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[2009-08-26-1]εǡoctopus ʣȤƤϵ§Ū octopuses ̤Ǥꡤoctopi octopodes ʤɤΡָŵ˴ŤԵ§ʣϡߤǤʳŪŪʶ̤ˤѤʤȹͤƤ褤ΤȤϡ¿γؽԱѱѼŵ octopuses ΤߤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥פȽҤ٤ octopodes ˤĤƤoctopi ˤĤƤϽפ褦
־ǡ֥λפ˴ؤ뵭Ĥε̾ Owning Octopi Ǥ롥ʣ octopi ˼椫ɤǤߤ顤Ƥ⤪⤷äΤʾ341ۤɤεΤʤˤ⤦1 octopi ƤΤǴʤä§ octopuses Ϥ¿5ۤɻȤƤoctopi ϳΤ˥ޥʡ֤ǤϤ뤬̾˺ѤƤȤȤյCOD11 ( The Concise Oxford English Dictionary 11th ed. ) ˤ octopi ϸѤȤƤΤѤȤСޥʡ֤Ǥ뤳ȡɼԤ椭Ĥ̾˵뿷Ȥϸߤ˲餫δطΤ⤷ʤ1٤ octopi ƤսˤĤơʤ octopi ʤΤϤ褯狼ʤƱ octopuses ѤƤ뤳Ȥ顤ñĴäƤʸŪưŤΤ⤷ʤ
Sealing the tank is crucial because octopuses are deft at escaping from even the smallest opening. Because octopi have no skeletal structure, they can fit through practically any gap and can even lift many lids. Sealing a tank is crucial to keeping your octopus safe. Octopuses escape in order to feed their desire to hunt. These aggressive hunters are best served by being fed live crustaceans to quell their hunger and desire to hunt.
ޤ¿γؽԱѡ octopuses ƤʤȤˤĤƤ⽤ɬפOxford, Collins COBUILD, Macmillan μˤϳΤ octopi ϵܤƤʤLongman, Cambridge, Merriam-Webster μˤ octopi ʣȤƵܤƤ롥¼ϤǤ octopi ϵܤƤ롥
˥ѥĴ٤ƤߤBNC ǤΥҥåȿˤĤƤ[2009-08-26-1]ǾҲ𤷤̤Corpus of Contemporary American English (BYU-COCA) Ǥ octopuses 128octopi 36줿OANC (Open American National Corpus) Ǥ octopuses 4octopi 2Ǥ롥 OANC γƷ֤1㤺Ĥ octopi θѤλŦȤʸ̮ǸƤ롥ä COCA Ǥߤ¤ꡤǶϤʤ˻ȤƤ褦
Ϣʸǡ20Ⱦʸˡ伭ӤƥƥͳԵ§ʣ̻Ū˵§Ƥ椯Ĵ٤Ȥ뤬20Ⱦˤ octopi ϳ̵ǤϤʤޤΩʤ¸ߤäʸˡǤ Jespersen ˸ڤä餤Ǥ롥⤷20ȾʤκǶλ octopi λѤƤȤȤͤ롥-s ؤε§ʤǡԵ§ʣ minor trend Ȥ褹ή줬ƤΤ⤷ʤ
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Thesauri or Thesauruses? A Diachronic Distribution of Plural Forms for Latin-Derived Nouns Ending in -us." Journal of the Faculty of Letters: Language, Literature and Culture 106 (2010): 117--36.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 2. Vol. 1. 2nd ed. Heidelberg: C. Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1922.
ε[2010-09-28-1]ǡǯˤʤäƤƤεȿʲθħˤּ˱äҥȤθήܤǡ˸ؤˤȡεȿʲθ϶̤Ƥ롥बʳοʲˤäƸ˲äȤȤȡ㤨иűѸ͡ʷ֤Τꤨ̾ʣѸˤ -s ذ층Ƥ椯ˤɤΤ褦ʴϢ뤫ȹͤȡϼǤϤʤ2ĤϳΤ˸ѲäƤˤϤʤμ뤤¸ؤۤʤäƤ褦ˤפ롥ԤꡤԤϸ̸ȤФ褤
ȵȿʲʬǤ⡤(biological) evolution of language cultural evolution of language ̤Ƥ褦Ǥ, p. 176ˡʪŪʲδϡҥȤθȯ貿ѤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ롥ˤĤѤäƤΤϡޤѲʪŪʲǡʸŪ¦̤ѲƤȤˤʤȡ˸ؤѸˤʤɤθ̸ˤǰäƤ褦ʶŪʸѲλϡ٤ơ֡ʺΤȤѲʪŪʲǤʸŪʲפȤȤˤʤǤ⡤ʪŪʲǡʸŪʲȤƸβɤѤäƤƤΤõ뤳ȤϡεǽܼʪŪʲФʸŪʲħʪŪʲβǽʤɤ˸ƤΤȹͤ롥
Τ褦ʤȤͤƤȤˡWeinreich et al. ʸǴϢ뤳ȤƤȤפФʸϡ쵯ޤ褷Ƥʤ1968ǯȤᤤ˽Ƥ뤬Ѱ ( variation ) ιͤꤷŪȯۤǽƤ롥ʸˡɡ¤ءʸˡʤɤˤѲѤȽҲŪʴä˸ variationist ȸƤФƤ륢ץǿѲۤ뤿ͽʸȤäƤǤ롥ǤϡѲ ( theory of language change ) Ϥ礭ʸʲ ( theory of linguistic evolution ) ΰȤʤ٤ȤμĥʤƤ롥ޤˤäơԤ cultural evolutionԤ biological evolution бΤȹͤ롥
We think of a theory of language change as part of a larger theoretical inquiry into linguistic evolution as a whole. A theory of linguistic evolution would have to show how forms of communication characteristic of other biological genera evolved (with whatever mutations) into a proto-language distinctively human, and then into languages with the structures and complexity of the speech forms we observe today. It would have to indicate how present-day languages evolved from the earliest attested (or inferred) forms for which we have evidence; and finally it would determine if the present course of linguistic evolution is following the same direction, and is governed by the same factors, as those which have operated in the past. (103)
ʲϡ֥뤫ҥȤκǽΥߥ˥֤ؤȯŸ鸽ߤθ칽¤ˤޤǤθʲοʲ鸽ߤˤưӤΤǤ뤫ɤ䤦פΤˤʤWeinreich et al. λιؿμȯۤθ˶ä
ޤΤ褦˶ơѲȸʲƤ롥
Investigations of the long-range effects of language planning, of mass literacy and mass media, have therefore a special relevance to the over-all study of linguistic evolution, though these factors, whose effect is recent at best, may be set aside for certain limited studies of language change. (103 fn.)
ʪŪʲʸŪʲϽ̤٤ǤȤȤ1ʤξԤδ碌ƸѲõ٤ǤȤȤ1ιͤϡޤ褯ޤȤޤäƤʤ
ؤҤȤΤȤФεȿʲ١ҳҡ졦ʸ19ӡ2010ǯ
Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov, and Marvin I. Herzog. "Empirical Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." Directions for Historical Linguistics. Ed. W. P. Lehmann and Yakov Malkiel. U of Texas P, 1968. 95--188.
