ¤ˤ뤿 code-switching ȤΤ롥㤨Соݤؼ礬פ⤫Фʤˡ̤θθȤȤȤ롥ŵŪʸѤư1Ĥcode-switching ξˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤޤ롥referential function ȸƤФ뵡ǽ
⤦1İջ̤˴ؤưȤƤϡñʹΤڤؤȤ code-switching 뤳ȤǤ롥Ūʿǡ٤˺¤äƤܿͤˤܸä٤αѸüԤޤ3ͤäˤϱѸڤؤȤä̤פ⤫٤Ф褤ޤκ٤οͤʹ줿ʤ褦٤ܿͤˤΤȤˡƤܸڤؤȤȤ⤢ꤦ롥Τ褦 code-switching εǽϡdirective function ȸƤФ롥
嵭2ĤΤ褦ˡջ̤ΤΤˤʤ code-switching Ȱۤʤ code-switching ¿¸ߤ롥θäƤߤ̤ˤ⤫餺code-switching 뤳Ȥ롥ˤϡ4ĤưŤƤƤ롥
(1) ˱Ƥ code-switching (situational code-switching)
̡ꡤäʤɡʣŪ domain ȸƤФˤ˱ƻѸڤؤƤ椯Ǥ롥㤨Сdiglossia ΤҲˤơѼ (high variety) ȲѼ (low variety) Ȥ domain ˤäƻȤʬ뤬꤬ŪʤΤŪʤΤذܹԤ˱ơѤڤؤȤä㤬롥ŪˤϡParaguay Spanish Guaraní diglossia ˤơǰǤɤϺǽϲѼǤƤߤΤ Guaraní DzäƤ륳뤬äƤȾѼǸҤ丢ϤȷӤĤ Spanish ڤؤȤäȤꤦ (Wardhaugh 96)
ܸǤ⡤ͧ2ͤɸäƤȤܾοͤä뤳ȤǡȤͧ2ͤδ֤Ǥɸˤä蘆ϤȤä㤬롥⡤code-switching ˤĤʤȹͤ롥
(2) СåפΩ뤿 code-switching
¿졦¿̱²Ҳˤơϰζ̸ȼȤ뤳Ȥˤäơdual identity Ȥ㤬롥㤨СϥꥫͤϡѸäȤǥꥫҲΰǤȤȤƱˡܸäȤϿͤǤȤ̱²Ū°Ȥ롥ξΥǥƥƥݻ뤿ˡäξǤʶޤƤȹͤ롥act of identity 1Ȥ
Ʊ褦 code-switching üԤδ֤ǤϡƱ dual identity ǷФ줿ķ봶ʬƱ code-switching ǽϤͭԤϡʬƱθĶǰäƤˤʤǤ롥 code-switching ϡߤְռơݤѶŪ䤬롥ȤϤ¿ξ硤 code-switching ̵ռ˹ԤƤȤȤˤդɬפ롥
û䡤äܸξˤϽä뤳Ȥˤꡤdual identity ɽ륿פ code-switching 롥"You don't have to do that 补" Ȥ"He's so nice ͤ" ʤɡϡemblematic switching ʾħŪءˤȸƤФ롥
(3) طθĤμʤȤƤ code-switching
줫θѶŪѤơüԤˤȤä˾ޤФȤ륱롥ʲϡ˥ļĮΥСǡפΤ礤βҰˤ̵̤Ǥ롥ϸθǤ륤ɸ졤Ǥ륹ҥȱѸ줬ڤؤ롥
ס
Inzala ya mapesa, kambuli ʥ륤ɸ
ʤ⤬ʤƺäƤ
Ұ
You have got land. ʱѸ
Una shamba. ʥҥ
Uli nu mulimi. ʥ륤ɸ
ȪäƤ
ס
Mwana mweru . . . ʥ륤ɸ
ʿƤ礸ʤ
Ұ
Mbula tsiendi. ʥ륤ɸ
ʤʤʤ补
Can't you see how I am heavily loaded? ʱѸ
ʼ꤬դʤ衤狼
Ұפ̵魯Τ˱ѸѤϤƤ롥ϡ֤θǤ륤ɸȤȡפƱˤʤꡤķްդΤǡ̵˶䤹ʤäƤޤǤ롥⤤ܤ丢Ҥħ̸ǤѸѤ뤳ȤˤäơפȤδ֤˿ŪʵΥФ̵ݤˤʤ롥
ȤơʥӤοõƤԤȸѼԤθ˴ؤƤߤ褦 (Graddol 13)
Young man: Mr Muchuki has sent me to you about the job you put in the paper.
Manager: Ulituma barua ya application? [DID YOU SEND A LETTER OF APPLICATION?]
Young man: Yes, I did. But he asked me to come to see you today.
Manager: Ikiwa ulituma barua, nenda ungojee majibu. Tukakuita ufika kwa interview siku itakapafika. Leo sina la suma kuliko hayo. [IF YOU'VE WRITTEN A LETTER, THEN GO AND WAIT FOR A RESPONSE, WE WILL CALL YOU FOR AN INTERVIEW WHEN THE LETTER ARRIVES. TODAY I HAVEN'T ANYTHING ELSE TO SAY.]