20ǯ餤δ֤˸εȿʲõ븦椬ȯƤطʤˤĤƤϡ[2010-09-24-1], [2010-01-04-1], [2010-07-02-1]ʤɤǽҤ٤Ƥ伫ȤϤʬ˾ܤ櫓ǤϤʤȤФεʲѲȤּȤɤͤСѸˤ˸ؤȴϢʤϤϤʤؿϤäƤءǯ6˶ǯθεʲ˴ؤ븦椬ޤȤ줿ܤФˤؤҤȤΤȤФεȿʲ٤Ǥ롥̣ΤɤǤߤ顤䡤⤷ʿפ˽Ƥʤ顤ʬκüθưޤƤꡤɤ߽äȤˤϤʤ˥ƥʬʤΤܤ줿Ǥ롥ʤۤɸ줯餤į褦ȤСؤκʬ줿ʬǸ椹ݤˤ礭ʸǽˤʤΤ⤷ʤʤȻפ碌
θʬȾΤ뤫ϤޤޤäƤʤ褦ǡԤ֤ȤФεȿʲθפȸäƤ롥ܤƤ椯ˤäơʬΡֺäħפ2ƤΤǤޤȤƤ (pp. 85--87)
(1) εȿʲΥץϡϵʹ֤ĹˤΤ1äȤǤꡤߤˤƴѻ뤳ȤǤʤǸʪؤθƤ뤬ʪؤξˤϲФȤʪŪڵĤ롥ȤξˤʪŪڵȤΤʤʸεȿʲκפҥȤ DNA ΤʤʪȤޤƤ뤳ȤȽ̤ˡҴŪʪ˴ŤƤʤΤ顤餫βФƤ⡤ϤɤޤǤäƤ¬ΰФʤƤʤ뤳Ȥϡ͡ΰθ̤礷ơ֤ɤŪͿ뤫פȤ ( plausibility ) ľ夲Ƥ椯ȤǤ롥ʳؤȤƶ˽ФʤȤȤȤ
(2) ʬñ˳غŪʤΤǤϤʤĶ׳غŪǤ롥ĶפĤΰ֤ζʤߤˤȤ꤬롥غŪǤȤȤϥƥǤȤȤޤ˹ΰ߹ǤΤǡ̸ֶפˤȤ𤬤褦εȿʲθ˴Ϣ¸ʬФ꤬ʤ㤨СָءʲءʪءءֳءưʪưءųءءǾвʳءԥ塼ǥסˤϱѸˤ˸ؤʬԤڤǤ椱ʤϤǤˡ
2ˤơεȿʲθϤФӤʪؤȤ꤬ۤʤäƤȤȤ
ؤҤȤΤȤФεȿʲ١ҳҡ졦ʸ19ӡ2010ǯ
ε[2010-09-26-1] ICE ( International Corpus of English ) 餤ĤαѸϰѼ拾ѥݤҲ𤷤Τʤ Singapore English Υѥ ( ICE-SIN ) äƤߤ
[2010-03-10-1]ε WordSmith KeyWords еǽαʸǻ ICE-SIN Ʊͤ˻ƤߤȤɤʤȻפäǺ⡤1990ǯƬΥꥹѸоݤԻ줿Ӳǽ FLOB corpus ( see [2010-06-29-1] ) ȥѥȤBritish English ˾Ȥ餷 Singapore English ħŪʸʡᥭɡˤФƤߤι⤤20ˤĤơWordSmith ˽Ϥ줿ɽǤ褦ʾ100ޤǤΥꥹȤϤΥڡHTMLȡˡ
| n | word | ice-sin.freq. | ice-sin.lst % | flob.freq. | flob.lst % | keyness |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | uh | 8,230 | 0.74 | 8 | 19,246.0 | |
| 2 | you | 18,175 | 1.64 | 7,258 | 0.29 | 17,768.5 |
| 3 | uhm | 3,838 | 0.35 | 0 | 9,021.1 | |
| 4 | ya | 3,580 | 0.32 | 10 | 8,283.9 | |
| 5 | i | 15,166 | 1.37 | 12,230 | 0.49 | 7,051.3 |
| 6 | singapore | 3,041 | 0.27 | 64 | 6,570.0 | |
| 7 | word | 3,490 | 0.32 | 482 | 0.02 | 5,621.8 |
| 8 | know | 4,768 | 0.43 | 1,534 | 0.06 | 5,345.5 |
| 9 | okay | 2,296 | 0.21 | 28 | 5,112.0 | |
| 10 | so | 6,759 | 0.61 | 4,452 | 0.18 | 4,113.8 |
| 11 | lah | 1,747 | 0.16 | 2 | 4,074.4 | |
| 12 | it's | 3,585 | 0.32 | 1,186 | 0.05 | 3,949.9 |
| 13 | your | 3,485 | 0.31 | 1,642 | 0.07 | 2,972.2 |
| 14 | oh | 1,952 | 0.18 | 344 | 0.01 | 2,900.2 |
| 15 | think | 2,761 | 0.25 | 1,208 | 0.05 | 2,501.5 |
| 16 | ah | 1,288 | 0.12 | 142 | 2,204.9 | |
| 17 | we | 5,884 | 0.53 | 5,406 | 0.22 | 2,190.7 |
| 18 | is | 15,022 | 1.36 | 20,588 | 0.83 | 2,027.9 |
| 19 | don't | 2,372 | 0.21 | 1,196 | 0.05 | 1,904.9 |
| 20 | what | 4,635 | 0.42 | 4,072 | 0.16 | 1,865.8 |
adverb INFORMAL
used by people in Malaysia and Singapore for making something they are saying sound more friendly and informal
ʸˤϡICE-SIN ľܽäƤᤤʸǤϤΤȡΤ褦ʿƤʸǤȤƤ롥
Anyway, life is getting colder here. Hottest degree - 16 degrees celcius, coldest so far is 8oc. Brr..rr!! I'm wearing 3 to 4 layers now, like I did in England. So heavy one lah! Get back ache, you know!
ۤˤϡSingapore 6̤äƤꡤdollar(s), Chinese, Singaporeans, Malay ʤɤ100äƤ롥
(2) lah ٤ι⤵Ȥط뤬ι⤤졤äѽФȹͤ줬Ωġľɽ魯;̾졤ޤĴ¤餲 ( hedge ) ä¿Ūʵǽĸ췲ȤƤޤȤƤ褤⤷ʤäȤäդȷӤĤ륭ɤ¿Ȥͽۤ줿ȤǤϤ롥դɸ˽䤹ϰѼ֤κʤΤ̤Ǥ롥Ȥ櫓äդϰѼκФ䤹ȤȤΥФdzΤ줿ȤȤ
Τ褦ʥФϡ¾ϰѼˤѤǤ롥ȥѥꥹѸʳưŪ˳ѼħߤȤΤ⤪⤷
International Corpus of English @ ICE-corpora.net ϡ7αѸϰѼ拾ѥɤǤ롥ɤ̥ե˥ѥɤäƤꡤӥѥɤFAXˤ̵ˤʤФʤʤ
Canada (ICE-CAN): http://ice-corpora.net/ice/icecan.htm
East Africa (Kenya & Tanzania) (ICE-EA): http://ice-corpora.net/ice/iceea.htm
Hong Kong (ICE-HK): http://ice-corpora.net/ice/icehk.htm
India (ICE-IND): http://ice-corpora.net/ice/iceind.htm
Jamaica (ICE-JA): http://ice-corpora.net/ice/icejam.htm
Philippines (ICE-PHI): http://ice-corpora.net/ice/icephi.htm
Singapore (ICE-SIN): http://ice-corpora.net/ice/icesin.htm
ICEǤϡ¾ˤӲǽϰѼ拾ѥԻƤǤꡤˤϤǤͭǼΤ⤢롥1990ǯʹߤνդäդǼ줿100쵬ϤΥѥǤ롥Ի乽[2010-06-29-1]εǾҲ𤷤 The Brown family of corpora ˽सƤꡤ500ƥȡ2000ȤʤäƤ롥corpus design annotation scheme ξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡICEȥåץڡξ˥塼黲ȤǤ롥ĤϰѼˤäդץ벻⤢ͭѡ
μαѸϰѼ拾ѥǤӲǽʤΤϺΤȤ¾˽ФƤʤ顤ŪθˤϽ
߸ϰѼäƤä˸ƤƤ
Ѹ˥ꥷ줫μѤ¿ȤϡָѸμѸεȳ ([2009-11-14-1]) 䤽¾Υꥷ˴Ϣ뵭 (greek) ǿƤꥷѸ¿ϥƥեͳäƤƤꡤϤηϩۤͣηϩä
15ˤʤȥꥷʸľ衼åѽ˱ƶڤܤ褦ˤʤäȤΤϡλ̤Υꥷܤꥢͤˤä Constantinople ¦ؤ⤿餵줿Ǥ롥1453ǯ˥ޥȥ륳ˤ Constantinople ȡꥷʸμƨƤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
The possibility of direct Greek influence on English did not arise, however, until Western Europeans began to learn about Greek culture for themselves in the fifteenth century. (This revival of interest was stimulated partly by a westward migration of Greek scholars from Constantinople, later called Istanbul, after it was captured by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.) (Carstairs-McCarthy 101)
³16ˤϥꥷǽ줿θŵؤδؿ顤ꥹǤ⥮ꥷ줬˸椵褦ˤʤä16Ⱦˤ Cambridge ǥꥷֵ Erasmus (1469--1536) ŵΤɤȤŪǥꥷȯܺ٤˸椷θˤޤ¤Ǥäθ٤Ƭ˻٤ƤݼɤγؼԤȿȯꥷꥷؤδؿˤޤDZƶڤܤȤˤʤ (Knowles 67--68)
[2009-08-19-1]Ǽ褦˽Ѹ˥ꥷμѸ줬¤äƤäطʤˤϡ嵭Τ褦Ūʻ𤬤äΤǤ롥
Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew. An Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2002. 134.
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
[2010-07-02-1], [2010-01-04-1]εǿ줿褦ˡǯ20ǯ餤δ֤˸쵯ʲ˸椵褦ˤʤäƤǤϹ⳰ǡءʲءֳءгءǾʳؤʤɤܿغʬȤ夬äƤ롥1Ⱦ˥ѥɥθزǸ쵯˶ؤ줿ȤפȱΤ褦Ǥ롥
1866ǯ˥ѥθز ( la Société de Linguistique ) ³1872ǯ˥ɥ ( The Philological Society ) 쵯ؤԤäͭ̾ζػ߾ʸȤʤäΤĴ٤Ƥߤʲ Google Books ǸĤ
1866ǯ38˾ǧ줿ز1ǡܳزϸ츦ŪȤʳθоݤǧʤƤ롥ơ2θ쵯ζػߤƤ롥
ART. 2 --- La société n'admets aucune communication concernant, soit l'origine du langage, soit la création d'une langue universelle.
2 --- ܳزϸε¤˴ؤڤʤ
ز쵯Ǥʤ¤ػߤƤΤȽΤäθ꤬ۤʸǤ롥ͤȡز쵯θ漫ΤػߤƤޤȤΤɤ٤Ȥפ뤬ºݤˤϤξʸϸ̤äθ塤쵯϶ǯ˻ޤDzʳؤɽ椫ܻۤѤäΤǤ롥
äȤ⡤ʲߤο Charles Darwin (1809--82) ǥޡαѸؼ Otto Jespersen (1860--1943) ʤɡεȿʲθ˹ʤԤ⳧̵ǤϤʤäȤ븫ǶḽƤƤ褦Ǥ, p. 72--73ˡ
ؤҤȤΤȤФεȿʲ١ҳҡ졦ʸ19ӡ2010ǯ
ESL ( English as a Second Language ) ϰϡ[2009-10-21-1]ε褦¿ꡤ[2009-06-23-1]Ǽ褦˺Ƥ椯Ȥޤ졤Ѹصڤܤƶ礭ȹͤ롥ESL ϰϼ˱ƿ̱ϲˤäƤꡤ椨ˤȤ٤ܤˤȤäƤޤߤΤʤϰ褬¿ܤˤȤäŪؿζȤǤ Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore ʤɤ롥ä India ESL ˤϷ礫ȤΤǤʤʳ ESL ϰˤˤĤƤϡܤǤϰ̤ˤޤΤƤʤESL ϰΤŪʱƶϤͤС ESL ϰˤĤ̵ΤǤ뤳Ȥϵʤ伫Ȥ褯Τʤϰ褬¿ESL ˸ڤȤ India ǤϿʤΤǡ줫龯Ĵ٤ƤȻפäƤ롥ǡŵŪ ESL 1 Nigeria ( Federal Republic of Nigeria ) ˾ƤƤߤ

Nigeria եꥫΥ˥Ѥ̤륢եꥫǺǤ¿Ǥ롥¿Ǥʤեꥫ¿ιƱ̱ͤ²¿⤤[2010-06-02-1]εǸ¿ؿ ( diversity index ) ꤢNigeria ¿ؿ 0.869 23̤Ǥ롥1˻ѤƤοǤм¤521Papua New Guinea, Indonesia ˼3̤ؤ롥ŪƱι⤤ܤߤ䤹Ǥ롥Nigeria ǻѤƤξܺ٤ˤĤƤ Ethnologue report for Nigeria ȡ
פʸȤƤϡ Hausa, Fula Yoruba Igbo 롥Τ Hausa Afro-Aisatic ²ʳ Niger-Congo ²°롥Ūä˽פʸ Hausa ǡ lingua franca 1ĤȤʤäƤ뤬üԤ2üԤ碌Ƥ14000Ķˤ1/4ϤʤEnglish, Nigerian Pidgin English ⤽줾1000͡3000ͤۤɤüԤͭlingua franca ȤƹǤ褯Ѥ롥ˤñȤǿ1/4ۤɤΥ¸ߤʤ䶵ξǸѤϱѸǤ롥üԿǤ1000ͤۤɤˤ⤫餺ΤʤDZѸ줬⤤ϰ̤ݤƤΤϤʤ
1ĤŪʰ仺Ǥ롥եꥫ˥ѱߤؤΥ衼åѿͤˬˤϡ[2010-06-13-1]ǾҲ𤷤롼αѸ˵̤Ǥ롥15˥ݥȥ뾦θ״Ϥ Nigeria ϰˤۤ졤16ˤϥꥹͤȤܿˤƱϰ͡ʱѸѼ郎ä褦ˤʤäꥹͤˤ뿢̱Ϥ Lagos ʵԡˤΩ줿Τ1861ǯΤȤǤ롥¾¿ο̱ϤƱͤˡΥꥹɸ।ꥹѸ줬ʤɤθʸȤʤꡤ1960ǯΩ⸽ߤˤޤǤξ仺ȤƼѤƤ롥
2ܤˡѸ줬̱²ŪŪ˺ǤΩʸȤߤʤƤȤȤ롥India ξƱͤˡ¿̱²¿ Nigeria ǤϸѸ1Ĥθꤹ뤳Ȥ̱²ΩθȤʤ롥Nigeria ˤϰŪ¿ɤʤȤ⡤ѸƤ롥⤷ Hausa Ѥ Hausa Ϥķ뤷йꤽήλؤȯŸǽ⤤ºݤˡHausa Igbo ή1967ǯοǯˤ錄ʥӥեˤǤ150εԤФΤ褦ʹǤϡüԤˤȤäơʿͭפˤʤҲФϡ٤ƤθˤȤäơʿפǤۤʿŪǤ롥ǡŪͭˤͤˤȤäơ2Ȥ̣ǡʸǤ볰θ줿Ѹ֤ȤȤŪʲˤʤ롥
3ܤˡ嵭Τ褦ʹŪͳDZѸѤʤΥݥƥ¦̤СѸѤ뤳ȤˤäȤĤʤ뵡뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ѸѸ˷ǤȤȤƤ⳰ͭѸĿͤȤƤ⥭ꥢͭ
¿ ESL ϰθʣǤ롥Τ褦ϰθĴ٤ȡο͡Ѹäؤꤹͳ麹̤ȤȤƤ狼롥[2010-01-19-1]εƻȤ줿
轵16ѹˤŪʽäˡ٥ͥǥ16 ( Pope Benedict XVI ) ѹˬ䤷ѹĺΩĥꥶ٥ȸ̤ΤǤ롥ˡȱѹʽ˲θνϡإ8 ( Henry VIII ) 1534ǯ˥ȥåȷ̤ư衤¤476ǯ֤ΤȤǤ롥ŪȤäƤ褤
16դ BBC News ˤȡˡ Glasgow ߥ7ο͡ȤΤԤ֤Ǥ롥ˡȽβ̤Ǥξ²Ĵ줿
ơαʸˤˡɽ魯̾Ȥ (the) Pope 17ѤƤ뤬̤ pontiff Ȥ̾3ѤƤ롥Pope ϥƥ pāpa ͳ褷űѸѤƤ롥papa Ʊǡꥹȶζΰ̣Ǥ롥ˡФ pontiff ȤƾΤ17ȾΤȤǡŪθϥե pontifeˤϥƥ pontifex ̤ꡤpōns "bridge" + -fic-, -fex "maker" ʣǤ롥pontifex "high priest" ֹ̿פؤĹ Pontifex Maximus ˡġפä櫓Ǥ롥
ֶͤ͡פʤֹ̿פȤʤΤˤĤƤϡϾŷ˶ͤͤǤȤꤦ뤬ˤָ̱츻 ( folk etymology ) ŪʲޤޤƤ褦Ǥ롥OED ˤСponti- pōns ֶפǤϤʤƥƱåɤ Oscan-Umbrian ( see [2009-06-17-1], [2010-07-26-1] ) ˤ puntis "propitiatory offering" ֡ʿˤʤ뤿˺ФʪפǤϤʤȤ줬 pōns ֶפȷŪ˺Ʊ줿
ˡˬѤϽθξԤˤΤǡͤƤΤ pontiff ǤϤʤ Queen äpontiff Queen βͶ˲ǼΤ褦ξͻ¤⤯ȡ
Your Holiness, your presence here today reminds us of our common Christian heritage. . . . I'm pleased that your visit will deepen the relationship between the Roman Catholic Church and the established Church of England and Church of Scotland.