Young man: Asante. Nitangoja majibu. [THANK YOU. I WILL WAIT FOR THE RESPONSE.]
ǤϡԤ϶ܤǽϤħѸ̤פबѼԤϤ˱̸Ǥ륹ҥǤβäƤ롥Ĥ˱ʤȤˤ꼨Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ǸˡդμԤϸѼԤΰϤ˶ơҥڤؤƤ롥줾줬ʬͭʾФˡȤάѤƤΤǤ롥
ܸǤ⡤ޤɤĴDzäƤ̵̼̼ξ̤ˤʤäơ줬֤ϰڤޤפȲޤäɽֻ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤäɽѤ뤳ȤˤäơȤδ֤˵ΥФݤλƤȹͤ롥ȤοŪΥѼ "we-code"礭Ѽ "they-code" ȸƤ֤Ȥ뤬 (cf. Wardhaugh 102) ̼Ф we-code they-code ڤؤȤˤʤ롥
(4) ɤθˤ뤫õ뤿 code-switching
ʬ¿ѼԤǤ硤ɤθѤƲäʤФ褤ꤹ뤿ˡĤθõȤ롥ߤ˺Ǥ⤷ä꤯֤٤ȿʤĤΤܸǤ⡤ФƷɸФ٤ݤ¤äƤȤˡɸɸŬΨǿä礬롥ˤäơνõꡤɤΤ褦äDzäʤƤ椱Ф褤ˤ褦ȤƤ롥
嵭ΤưŤˤĤƤ⡤ҲŪʰ̣뤳Ȥ狼롥code-switching ϡʹִطιۡݻȤ٤˼ҲŪôäƤ롥
ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) ε code-switching 夲ϤŪˡ¿ˤäǤ code-switching 夲롥
code-switching ȤϡʣüԤ뤤ʣüԤäǸڤؤ٤Ǥ롥¿Ǥˤ褯ߤ븽ݤǤꡤθŪӼҲŪװƤƤ롥
code-switching ٤㤷ʣθ1ĤʸΤʤˤڤؤ硤 code-mixing ȸƤǶ̤礬롥ٹ礤⤯θäƤ뤫ȽȤʤ⤢롥Τ褦üԤˤȤäơcode-mixing Ϥ1ĤθäƤΤƱ餤˼ʤȤǤꡤڤؤƤȤȤռƤʤȤ¿ȤѸޤ code-mixing ϡMalta, Nigeria, Hong Kong, the Philippines [2013-09-06-1]ε#1593. եԥαѸ (2)פȡˤʤɤ¿ϰ褫顤¿𤵤Ƥʰʾ塤Trudgill 23 ˡ
ʣθηϤؤ礦ܿ˵븽ݤȤƤϡۤ˴ (interference) (borrowing)ȯãʤɤ롥Ϥθ̤Ū˸ΤФơcode-switching ϸĿͤθ°븽ݤǤȤ롥̤θСԤ competence ˶ᤤȤˤԤ performance ˶ᤤȤȤˤʤ롥ǡδ֤θ̩ϺǤꡤcode-switching ٤η㤷ѤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
(25) ѤƤѸ code-switching Ƥ (VY) žν⤦1ͤν (MN) äƤȤ̤ǡƤϿͼҲŵŪ code-switching Ǥ롥
VY: 䤹Ȼ䤬 drive 夨Τ͡I was in the fast lane. Of course, speed Фʤ㤤ʤ顥
MN: Yeah.
VY: ?here was a car in the left, right lane.
MN:
VY: Two ʤǹԤäΤ͡side.
MN: Uh-huh.
VY: So, I was in the ä left lane. Ǥ褿Ρ
MN: Violet, drive ƤΡ
VY: Half-way ޤäɤ͡After lunch ٤Ƥ͡顤Τˤ car ͡ʤ he came out right. No signal or anything. ʤǤä . . . ݤä补Gee. ʤʤä brake ä顤ʤʤääơʥ㡼ޤʤOh, gee.
MN: ???hose 墽?t's not your fault, eh? when you have an accident.