ˡϡѹΥꥹȶ˴Ťˤ礤ɾơͻ¤˼Τ褦˱Τä
The monarchs of England and Scotland have been Christians from very early times, and include outstanding saints like Edward the Confessor and Margaret of Scotland. . . . As a result, the Christian message has been an integral part of the language, thought and culture of the peoples of these islands for more than a thousand years.[ | ѥڡ ]
ε[2010-09-20-1]ǥꥯγ̾ ( scientific name ) ˤγ̾ ( scientific name ) ȤΤϰΤɤΤ褦ʤΤ
̾ưʪʬෲˤơ̿̾˴ŤƤĤŪ̾ΤǤ롥ǥץؤοʪض ( Carl von Linné [1707-78] ) 1758ǯ˹ͰƤ̾ˡ ( binomial nomenclature ) Ѥ졤°ܼ̾̾פɽ蘆̾磻åΡˡ촴ˤϥƥޤϥƥ첽ꥷ줽¾θ줬Ѥ롥Τˤϡ°ܼ̾̾̿̾ԡפȤ뤬̿̾ԤʬϾά뤳Ȥ¿㤨ХҥȤΤˤ Homo sapience Linne ɽ蘆롥 ( species )° ( genus ) ³̶ʬˤϡ ( family ) ( order ) ( class ) ( phylum ) ( kingdom ) 롥β̶ʬȤưѼ郎ꡤޤɽˤ3ܤդä롥㤨ХɥϥΰȤ졤Gorilla gorilla gorilla ɽʰʾ塤Ƽλŵŵˡ
̾ϥƥ˴ŤƤȤϤ̾̾Ʊͤ universal ʼ ID Ǥ롥äơѸ켭˷Ǻܤڹ礤ΤΤǤϤʤȤͤ⤢롥ΰ̣Ǥϡܸ켭ˤ⤽¾Τɤʸ̸켭ˤǺܤڹ礤ΤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥̾ɴʼŵ缭ŵʬȤΩ
ǡ̼̾˺ܤäƤлѼԤˤȤäǤ뤳ȤΤǤ롥βˤ°ʤΤʤСդˤФ٤Ƥθ°ΤѸ켭ܸ켭ˤäƤ褤ȤʸɤǤ Myrmecophaga ȽФƤȤˡ¼ơ֥ꥯ°פȽФƤгΤˤۤäȤ롥
̾˭٤˷ǺܤƤѸ켭ȤäƻפФΤ Web3 ( Webster's Third New International Unabridged Dictionary ) Ǥ롥ĤƼԻξȹȤ Web3 ȼȤ߹äȤ뤬ۤɤγ̾˽Ф路ޤȤٶƤкƥꥷϢ ( combining form; see [2010-09-20-1] ) ˶ʤäƤ⤷ʤ˰ݤƤɤǤϤʤä衤ĿŪˤϳ̾ѸΰȤϤߤʤʤʪؤμȤƴؿγȤƤ
ȤϤؽѤιߤˤ̤̾θäˤޤǡֹߤפƤ륱Ϥ롥Homo sapiens ʤɤϿդƤꡤɬ⾰ʽѸȤϤʤʸ COBUILD μꡥ
What distinguishes homo sapiens from every other living creature is the mind.
ޤݸĻΥȥʼˡʱѸ¯̾ Japanese crested ibis ˤγ̾ Nipponia nippon ȤǤƤޤäΤܤħåΤ̾ȤƤҤȤΩäƤ롥
ưʪࡤ²ۡʪΰˤϤƤ̾Ƥ롥Web3 ؤΥ٥Ȥơ줫ưʪΰγ̾ܤƤ椳ȡʤäȤդ
椬Ȥζ輫ưʪϡ̵ˤ⤫餺ä褦ưʪ餷Ƥ롥ڥꥢåѥƺǯ6ˤϥꥯΥ˥ⷯưʪफñۤƤ褦 ˥!!ˡꥯܤǤưʪ碌Ƥ15ƬȤʤưʪǡŪˤǤΤ줬Ȥ

ˤȤꥪꥯϱѸǤ giant anteater̾ Myrmecophaga tridactyla Ǥ롥̾ ( scientific name ) ưʪˤĤ줿̤̾ǡƥηֵ§ˤʤä̾դ뤳ȤˤʤäƤ롥֥ꥯפ giant eater ϸ줴Ȥ¯̾ ( common name ) Ǥꡤܤξˤ̾ȤƤФ롥̾Ѥ촴ƥΤΤ¿ƥϥꥷ줫̤˸äѤƤΤǡ̤ȤƳ̾ˤϥꥷθ촴ޤޤƤ뤳Ȥ¿Myrmecophaga tridactyla ⤹٤ƥꥷθ촴ʤ̾Ǥ롥
[2010-05-19-1]εDZѸäλع¤ˤѸäϤޤˤä (1) Ѹ졤(2) ե졦ƥ졤(3) ꥷ3 ( trisociation ) ʤƤ롥̣ǤäƤͳˤäʣθ줬Ѹ¸ߤΤϤΤǤ롥(1) (3) ˸äƥ٥뤬⤯ʤꡤ줷ˤʤäƤ롥[2010-05-19-1]3ظ ( triset ) Ȥơֵ¡פѸ antƥѸ formic-ꥷѸ myrmec- Ǥ롥
°̾ Myrmecophaga ֥ꥯ°פ myrmec(o) ֵ¡פ phag(a) ֿ٤פϢˤꡤ⥮ꥷ쵯Ǥ롥Ʊͤˡ̾ tridactyla ⥮ꥷ쵯ǡ3ܻءפΰդǤ tri- 3 + dactyl(a) ֻءסˡ¯̾ anteater ٤Ƴ̾ Myrmecophaga tridactyla η줷äƤ
myrmec, phag(a), tri, dactyl ʤɡñȤǤϸʤʤ1ȤŪѤǡʼȤƼѷǡˤϢ ( combining form ) ȸƤФ졤ѸηǤϰǤǤ롥
Brigham Young University Mark Davies ˤ Corpus of Historical American English (COHA) Ƕᡤ줿1810--2009ǯϰϤʤꥫѸ쥳ѥǡˤ4Ķ緿ѥƤ祳祳äƤ뤬å10ǯڤ٤ФƥդޤǽФƤΤǡ2֤ΥꥫѸ̻ѲĻפΤˤۤʥġϤʤ
äˤ⤷ΤϡߤΥꥹѸȥꥫѸȤǷ֤ˡۤʤäƤ1Фɽ줾줳ΥѥǸƤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ĤƤϥꥫѸǤäѤ饤ꥹŪɽȤƤΤ夬ȤȤ˥ꥹȴƤ椯ʤ뤤ϥꥫޤäƤ椯ͻҤ褯ʬ뤳ȤΤȼΤưפͽۤ뤳Ȥ줬ޤ˻Ū˼ΤǶäƤޤΤ㤨СΥ߳´ʸΤ˱ƺĴƤ롥ä BrE in the street AmE on the street ֻκۤܤƤ뤬COHA Ǥ줾ե졼ȸԤȤȤƤƤ뤳ȤȤ