ܸȱѸڤؤࡼǤ뤳ȤƼ롥#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) Wright 2ܤΰѤǤҤ٤ƤȤꡤ衤code-switching Դʸ콬˴ŤݤȤŪˡ˷ŪˤȤ館Ƥ餫˸Ǥ롥code-switching طʤˤʣʡʼҲ˸ŪװѤƤ롥װˤĤƤϡεǡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
#1567. ѸܸΥ饤ѥĤҲ ([2013-08-11-1]) ǡܸΥѥȤKOTONOHA ָܸնѹեѥ˸ڤΡظܸնѹեѥ (BCCWJ: Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese) ϡضƱѵˡͿʹʸ浡Ω츦ʸʳؾʲʳظΰ踦ܸ쥳ѥץץȤƱdzȯܳŪʥѥǤ롥
ѥƤˤĤƤϡƱȤˡ2012ǯ3ߡоݤȤʤäƤΤϡʲ11Υǡ1500ǤפȤ롥ץϡ1976--2008ǯˤƤʸǡ11ΥϽҡʹʽ桤Yahoo!ηޡYahoo!֥ʸˡΧϿˤ錄롥ƥƥȤ2Υץ뤬Ƥꡤ֤ҤȤĤĹ1000˸ꤷץ (Ĺץ)⤦ҤȤĤϡϤʤʸϤΰ̣ΤޤȤޤбñ̤ΤǤ (Ĺץ)ޤǤĴˤСĹץʿĹϿʹ1000Ҥ4000ǤפȤ롥
BCCWJ Ѥˡ䥤եϤĤ뤬äȤؤʤΤˤĥäǼǤ롥Ͽפǡɽؤʸˤ륳ѥʸǤ롥Ϥ̵٤500¤뤬ڤ˻ȤǤ롥
ѿɬפǼǤϡƱѥФơûñ̡Ĺñ̡ʸ3ĤˡˤꡤŪʣʸ뤳ȤǤ롥
ޤ̤ΥեȤơNINJAL-LWP for BCCWJ (NLB) 롥Ԥ1.20ǤǤϡBBCWJ ΤۤȤɤΥǡоݤȤơ뤳ȤǤ롥ڡ
ϢơNLB ƱեѤǤ⤦1Ĥܸ쥳ѥҲ𤹤롥ؤ֥ȤƥȤԻ11줫ʤȥ֥ѥ (Tsukuba Web Corpus: TWC) ؤΥեNINJAL-LWP for TWC (NLT)Ǥ롥ڡ
#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȤꡤѸˤϡʣθ줬ڤؤߤ줿츫Ȥ12ȤۤʺΤ褦˻פ뤬ʸṲ̣̄аտŪ code-switching ǤäȤ狼롥ѸˤηŪȤ⤤뤳Τ褦 code-switching ϡΤߤʤ餺ʸޤۤȤɤΥ˴ѻ롥㤨СWright ϡ"medical writings, other scientific texts, legal texts, administrative texts, sermons, other religious prose texts, literary prose, poems, drama, accounts, inventories, rule-books and letters" (148) Ƥ롥Wright (148--49) ϻʸζȤưʲ2ĤƤ롥
1. Religious prose text in English and Latin: sermon (early fifteenth century)
Domini gouernouris most eciam be merciful in punchyng. Oportet ipsos attendere quod of stakis and stodis qui deberent stare in ista vinea quedam sunt smoþe and lightlich wul boo, quedam sunt so stif and so ful of warris quod homo schal to-cleue hom cicium quam planare.
(The lord's governors must also be merciful in punishing. They should take notice of the stakes and supports that should stand in this vineyard, some are smooth and will easily bend, others are so stiff and so full of obstinacy that a man will split them sooner than straighten them out.)
2. Letter in English and Anglo-Norman: from R. Kingston to King Henry IV (1403)
Tresexcellent, trespuissant, et tresredoute Seignour, autrement say a present nieez. Jeo prie a la benoit trinite que vous ottroie bone vie ove tresentier sauntee a treslonge durre, and sende yowe sone to ows in helþ and prosperitee; for in god fey, I hope to almighty god that, yef ye come youre owne persone, ye schulle haue the victorie of alle youre enemyes.
(Most excellent, mighty and revered Sir, otherwise I know nothing at present. I pray to the blessed trinity to grant you a good life with the fullest health of the longest duration, and send you soon to us in health and prosperity; for in good faith, I hope to almighty God that, if you come yourself, you shall have a victory over all your enemies.)
code-switching Ǥϡäʽˤϸڤؤ뤳ȤˤꡤҲŪ뤤ϸŪʸ̤տޤƤȤȤˤ롥Wright (149) ۩
It has often been assumed that texts which show code-switching are indicative of an ill-educated scribe, who did not know the other languages fully. However, studies on present-day code-switching show that, on the contrary, the speakers usually have a full grasp of both languages, but choose to switch for social and discourse-pragmatic reasons. Similarly, it can frequently be demonstrated that the scribe of a code-switched text did in fact command the grammar and vocabulary of all the languages used, but that he chose to combine them. At present, we are not fully sensitive to the discourse-pragmatic reasons for medieval code-switching, and it is one of the things to which the present-day reader of a medieval text is deaf. (149)
嵭Τ褦˸Ťνդ˸ code-switching ΰտޤɤ뤳ȤϺˤ뤬ξˤ "social and discourse-pragmatic reasons" ϤƲäΤ code-switching ˤꡤҥȤ뤫⤷ʤ
Wright, Laura. "The Languages of Medieval Britain." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 143--58.