[2010-09-17-1], [2010-09-18-1]Ȥ³ while whilst ˤΤǡ COHA ѤƴϢĴʤäƤߤ奢ꥫѸǤ whilst ϤۤȤɻȤʤꥹѸǤʸȤƸǤ롥ǤϡĤƤΥꥫѸǤϤɤäĤƤϥꥹѸƱͤˤʤ˻ȤƤ夫˻ȤʤʤѸȤʤäȤڽͽۤ롥 COHA dzΤƤߤ "whilst.[cs]" ʽ°³ȤƤ whilst ˤƸȡɤ˰ʲΤ褦ǯٿդȤȤ˽Ϥ롥ʸ̤åʤΤǡĴפȸƤ֤Τ礲̤ȤƤϡwhilst 1810ǯ夫2000ǯޤǤۤ³Ƥ롥ǤŤ1810ǯǤ whilst while ٤ minor variant ˤʤ10081.27Ƥ줬1930ǯˤ5.04ˤޤƤꡤ2000ǯǤϤ鷺1.59Ǥ롥

[2010-09-18-1]ǽи褦 Dracula (1897ǯ) while 14ʤΤФ whilst 95ȤΤϡʸΤˤȤ礭ȤƤ⡤㤷ꥹŪǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ褦
ε[2010-09-17-1]³ԡDracula ˸ƱΩɽ³3۷ while, whilst, whiles ٤20ȾʹߤαѼˤ٤٤뤳Ȥˤäơ60?110ǯ餤δ֤˵äѲΰüָѤѥϰʲ̤ꡥ
(1) Dracula ( Gutenberg ǥƥ ): 1897ǯꥹѸ졥
(2) LOB Corpus ( see also [2010-06-29-1] ): 1961ǯꥹѸ졥
(3) BNC ( The British National Corpus ): late twentieth centuryꥹѸ졥
(4) Brown Corpus ( see also [2010-06-29-1] ): 1961ǯꥫѸ졥
(5) OANC (Open American National Corpus): 1990ǯʹߡꥫѸ졥
(6) Corpus of Contemporary American English (BYU-COCA): 1990--2010ǯꥫѸ졥
ƥѥˤ³ȤƤ while, whilst, whiles ٿ3Դ֤Ψϰʲ̤ꡥ
| while | whilst | whiles | |
| (1) Dracula | 14 (12.61%) | 95 (85.59%) | 2 (1.80%) |
| (2) LOB | 517 (88.68%) | 66 (11.32%) | 0 (0.00%) |
| (3) BNC | 48,761 (89.41%) | 5,773 (10.59%) | 0 (0.00%) |
| (4) Brown | 592 (100.00%) | 0 (0.00%) | 0 (0.00%) |
| (5) OANC | 7,893 (100.00%) | 0 (0.00%) | 0 (0.00%) |
| (6) COCA | 246,207 (99.82%) | 447 (0.18%) | 0 (0.00%) |
ϥι˻֤ƤޤȤꡤܤ⤹٤ɤ٤ƤΤǺäȤäӹŹˤϱѸܤޤʤäΤʥϥɤʤΤǡˡ Penguin Popular Classics ΰ֤Ƥäʪ̡ɺ Bram Stoker (1847-1912) ˤ̾ Dracula ص۷쵴ɥ饭 (1897) ˼äΥɥ饭ߤϥ롼ޥ˥ Transylvania ʥϥ鹭ϰˤξȤǤꡤιˤդ路Ȼפ줿450ڡΤǻ٤Ūˤ⤫ʤԵܳŪɤϤᡤ⿲˾ɤ³Ƥ뤬ޤɤ߽ʤ
ʪϤ⤷Τǰޤ뤬̣ɽȤϤˤʤѸɽˤܤαޤ롥ˤʤ뤳Ȥ1Ĥˡ³ whilst ٤Ǹ뤳Ȥ롥³ whilst ϸߤǤϥꥹѸʸħŪʷĥäǡwhile ٤٤㤤Ǥ Longman μˤ while Ϻ1000٥⡤whilst Ϻ2000٥ˡʤˤ while Ф뤬 whilst ٤ΤۤŪ˹⤯ǸߤΥꥹʸξȤϰۤʤ롥 whiles ʤɽǤϤ뤬졤Ĵ٤ʤФȻפΩäۤ1δ֤ˡ³ȤƤ while, whiles, whilst Τ줾٤ϤɤΤ褦ѲƤΤ
٤ͻϤˡƱΩɽ°³ȤƵǽ3η֤εƤߤäȤŪѤ while ϡ[2010-06-18-1]ˤ褦˸űѸǤϡֻ֡פ̣̾ˤʤä줬ʸˡ ( grammaticalisation ) Ф³ȤƤεǽȯŸƤǽŪȯŸȤǤ whiles whilst while ƱͤǤꡤ̾ while ȹͤƤ褤2ϷŪˤɬפǤ롥
whiles θ -s [2009-07-18-1]ˤŪ° ( adverbial genitive ) Ǥ롥whiles 13˽Ƹ졤ñȤǤ뤤ʣŪˡ?ΤȤˡפɽ³Ȥ̤˸褦ˤʤäߤǤϥåȥǡֻפΰ̣ɽޤŸȤƤ while ƱѤ뤬ŪˤѸȤʤäȹͤƤ褤ϢȤƤϡϤŸȤƤ otherwhile(s) somewhile(s) 롥
whilst [waɪlst] Ͼ嵭 whiles -t ĤΤǡȤƤ14顤³ȤƤ16餪ʤƤ롥-t ղäˤĤƤϰβؤȤͤ뤬̣䵡ǽǴϢŤ against, amidst, amongst, betwixt ʤɤθθߤ˱ƶä̤ǤϤʤȤ롥θϤŪ°ʤ -s ꡤĺǾ -st ȤϢۤƯˡ-st Ĥ褦ˤʤäȹͤƤܸǤ?κˡפʤɤȤˡҤ褦ˡwhilst ϸߤǤϥꥹѸʸ˸¤졤ĥäǤ롥while Ӥ٤Ϲ⤯ʤʸϤǤܤˤ뵡Ϸ빽롥
³ while variants Ȥ whiles whilst η֤ˤߤȤǡ Dracula αѸȿ岼äѼǤγƷ֤٤Ƥߤ뤳Ȥˤ褦
ոͻԤ⤮˽ФβƤԽˤϻǯ1٤ƤȤΤȤǡֹפ˭פäϥʥɤʤΤǡ⤮Ƥ˭դ٤Ƥ

ϸŤϡ֤ʤפȤä褦ǡΤ̣ۤ뤳Ȥʤʤˤά줿Τȸ롥̾Ρ֤Τߡפϡ̵פ̤ΤﵯդȤƵդˡͭμ¡פȤäȤˤʰʾPDFǥɤǤڡʪŵ ֤䤵Ȥ2010ǯǡ ˡΤĤ֤ơפϡ̵פ˰äϤͷӤǡꤲĤ֤ơʾСˤ֤äƤʤȤʤɤֻʤؤΤ褦ϡ̵פ̤뤳Ȥ顤ܤʸ˾塤ͥƥ֤ª뤳Ȥ¿ä
Хʥʥ°οʪ ( Pyrus ) 20郎ʬۤƤ뤬̼ȤƺݤΤäˤ褯ΤƤΤϥʥʥ˥ۥʥˤȥ襦ʥǤ롥Ѹ pear Ϥޤǥ襦ʥǤꡤ˥ۥʥ Japanese [Asian] pear ʤɤȤǶϥ顦եʤβۻҤκȤƥ襦ʥ褯Τ褦ˤʤäѸ pear ܤΡפϤޤ̼Ǥ롥ʲοޤǺ襦ʥ

DZѸ pear ֻȯ˰ܤֻ鸫Dzɤ褦Ȥȡpeer Ʊ *[pɪə] Ȥʤꤽ˻פ뤬ºݤˤ pair Ʊ [pɛə] Ǥꡤͽۤڤ롥<ear> ֻ̾ [ɪə] б뤳Ȥϡʲ¿θˤäڤ롥
appear, arrears, beard, blear, clear, dear, dreary, ear, fear, gear, hear, near, rear, sear, shear (verb), smear, tear (noun), weary, year
<ear> ֤ȯ¿ѸǤ [ɛːr] Ǥꡤ첻 ( Great Vowel Shift ) ˤĹ첻2ʾ徺 [iːr] Ȥʤä2ʾ徺ˤĤƤ[2009-11-18-1]㳰ˤĤƤ[2009-11-19-1], [2009-11-20-1], [2010-07-25-1]ȡˡ˸Ԥ ( breaking ) ̤Ȥ [ɪə] Ȥʤä嵭θ췲ȯŪˤߤƵ§ŪȤäƤ褤
Ȥ<ear> İθ첻ܤξ夲Ф[ɛːr] ľܤ˳ [ɛə] Ȥʤ긽ߤ˻äƤ롥ȤƤ pear ޤưʲΤ褦ʸ줬롥
bear ( OE beran ) , pear ( OE peru ) , swear ( OE swerian ) , tear (verb; OE teran), wear ( werian )
㳰Ūʸ췲Ǥϡ [ɛːr] 첻ܤϤޤľ15Ϥ餤 [eːr] 鲼βФϤ餷üʷаޤľ첻ܤϤȤʤʤĶѰդűѸθȤСѸγĹ ( Middle English Open Syllable Lengthening ) ϤȤʤꤦ벻ϢޤޤƤ뤳Ȥ̤Ƥ뤬spear ( OE spere ) Τ褦㳰⤢롥ѲϰǤϤʤ
ʤߤ pear ϥƥ pirum μѤǡPyrus ֥Хʥʥ°פǤϸŤ [i] 첻¸Ƥ롥
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ194--95, 209--10ǡ
Helsinki ؤ VARIENG ( Research Unit for Variation, Contacts and Change in English ) ץȤ˴ؤŻҥӥΰĤȤơѸ˥ѥʤȱѸѼ拾ѥˤξȤޤȤ CoRD ( Corpus Resource Database ) ʤ륵ӥ롥Ǥ51ΥѥϿƤꡤ³Υѥ͡ʷ֤Ǹ졤ܳŪɬפ褦ˤʤäƤΤǡCoRD Τ褦ʥϥ֤ФƤȽ롥Ͽѥä˴Ԥ
List of Corpora: ޤϤΰ
Corpus Finder: ϿƤѥξɽΥǡ١ˤʤäƤ롥"Corpus", "Start", "End", "Periods", "Word Count", "Text Samples", "Spoken/Written", "Annotation", "Format", "Availability" γǥȤե륿ǽʤǡ١ʤȻפäƤ
ƥѥΥˤϡޤǤξ褯ޤȤޤäƤ롥ä "Basic structure of the corpus" ϿɽդΤΤ¿ͭѡ"Reference lines and copyright" ʤɤ⡤äȤȤʤΤʸȤʤɤ˥ԡǤФƤ»Ϥʤ HP
CoRD ¾ˤ⡤Ѹ쥳ѥؤ˴Ϣפ HP ĤǺܤƤġΥѥδϢڡϤФХڤˤʤäƤΤǡʣΥϥ֤Ƥɬפ롥
ѥشطΥ: ջΥȤꡥ
Ѹ˴طΥѥŻҥƥ: Ʊ塥
Ѹ˴طΥѥ: ߤ A Gateway to Studying HEL ꡥ
JAECS Ѹ쥳ѥزΥ: رѸ쥳ѥءǡ١, 2005ˤ˷ǺܤƤΤޤȤ
ѥϢ: ؼѥء٤Ԥΰܲ͡עΥ
ICAME Corpus Manuals: ICAME ѥΥޥ˥奢뤬ޤȤޤäƤ롥
[2010-08-13-1]ǰ̣ѲŵŪʥѥΤʤ1ġ̣ΰ ( pejoration ) ȤƤ褯 silly 롥silly ϸߤǤϼʡʡפɽŪʸűѸǤΰ̣ϡֹʡʡ줿פäɤΤ褦ʲФơۤɤޤǤ˰̣ѲΤʲοޤϡsilly γƸλǯɽΤǤ OED ˴Ťƺˡ

űѸǤη֤ (ġe)sǣliġ Ǥꡤ̣ "fortuitous; happy, prosperous" äŪʿ̤ӤӤʡɽ "blessed" ֽʡ줿ηäߤפϡѸ "pious" ֿʤʡפθȯŸĤƤͤϤƤ "innocent" ѡѡ̵ٵפǤꡤ̵ٵʿͤ¿ "pitiable" ֤襤פʤۤɤ "foolish" ֶפǤ "unlearned" ̵ءפǤ롥̵ءפǤ뤳Ȥ "weak" ̵ϡפ "humble" ܤ"frail" ּ夤פȤˤʤ롥"insignificant" ּʤʪȸΤ⼫Ǥ롥ơǯλ֤ơܤ̣ΰؤỌ̇̄ѲƤäΤǤ롥
ץ饹ΰ̣ޥʥΰ̣ؤζϤΤϡ"innocent" դȹͤ롥̵ٵϤ褯СֽѡסСΤ餺פǤ뤫ܸǤ֤Ǥפϡʸ̤ιŪʰ̣¾Ūʰ̣äƤ롥ե crétin ϼʡפθ֥ꥹȶ̡ ( chrétien ) Ǥ뤳ȡƱե benêt ִȴΡפƥ benedictus ֽʡ줿פ̤뤳Ȥ⡤̣ѲηϩȤǡƤ롥ɤ֡ʽŪʡ̵ٵפȤΤϻŤΤ褦Ǥ롥
ʾΰ̣ѲηаޤƧޤȡsilly sheep, silly old man, you silly thing ʤɤξˤ줿˥奢ϡŪʡϼʡפǤϤʤƱƱΤäϼʡפǤ뤳Ȥ狼
̵ٵפץ饹ΰ̣ޥʥΰ̣ؤζϤȹͤ¿إåץѸ츻ŵ٤Ǥ̤βƤ롥ΥޥȤˤꡤԥΥޥͤϼĤڤÿ벿Լͳʤַäޤ줿뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäۤ˴Ư̱ˤȤäƤϡַäޤ줿פȡơפȤƱ˻פ줿̱ȯãˤäϫƯºǧ褦ˤʤȡơפϡֶפǤȤơΤŪʲͤӤӤ褦ˤʤäǰ̣εžΤǤϤʤȤ̣Ǥ롥
ơsilly ϰ̣Ūˤ180٤ѲФŪˤ¿ѲФƤƤ롥ѸǤϸűѸ (ġe)sǣliġ Ĺ첻ݤä sēli ʤɤη֤Ԥ줿15 /e:/ Ѳ /i:/ 첻 /i/ û˵ڤǡsilly ⵯ褦ˤʤä silly θμפʷ֤ȤʤäŤȯ˴Ť seely 16ޤǤ¸³seely ϸǻĤäƤꡤsilly ȤŸ ( doublet ) δطʤƤ롥
Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.