921--22ˡϢܸʸرdz줿桦ܸʸݥե˻äؤƱνȥȤǡָѤʤط---츦ʸظˤĤơפꤹѥͥǥåԤäϡѸμԼפȤܤǾä糰ǤϤ뤬ܸؤˤѸ䳰θϡѸθԤˤΤʤʤȤȤʤΤǡ⤽Ω줫鷺Ф껲ͿƤȤǤ롥
ȯɽΤˡ˵褦ʻͿѸȤƤɽ̤Ȥ231ĤޤäơѸ줫ݤȤˤĤƤϡ#1492. ֥ǥפѸ줫 ([2013-05-28-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ衤ܺ٤ʸŪĴɬפϤޤǤϷ겼ƤʤޤѸθ̩Ȥ⤢롥äơʲθġˤĤƤϵ䤬褵뤫⤷ʤ嵭Τ褦âĤǡΤȤƸƤȤΩĤ
ѸʬˤĤƤϡޤΤΤˤʤʲΤ褦 (1) ŪѸ졤(2) ̣ŪѸ졤(3) ŪѸ3ʬषƤߤʬ̲ϺβȤ

(1) ŪѸ
ǥ (popsicle)ɥȥå (shutting off the engines)ȥ (outside)ѡ (apartment, apartmenthouse)եեӥ (after-sales service, after-the-sale service)ե쥳 (post recording)ꥫʥҡ ((regular) coffee)å (improve one's image) (change one's image)ȥХå (fanny bag, bum bag) (beauty salon, beauty spa, beauty-treatment clinic)å (dirty-minded, sex-mad, have a one-track mind, indecent, salacious, pervert, abnormal)ʥեǥ (office worker) (custom-made, made-to-order)ȥХ (motorbike, motorcycle)ӡ (alumnus, alumna, graduate)֥ȡ (toaster oven)ץ (convertible)Хå (combed (straight) back, combed towards the back)եܥ (cuff links) (overpass)ɥޥ ((security) guard, watchman) (gas station)åĥݡ (victory pose)åڡѡ (paper towel)åԡ (slogan)åۥ (call-waiting)åܡ (play catch)顼 (air conditioner)ӥ (glamour photos, cheesecake, Page Threes)졼ɥå (upgrade)ॻ (amusement arcade)ɥ (launderette)ȥ (lower costs, reduce costs) (outlet, outlet box, receptacle, wall outlet, wall socket)ӥ (drugstore, grocery)ǥ (prime time)ǥ (holidays in May)ɥӥͥ (side job)ޥ (company employee) (off-season) (canned tuna)ץå (become thin, lose weight)ƥ७å (organized kitchen)ƥۥƥ (big hotel)㡼ڥ (mechanical pencil, automatic pencil)å (the right moment on film)С (holidays in November)С (priority seat) (denim jacket, jeans jacket)ѥ (jeans)åȥ (roller coaster)塼 (blender)ѡ (supermarket)å (touching, bonding, physical contact)륫顼 (the traditional feature of a school)å (economies of scale) (starting lineup)ɥץ졼 (grandstand play)ԡɥ (slow down) ((bust-waist-hip) measurement)ͥ (big construction company, large construction company)顼ƥ (solar power)ե (software)եȥ (soft-serve ice cream, ice cream cone, swirl ice-cream cone)ߥʥۥƥ (station hotel)ॵӥ (blue-light special, limited time offer (special))ҥå (RBI hit)å (tagged and out)˥å (kitchenette)ץ (dump truck) (cheerleader a) (table setters)ơ֥륹ԡ (speech at a party)ƥӥ (video game)ƥ (numeric keypad)ǥ졼 (birthday cake, decorated cake)ǥåɥܡ (hit by (a) pitch)ǥХإ륹 (massage parlor)ȥ졼˥ѥġʥȥѥ (sweat pants)ɥȥå (doctor's orders)ɥ饤֥ (rest area, rest stop)ʥ (night game)˥塼ϡ (drag queen, transvestite)ͥƥå (proof reader, native-speaking proof reader)ͥåȥåԥ (on-line shopping)Ρå (uncut (movie))Ρ (sleeveless dress)ΡʥΡͥ (without a tie)Ρȥѥ (laptop)ΥƥåץХ (bus without steps)Υ (trivia)ϡȥե (heartwarming)ϡ (someone of mixed race)ϥå (knee socks)ϥƥ (late teens)ϥƥ (excitable, overexcited, carried away)ϥ (Job Centre)Хåߥ顼 (rearview mirror)Хȥ (baton twirler)Хȥå (baton pass, hand over)ѥʡ (pattern maker)ѥȥ (police car)ѥͥ顼 (panelist)ѥѡ (tight-perm, short-perm)ӡѥ饽 (beach umbrella)ӥͥۥƥ (economy hotel, budget hotel)եɥå (obstacle course)եܡ (base on balls, walk)ե饤ɥݥƥ (French fries, chips)ե饤 (false start)ե (one-size-fits-all)ե (toll-free number)եȥ饹 (windshield)֥åС (book jacket, dust jacket)ץ졼 (booking office)إ̡ (full-frontal nudity (photo))إǥ塼 (header)إ륹 (bathroom scale)١å (raise of the wage base)٥åɥ (bedroom suburb)٥ӡ (playpen)ڡѡѥˡ (shell company)ڡѡɥ饤С (person with a driving licence but no practice, driver in name only)ڥå (dressed in matching outfits)ڥåȥܥȥ (plastic bottle)ۡ (platform)ۥåȥڥå (electric carpet)ۥåȥ (pancake)ܥǥå (frisk, security check, body search)ޥ (one's own car)ޥʥ (negative image)ޥڡ (go one's own way)ޥ˥ (spaghetti Western)ޥå (mug)ޥ (mummy's boy)ޥġޥ (one-on-one (one-to-one) lesson, private lesson)ߥ (sewing machine)ߥ˥ (free paper)ߥ륯ƥ (tea with milk) (big, overweight, fat)⡼˥ (wake-up call)⡼˥ӥ (breakfast special)饤֥ϥ (club with live music, live music club)֥ۥƥ (hot-pillow hotel, no-tell motel)˥ (undershirt)˥ۡ (inside-the-park home run)ꥯ롼ȥ (suit for an interview)ꥵ륯륷å (secondhand shop, recycled-goods shop)åץ (lip balm, chapstick)եƥ (keepy-uppy)롼å (loose-fitting socks)ƥ (early teens) (additional time, injury time, stoppage time)磻 (business shirt)磻ɥ硼 (talk and variety (TV) show, tabloid show, TV magazine show)ѥ (predictable, routine)
(2) ̣ŪѸ
ɥ (pop idol)åȥۡ (cozy, homey)Х (irresponsible)ʥ٥ȡ˥ѥ˥ (booth girl, promotional model, trade show model)˥ (cheating)饯 (car horn)졼 (complaint) (autograph, signature) (sticker) (grandstand)ʥå (bar, pub)ޡ (slender, slim) (good dress sense, well-dressed, stylish)ס¯ (bordello, house of ill repute, whorehouse, knocking shop) (celebrity, entertainer, TV personality)å磻 (blow-up doll)å (zipper, zip-fastener)ȥ ((playing) cards)ɥ饤 (businesslike)ɥ饤Сʹ (screwdriver)ʥ (uncorrupted, unspoiled)ͥå (weak link, dead wood, disadvantage, burden)ϥɥ ((steering) wheel)Сɡȱ (Bobby Charlton)Х (buffet)ѥå (build)ե (Go for it, Do your best)ե (front desk, reception)֡ (fad)ץ (handout, printout)ץǥ塼 (coordinator)ޥå (felt tip pen, marker pen)ޥ (condominium, apartment)åȡǥå (pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages)˥ (test user, product tester) (good-for-nothings, layabouts, hooligans, thugs)ե (alteration, refurbish, renovate)٥ (rematch)롼 (lax, careless, negligent, irresponsible)
(3) ŪѸ
(flat iron) (accelerator)ץ (application)ݡݥ (appointment)륹 (virus) (engine stall)å (on the rocks)졼饤 (curry and rice, curry with rice)ӡ (corned beef) (connection) (suntan oil)⡼ϥ (smoked ham)ϥ (sexual harassment)åȥ (setting lotion)ǥѡ (department store)ȥ (bathroom, restroom)ɥޥ (Don't worry about it, Never mind)˥ (varnish)֥͡ (navel orange)Ρ (notebook)Υץ (nonprofessional)ѡ (permanent)ѥ (personal computer)ѥ (flat tyre, puncture)ӥߥ (vitamin)ӥ (building)եå (fantastic)ץ (pudding, custard pudding)ץ쥹顼 (professional wrestler)ޥ (microphone)ޥ (mass communication, mass media, the media)ޥ˥ (maniac, fan)ꥹȥå (list)ꥹȥ (restructuring, corporate downsizing)쥸 (cash register)
ƥ֥륷塡ѤѸ١ҡ2005ǯ
꤫إʸ졦ŵ١ʸҡ2006ǯ
ؿܸ춵ŵ١ܸ춵ز ԡ罤۽Ź2005ǯ
ǥӥåɡܿͤĤְ㤨NGʱѸ١ؤҡ2012ǯ
ܸظŵ١ ʸۤ ԡ2007ǯ
ܸɴŵ١İ ɧۤ ԡ罤ۡ1988ǯ
¼ סإʸ줪⤷ŵ١˼1990ǯ
ع줪⤷ȯ֡졦Ѹ١2012ǯ
եꥫΤ̤ Senegal ϡϤιˤ줺¿ȤǤ롥Ѹϥեιϡ#401. ¿κǤ⤤ϰ ([2010-06-02-1]) Ǽ夲¿ؿ (diversity index) Ǥ0.775Ȥ⤤ͤθ˸¤äƤ37θ줬1ͤοˤääƤ롥ξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡEthnologue Senegal Ȥ줿

ι Ziguinchor ȤĮ롥ΡִԾפ¿ˤĤơҲؤΥߥȥޥʻạ̈Ĵʥpp. 142--46ˡĮλԾξͤδ֤Ǥ10ʾθ줬äƤ롥ΩäϡJola (35%), Wolof (26%), Mandinka (16%), Fula (11%), Serer (4%), Balanta (5%), ¾ (5%) ȤʬۤäθϼҲŪϰ̤ˤ櫓ǤϤʤFula Mandinka ϤθԻˤθȤƤ Jola ΤۤŪǤ롥ޤWolof ϡкŪ Wolof ͤϤˤ⤿餷ǤꡤǺθҤäƤ롥
˴ؤ뤳Τ褦ʥޥҲŪϡġξͤΤĸѡȥˤȿǤƤꡤξˤƶڤܤƤ롥λԾˤƳƾͤ1?7Ĥθ뤬1ĤΤäͤǤ¿2ġ3ĤȤ褽ͽ̤Ƥ椯ȤüԤ̤ˤĤθäȡоΤʬۤ餫ˤʤ롥