硼 T. åץ ƻ ϻ إåץѸ츻ŵ١罤ۡ2009ǯ
[2010-07-27-1]εǡƻӵ顦Ǿ -er / -est ƻζޤȸʤ٤ɤˤĤƤε뤳ȤˤиѸˤƻζޤϳ̵ȤäƤ褵űѸǤϡƻŪ˴Ϣ̾ʤ˱Ʒ㤷ޤ˥ޥħŪʶѲޤȼѲޤλȤʬ¸ߤƤȤפȡѸξϡֶޤξüפѸˤή礭ǤǤ뤳Ȥƻפ롥
ȤBryson (26) ˤȡѸ˶ޤƻ줬1ĤȤ
In English adjectives have just one invariable form with but, I believe, one exception: blond/blonde.
blond(e) ֶȱΡ֥ɤΡפϥեѸǤꡤѸʸˡˤʤä̾ˤȤˤ blond ̾ˤȤˤ blonde ѤȤΤŪʻȤʬǤȯ϶̤ʤˡɬʤʤäƤƤ롥ꥫǤ˽ˤʤ̤ blond Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿ʤäƤƤꡤꥹǤϵդ blonde ̷ȤФƤ롥ˤ衤ѲήȤƤ϶̤ʤʤưƤȹͤƤ褵
äĤĤΤ⤷ʤޤ¸ߤ blond/blonde ζ̤ѸˡֻĤͣζޤƻɽʤäΤϡűѸζޤȤϥפۤʤ뤫Ǥ롥ʤˤޤǤϤʤ ( gender ) ˤޤȤϤäƤűѸŪʸˡ ( grammatical gender ) ǤϤʤѸŪʼ ( natural gender ) ˤޤˤʤ⡤ζޤϼѸΥեʸˡȤֳʹĤΤޤͤȡפΤ褦˸롥űѸηƻޤȤϰ褷ƤꡤޤȤƤŪϢ³ʤäơֻĤפȤΤɬŬڤǤʤȽǤ
OED ǤΤθν15 Caxton θ17ȾޤǸ줺Ǥ⥤åΤ֤Ƥ뤳Ȥ顤ޤ˼ѸȤΰռǻäˤʤѸǤ⡤ȯ̤ʤֻǶ̤ȤȤϰռŪݤƤ̤Ǥ뤳ȤƤꡤϤեñǤ뤳ȤˤäֳʹĤΤޤͤȡפȤ礤
Ūˤߤ˴ŤޤǤˤϰ㤤ʤѸ¸ߤͣζޤƻǤȤ¤ϱǤϤʤζ̤强ƤǽȤͤȡæѡѻߡ㳰Ūε§ѲλȤܤ٤
ʤ̾ȤƤ blond blonde ѤΤŪǤꡤƻˡȤϰۤʤꡤ̤Ϥ褯ݤƤ롥
Bryson, Bill. Mother Tongue: The Story of the English Language. London: Penguin, 1990.
ѸֻȯδطϡüԤˤȤäƤüԤˤȤäƤ⤷Фоݤˤʤ뤬[2010-02-05-1]εǾ줿Ȥꡤ֤ǹɾۤɤҤɤʤȤĥ롥Crystal (72) ˤֻԵ§ñϤ鷺400٤ˤʤȤޤʲΤ褦ֻε§75%?84%ˤãȤפ⤢롥
English is much more regular in spelling than the traditional criticisms would have us believe. A major American study, published in the early 1970s, carried out a computer analysis of 17,000 words and showed that no less than 84 per cent of the words were spelled according to a regular pattern, and that only 3 per cent were so unpredictable that they would have to be learned by heart. Several other projects have reported comparable results of 75 per cent regularity or more. (Crystal, pp. 72--73)
οͤߤȡΤ˹ۤɱѸֻϤ㤯ǤϤʤΤʤȴ뤫⤷ʤͤϡ˺ݤ2Ĥդ٤Ǥ롥1ĤϡͤĴоݤȤäϰϡ㤨餫Ե§¿ѻ̾̾ʤɤθͭ̾ޤफɤˤ䵬§η¬λ㤨 meat, meet, mete ֻϤ⤢̣ǵ§ŪȽǤǤ뤬/mi:t/ ֤ǽ3⤢ȹͤͽ¬ԲǽʬԵ§ŪȤ⤤ˤʤɤ礭¸ȤǤ롥ɤΤ褦˿뤫ȤȤοǤ롥
Ǥ⡤ʣοפˡ礭ۤʤͤФ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡҤȤޤͤȲꤷ褦ξǤ⡤θɬפ롥ͤҴŪǤȤƤ⡤οͤɤΤ褦˲᤹Ф褤ȤबŪ뤤Ūˤʤ뤳ȤꤦȤǤ롥Ū˸Сֻε§84%ȤҤͤϡ˹⤤ɾƤ褤Τֻȯδط㳰ʤδʾ100%ȹͤƤΤȿФǤ0%ȤΤϥΤ褦ɽʸ ( see [2010-06-23-1] ) ˤƤ¤ꡤ夢ꤨʤɽʸǤǤ顤ʸǤϡɤߤ˴ؤ¤ꡤɤͽ¬ǽϤʤ⤤ΤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ100%жˤȤ0%ꤹ뤳ȤϸŪˤϤꤨʤͤϰϤϡ0--100% ǤϤʤ㤨 50--100% 餤夯ϤǤ롥84%Ȥͤɾɬפ롥
ޤѸƱѤ¾Υ衼åѸͤƤߤȡեɥĸʤɤƱ褦ʿפȤȸ¤ʤ100%˶ʤΤǤϤʤ롥ӤȡѸ84%Ȥͤ㤤Ȥͤ롥ɽʸ֤פɸ֤Ƥ¤ꡤ100%ޤǤϵ᤺Ȥ⤻95%餤ߤäƤ90%ʤɤȹͤС84%ǤϿʤȤ⤤롥ɽʸפǤ뤫100%ȤƤ뤷ͤΥܥȥब0%ǤꤨʤȤ嵭θȡѸ84%Ȥͤβ
ФƤͤϤʤ˵ҴŪȤƤ⡤βŪˤʤ餶ʤȹͤʤǤ롥
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
Crystal (98) ˡGeoffrey Leech ΥƥӹǺǤˤѤƻ˴ؤ븦椬ڤƤ롥ˤȡ20ƻϰʲ̤Ǥٽˡˡ
new, good/better/best, free, fresh, delicious, full, sure, clean, wonderful, special, crisp, fine, big, great, real, easy, bright, extra, safe, rich
θǤ뤫Ūʸ줬¿ΤϼȤ롥ޤǤϰŪǴʤǡʤûѤ뷹ͽۤ뤿ᡤ츻ŪˤϱѸ줬¿ΤǤϤʤȿ¬Ǥ롥20Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡμ¤ȸΤϰճˤȾʬ10ˤʤä ( new, good/better/best, free, fresh, full, clean, wonderful, great, bright, rich )ʳϡޥͳΤΤ¿ǸûǤߤȡʿͤ 1.35 Ǥ롥¿ wonderful, delicious, special, extra 4ˤʤޥͳǤû줬¿ȤȤϡ餬̱뤤첽ƻȤȤˤʤꡤθ᤹Ȱפ褦˻פ롥1Υƥӹ٤ѽзƻμ̤˰㤤Τɤʤɡ̻Ūʸ⤪⤷Ǥ롥
ȤǡŪʷƻ줬ۤɤޤǤ٤ξ̤Ѽϡ¾ˤꤨʤΤǤϤʤLeech θϥѥ˴Ť˰㤤ʤΤ褦ĴϥޡƥĶȡʬߤʤɤ˳ѤǤ뤫⤷ʤǤϵդŪʷƻ줬ѽФѼȤϲͤƤߤ鼡Τ褦ʸѼ䥸뤬פ⤫
βáԤβ
ɾɾʸ
ʸ
ȯáʸ
ΤȤΤ褦ʥͥƥ֤ʡʥ֥åʡ˸ѼܤѥȤΤϽФƤʤ褦˻פ뤬ݥƥ֤ʷ̤Ф븦꤭äȤ⤷ΤǤϤʤ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
9äƤ⤤ޤǤԽ뤬³Ƥ뤬夲Ƚפ碌뤦⤫֤褦ˤʤäϤ路бޤȤƤФ뤬¯Τǡ̾ΤϴѱʤˤȤѸDzȤΤȻפĴ٤Ƥߤȡcirrocumulus ȤΤäݵ ( World Meteorological Organization ) ˤȡ10ʬवȤʲ Visual Dictionary Online βcirrocumulus 2ܤ "high clouds" ʾرˤβˤ롥
ѸǤ¯Τ mackerel sky ɽη줬ȸΩƤƤ뤬Ǥ sky Ϥθθͤȶ̣sky ϸťΥɸ ský ֱפμѸǡѸˤ13˱Ѹ˽Ƹ뤬ѸǤΰ̣ϤϤֱפäűѸ scua "shadow, darkness" scield "shield"ե줫μѸ obscure ʤɤƱȹͤ졤ĸ *(s)keu- θ "to cover" ʤפȹͤ롥sky 13ȾֶפθȯŸ˻äƤꡤֱפ16ǸѤƤޤä
űѸǡֱפ wolcen ȸä12餤 sky ƱͤˡֶפθȯŸʸءŪɽȤƸ welkin ˤĤʤäƤ롥2ñǡֱפֶפؤỌ̇̄Ѳ뤲ΤФơֱפɽŪʸȤ13ʹߤƬƤΤ cloud Ǥ롥θϸűѸִ仳פΰ̣ѤƤֱפΰ̣Ǥ sky welkin हˤĤơֱפΰ̣ôȤȯŸȹͤ롥3ñΰ̣Ѳ13դ˽椷Ƥ뤳Ȥ顤ߤϢưƤȹͤΤ
Ϣ skyless ޤäפȤƻˤĤưθν1848ǯȿȯۤϡ֡ġ˶ʤעޤäפȤȤsky θֱפäȤΤȡդǤϤʤͤùǤޤʤ롥츻ΤȸѤΤǤ ( see [2009-05-10-1] )