(1) Native Jora speakers ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 language (23): *********************** 2 languages (17): ***************** 3 languages (15): *************** 4 languages (2): *** 5 languages (5): ***** 6 languages (0): 7 languages (0): ---------------------------------------------------------------------- (2) Native Wolof speakers ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 language (25): ************************* 2 languages (7): ******* 3 languages (5): ***** 4 languages (5): ***** 5 languages (5): ***** 6 languages (0): 7 languages (0): ---------------------------------------------------------------------- (3) Native Mandinka speakers ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 language (1): * 2 languages (6): ****** 3 languages (4): **** 4 languages (8): ******** 5 languages (5): ***** 6 languages (3): *** 7 languages (1): * ---------------------------------------------------------------------- (4) Native Fula speakers ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 language (0): 2 languages (7): ******* 3 languages (5): ***** 4 languages (5): ***** 5 languages (5): ***** 6 languages (1): * 7 languages (2): ** ----------------------------------------------------------------------
ε#1621. The Middle English Grammar Corpus (MEG-C) ([2013-10-04-1]) ǿ줿ѸϿ LALME βŻ eLALME ǯEdinburgh ؤꥪ饤Ǹ줿 LALME ˤä꤬ʤɡǤȤäƤ褯ǽ˭٤両ؤʤɤǡŻǤȤѤƤ椯ȤˤʤȻפ롥
ǤФƼγĥʤƤ뤬Item Number ʤɤбֹ椬ۤʤäƤΤ⤢Τդפ롥㤨Сbetween ΰ۷ʬۤˤĤơǤǤ Dot Maps 703--06, 1118--19 6ʬۿޤǺܤƤ뤬ŻǤǤ Item Number 89 ΤȤ16ʬۿޤǺܤƤ롥ºݡDot Map οŻǤˤʤä1/3ʾ
ޤ桼ϿޤȤΤܤĥ롥#1394. between ΰ۷֤ʬ̻ۤŪѲ ([2013-02-19-1]) ε ([2013-10-04-1]) Ǥˤ between Ū۷˴ؤơλҲ x ޤॿפѸǤɤΤ褦ʬۤƤΤꤿꤷ褦"User-defined Maps" εǽ顤"Select one or more items" "89 BETWEEN pr [North & Ireland]" ǡ"Select one or more forms" x ޤ֤Τ٤Ƥ˥å롥줫 "Make map" åСʲΤ褦 Dot Map ȤȤߤǤ롥 Dot Map ⡤٤塼˥Ǥ롥

Ǥ Item Map Τϡ־ǤϿѤθ³顤ŻǤǤʤؼʤȤơ桼ϿޤΥɥåȤå뤳Ȥˤꡤˤܤΰֻݥåץåפ뤳ȤǤ롥ϴ Dot Map ǤԲǽʤΤǡ桼ϿޤѲͤϹ⤤
Ҳ𤷤 LALME ϥѥ The Middle English Grammar Corpus (MEG-C) ȹ碌ơѸĤܳŪ˥ǥȤΤǤϤʤ
ʤϿȤмΡ#846. HelMapperUK --- hellog ͤαѹϿ CGI ([2011-08-21-1]) ɤ
McIntosh, Angus, M. L. Samuels, and M. Benskin. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986.
Υ륦 Stavanger ؤǡMerja Stenroos 濴Ȥʤä The Middle English Scribal Texts Programme (MEST) ʹǤ롥Glasgow ؤ Helsinki ؤζϤΤȤˡѸΥƥȤΥѥʤǤ롥Υץ϶Ūˤ2ĤΥץȤʤꡤ1Ĥ1998ǯ Glasgow ؤΩ夲 Middle English Grammar Project αĹˤ The Middle English Grammar Corpus (MEG-C) Իǡ⤦1Ĥ2012ǯ˳Ϥ줿 Language and Geography in Middle English Local Documents (MELD) Ǥ롥
ϡԤΥץ MEG-C ˤĤƾҲ𤷤ΥѥϡѸϿ LALME ΥȤʤäƥȤŻҲȤŪԻƤ롥ǤǤѸϿ LAEME ǽ餫饳ѥդǥ饤줿ΤоŪˡLALME ǤϡԻ줿夬ˡϿޤΤǸɽ줿ˤʤä2013ǯ LALME ŻҲ eLALME ȤƥǤ褦ˤʤäϿΤȤȤʤäΤŻҲƤʤäߡΥѥե뷲MEG-C files 鼫ͳ˥ɤǤ褦ˤʤäƤ롥
MEG-C ϡºݤˤ LALME λȤ1350--1500ǯΥƥȤΤߤʤ餺ᤤΥƥȤޤॳѥȤĹƤ롥ĹƥȤˤĤƤ3000ΥץäƼƤƤ뤬Ԥ2011.1ǤǤϡɸȤƥȤȾʬۤɤСƤȤܤեߥ꤫ž̤ƤȤ顤LAEME Υѥ˾ȤѤϫϤǤ롥꤬ѤƤ
®MEG-C ˤäȤƤߤ#1394. between ΰ۷֤ʬ̻ۤŪѲ ([2013-02-19-1]) Ǹ between Ū۷ʬۤΤʤǡȤ櫓ˤ x betwix(t) פѸǤɤ줯餤ѤƤ˴ؿäǸƤߤȡ104㤬 -x ǽ륿ס14㤬 -xe ǽ륿ס2㤬 -xt ǽ륿פȤ̤Ф٤ηϡHelsinki Corpus ˤ M3--M4ξڵȤۤ礹롥ߤΥѥο٤¬뤳ȤǤȤ
Ѹ⡤ޤޤġ뤬¤Ƥ롥
Stenroos, Merja, Martti Mäkinen, Simon Horobin, and Jeremy Smith. The Middle English Grammar Corpus, version 2011. 1. U of Stavanger, 2011. Online at http://www.uis.no/research/culture/the_middle_english_grammar_project/. Accessed : 4 October 2013.
#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) ǡź (paragoge) Ȥơ /n/ /s/ θ /t/ /d/ Τ¿Ȥơancient, tyrant, parchment; sound; against, amidst, amongst, betwixt, whilst ʤɤʤȤ櫓 -st 췲ˤĤƤ ##508,509,510,739,1389,1393,1394,1399,1554,1555,1573,1574,1575 εȡˡ
s θ t źä䤹ĴŪʺϡ#1575. -st θźä˴ؤ Dobson ιͻ ([2013-08-19-1]) Dobson (437) Ҥ٤Ƥ褦ˡ"at the end of the articulation of [s] the tip of the tongue is raised slightly so as to close the narrow passage left for [s], and the stop [t] is thus produced" ȤȤθźäɤñˤ뤫ͽ¬Ǥʤn θ t, d źä⡤ĴƱǤȤƱδϲǽɤñˤƸźä¸ΤϡϤͽ¬ǽǤ롥
Ʊ #1575 εǤϡWright ѸĤƤȸڤºݤ Wright (295) äƤߤȡǤϸ t Ǥʤæ˵ƤͽۤȤꡤæΤۤˤ˴ѻ褦ꥹνǡ st t æƤ㤬 (ex. beas(t), betwix(t), fas(t), jois(t), las(t), nex(t)) ơk, p θǤ⥹åȥɤν t æ (ex. fak(t), strik(t), korek(t), temp(t), bankrup(t)) ˡf θæޥʤɤ drif(t), lif(t), wef(t) ʤɤ˸롥Ǹˡn θæϡ sergean(t), serpen(t), servan(t), warran(t) ʤɤθˤˤƤ롥
θ t ΤۤæۤɹϤǤϤʤΤΡǼΤ褦ʸ˴ѻ롥ʲɸಽֻǡsermon(t), sudden(t), vermin(t), scuf(t) (scruff), telegraph(t), ice(t), nice(t), hoarse(t), once(t), twice(t)æξƱͤ n, f, s θ֤¿Ȥ顤æϸߤɤ礦طȸƤ褤ʤɸäƤΤȤƤϡancient (< Fr. ancien), pheasant (O.Fr. faisan) 롥
d θźäˤĤƤ⡤Wright (306) äƤβϡl, n, r θ֤ǡȤ Yorkshire ˤƻȤ롥feel(d), idle(d), mile(d), school(d), soul(d), born(d), drown(d), gown(d), soon(d), swoon(d), wine(d), yon(d), scholar(d)
嵭θźäߤ¤ꡤĴŪʺӷǧ뤬ɤθˤƼ¸뤫ͽ¬뤳ȤϡϤԲǽΤ褦ġΥˤơ¾νװͿ̤ȤƸźä줿ȤȤ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Wright, Joseph. The English Dialect Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1905. Repr. 1968.
6˥ꥹȶ֥ƥˤ⤿餵줿θ塤űѸˤϿɴΥƥñ줬Ѹή¿ϥꥹȶطѸǤ롥ϡ#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1]) #1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1]) ˤ̤Ǥ롥
ꥹȶطƥñήȤߤƤƤϡλΥꥹȶθŪ¦̤ʬ뤳ȤϤǤʤBaugh and Cable (90) Ѥ褦
The words that Old English borrowed in this period are only a partial indication of the extent to which the introduction of Christianity affected the lives and thoughts of the English people. The English did not always adopt a foreign word to express a new concept. Often an old word was applied to a new thing and by a slight adaptation made to express a new meaning. The Anglo-Saxons, for example, did not borrow the Latin word deus, because their own word God was a satisfactory equivalent. Likewise heaven and hell express conceptions not unknown to Anglo-Saxon paganism and are consequently English words.
#865. ѸƤˤΰϲ ([2011-09-09-1]) ˤ̤ꡤʤ deus ɮƬˡ̣ǺǤ⥭ꥹȶŪȤ뤤Ĥθ줬ѤʤäΤפʻͿ2顤ˤĤƤθڤ褦ޤϡKastovsky (310) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Substitutive semantic borrowing is particularly frequent in the religious vocabulary, since in using a native ('heathen') word for a Christian concept, the pagan interpretation had to be replaced by the Christian concept and all its theological associations. A good example is the word God as used for Deus (cf. Strang 1970: 368). Originally it seemed to have meant 'that which is invoked', 'that to which libation is poured', was a neuter noun and could form a plural, since the Germanic peoples had a polytheistic religion. The missionaries, however, had to convey the notion of a single Deity, a Person or One of the persons of the Trinity. Instead of adopting the lexical item Deus, its meaning was substituted for the old meaning of god, which, in this case, even produced a grammatical change: God as a singular noun became masculine; if it occurred in the plural, it only referred to pagan gods and remained neuter.
ˡΰʸǸڤƤ Strang (368) äƤߤ롥Strang ϡűѸ (loan_translation) ̣ (semantic loan) ˤĤƿƤսǡgod ΰ̣ѲʲΤ褦Ƥ롥
The best term to start with is the word god. This is an old neuter noun, the meaning of whose stem has been disputed. It may mean 'that which is invoked' or 'that to which libation is poured' (in which case, it represents the same stem as we find in the name of the Goths and the Geats . . .); OE shares the form with other Germanic languages, which have formations from the same stem with the same meaning. In its inherited form the noun has a plural, since the monotheistic idea was unfamiliar to the Germanic peoples. The missionaries need to convey to the English the conception of a single Deity, a Person, One of the Persons of the Trinity, the Father, the Creator of the Universe, etc. They have a choice of explaining all this, and adding that the word for it is Deus; or of saying that the English have hitherto misunderstood the nature of god --- not it, but He, not many but One, etc. They choose the latter course, and their usage, as well as their belief, prevails. The noun acquires a new meaning, or rather, the whole complex of Christian meanings, though it is still the term for the old gods. From this development follows a curious grammatical change, akin to the modern use of the capital letter. When singular the word becomes masculine; when plural (therefore pagan in reference) it remains neuter. Thus, even syntax enters into the pattern of adaptation.
ɸϡߤ˴Ϣ2ĤǶ̣1ĤϡľܼѤ̣Τۤ露﷿Ǥꡤꥹȶ۶ˤäơȤͭäǽ뤳ȡ⤦1Ĥϡ̤ˡ¾줫θäؤαƶͤݤˤϡʷ֡ˤǤʤ̣ʰ̣ˤŻ뤷ʤФʤʤȤȤ Baugh and Cable (91) äơѤƤ
It is important to recognize that the significance of a foreign influence is not to be measured simply by the foreign words introduced but is revealed also by the extent to which it stimulates the language to independent creative effort and causes it to make full use of its native resources.
ϢơѤ importation substitution ζ̤ˤĤơ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ȡ
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
#72. /r/ /l/ ϴְ㤨!? ([2009-07-09-1])#1597. star stella ([2013-09-10-1])#1614. Ѹ title Фƥե titre ǤΤϤʤ ([2013-09-27-1]) εǡ/l/ /r/ θؤƤܸüԤϡѸؽ塤ξμ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ褯ΤäƤΤǡμ˴ؿ䤹ξƤ뤳ȤΤäƤ뤬ŪˤϤɤΤ褦˻ƤΤϡѸ /l/ /r/ Ӥΰ۲˴ؤ벻Ūʻ¤Ҳ𤷤ʲ罤۱Ѹػŵ (325--28) ξˤĤƤεҤ롥
Ѹ¦ /l/ ԤˤĤĴ뤬Ǥΰ֤˱2Ĥΰ۲̤롥첻 /j/ ǤŸ˸äƾ夲졤첻˻ clear l ȯ롥ٻߤȻҲǤϡ˸äƾ夲졤첻˻ dark l ȯ롥/l/ ϸ§Ȥͭ©ȼ /ph, kh/ ˸³ˤ̵롥ŪˤС/l/ 첻ŪǤꡤŪʤʻҲȤϰۤʤʥեޥȤ1եޥ (F1) 2եޥ (F2) clear l Ǥ첻ħŪΰ˸졤dark l Ǥϸ첻ħŪΰ˸롥
/r/ ϡĶơޤüԤѰ˱ơĤ۲Τ줫ȤƼ¸롥Ƭ첻³֡/d/ ʳͭ³֤ǤϡܶȤȯ롥/d/ ˸³ˤͭȤʤ롥©ȼ /ph, th, kh/ ˸³ˤ̵Ȥʤ롥첻֡뤤 /θ, ð/ /b, g/ θ֤ǡȤƲѤ롥ޤĴ⤤ϯɤʤɤưѤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥Ūˤϡ/r/ ¦ /l/ Ʊ͡첻ŪǤ롥/r/ /l/ βŪʺϡȤ F3 եޥȿܤ˸롥Fry, D. B. (The Physics of Speech. Cambridge: CUP, 1979) ˤl r Υڥȥפ罤۱Ѹػŵ (327) ƷǤ褦

줾 mallow marrow ȯڥȥդˤ̤Ǥ롥/l/ Ǥ F3 첻 F3 ȤۤƱΰ˸ΤФ/r/ Ǥ F3 ë롥 F3 οκۤϡ첻Ωݻ롥Ѹ /l/ /r/ ʹʬΤ˺ܸüԤϡʤξˤ F3 ưФƴ٤㤤ȤȤˤʤ
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