[2010-07-23-1]εǿ줿ȤŵŪʥꥹѸ졤Ȥ櫓 RP ( Received Pronunciation ) Ǥ̾ postvocalic r ȯʤ non-rhotic r 졤ľθ줬첻ǻϤޤˤ r פꥨ ( liaison ) ѻ롥㤨 "My car is very old." "Necessity is the mother of invention." ʤɤǤ r ȯΤ̤Ǥ롥
פ뤿ˤŪ r ʤФʤʤϤcar mother ȤñȤȯˤ r ϼ¸ʤ嵭ߤŪ˸ r ꤹΤǤ롥ȤŪ r 礱Ƥˤ⤫餺θ줬첻ǻϤޤ r 礬롥ξˤϡפȤϸƤ٤ʤΤǡפֳߡ ( intrusion ) ȸƤ֤Ȥˤʤ롥intrusive r äդǤˤ롥
Ǥ褯Τ줿ϡlaw(r) and order the idea(r) of this ٤ι⤤ɽǤϡŪˤϤΤʤ r ͩΤ褦˸롥¾ˤ Shah(r) of Persia, Africa(r) and Asia, an area(r) of disagreement, drama(r) and music ʤɤ롥ޤ1Ǥⲻڤܤ r awe(r)-inspiring, draw(r)ing ʤɤ㤬롥ݤȤơIndia(n) and Pakistan ʤ intrusive n ʤΤ⸫롥
intrusive r 첻Ϣ³褦Ȥβ ( euphony ) ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥βǤϡʤΤ r ǤʤФʤʤΤʤ *"I(r) am a student" ʤ intrusive r ʤ礬ΤޤǤʤȯΤ䤹˴Ť euphony ȤƤ⡤(1) ٤ι⤤ɽ˵䤹ȡ(2) 첻ؤȤ˵䤹Ȥ2Ŧɬפ롥
(2) ˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦r פ륿פθθ첻ϡ¤4षʤfour, car, fur, mother ˤ줾ޤޤ /ɔː/, /ɑː/, /ɜː/, /ə/ Ǥ롥첻ǽ뤬פʤסĤޤŪ r ޤޤʤפθϡ˾ʤ㤨 law, Shah, sofa ʤɤ뤬/ɜː/ бΤϤʤäơ4첻ǽϽȬ塤Ū r äƤǤꡤintrusive r ȼΤ̾Ǥ롥ǡŪ r Ĥ¿ɤΰϤˤäơ㳰° law Shah intrusive r ȼ褦ˤʤäȹͤ롥Ǥϡ ( phonotactics ) Τ䤹 ( likelihood ) ˤʤäƤΤǤ롥
intrusive r ȯεϤռ͡ˤä뤳Ȥ뤬ܿͤ "the idea(r) of an intrusive r is obnoxious" r ꤷơϤȤΤʤ뤫 ( Crystal, p. 61 )
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002. 60--61.
[2010-06-19-1], [2010-09-07-1]ǰä bracketing paradox ˤĤơSpencer ȤƱѸ줫äȵƤߤ塤夤ʼ㤬褦Ǥʬऻ˥եåȤ롥
| word | morphological analysis | semantic analysis |
|---|---|---|
| atomic scientist | [atomic [scient ist]] | [[atomic science] ist] |
| cross-sectional | [cross [section al]] | [[cross section] al] |
| Gödel numbering | [Gödel [number ing]] | [[Gödel number] ing] |
| hydroelectricity | [hydro [electric ity]] | [[hydro electric] ity] |
| macro-economic | [macro [econom ic]] | [[macro economy] ic] |
| set theorist | [set [theory ist]] | [[set theory] ist] |
| transformational grammarian | [transformational [grammar ian]] | [[transformational grammar] ian] |
| ungrammaticality | [un [grammatical ity]] | [[un grammatical] ity] |
| unhappier | [un [happi er]] | [[un happy] er] |
| derivative | base |
|---|---|
| baroque flautist | baroque flute |
| Broca's aphasic | Broca's aphasia |
| civil servant | civil service |
| electrical engineer | electrical engineering |
| general practitioner | general practice |
| medieval sinologue | medieval China |
| modern hispanist | modern Spain/Spanish |
| moral philosopher | moral philosophy |
| nuclear physicist | nuclear physics |
| serial composer | serial composition |
| Southern Dane | Southern Denmark |
| theoretical linguist | theoretical linguistics |
| urban sociologist | urban sociology |
[2010-06-19-1] bracketing paradox Ȥݤ夲ʣʤʣʹ¤äˤợȷ֤ι¤פʤݤǤ롥unhappiest ϡ̣Ūˤϴְ㤤ʤ [[un-[happi-A]]A-est]A ( unhappi-est ) Ūˤ [un-[[happi-A]-est]A]A ( un-happiest ) ǤʤФ
˴ؿϢ Spencer ʸɤǤߤ顤ޤǤ͡ŪͿƤȤ狼äޤ˴ʲˤϻäƤʤ褦Ǥ롥
Ʊʸ bracketing paradox ˤĤܸ줫㤬ƤΤǾҲ𤷤 (665 fn) ־ʤˤפȤɽǡ־פϡֹפȤưΤˤäơ֤äȹפۤɤΰ̣Ǥ롥ǤФƾʤΤˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ־פȡֹפδ֤̣ڤܤ롥Ȥ֤פϢƤ뤳Ȥ顤Ūˤϡ־פȡֹפ̩ܤ˴طƤȹͤʤ˰̣ȷ֤ι¤פ롥
ʤۤɤȻפɽͤƤߤ餤ĤפĤ־ʢפ־̣פϢޤǤꡤƱͤȹͤƤ褤־ˤϤפ⡤ϢޤǤϤʤȤƤϤޤꤽ¾ˤ־?פǤФƤ?פǤϻפĤʤä
Spencer, Andrew. "Bracketing Paradoxes and the English Lexicon." Language 64 (1988): 663--82.
ʱѸؽȤĤEnglish Language: All about the English languageμΥȤ¿뤬ȥåפ˱ѸˤȱѸñˤޤȤޤäƤΤܤ
English language History
English language Statistics
ԤαѸˤβʸ "Middle English" ǡѸαѸ ( see reestablishment_of_english ) Υޥȸ50ǯ餤ȻϤޤäƤȤҤä
Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years most of the Normans outside the royal court had switched to English, with French remaining the prestige language largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he only learned French as a second language.
ѸˤȤˤäդդ̱٥뤫²٥뤫ѤξŪŪʤɡˤäλ٤ѤäƤΤαѸˤǤϥեΤӤλ夬ΤŪĹ³ȵҤ뤳Ȥ¿ä褦˻פ¤ȤƤϾβʸˤȤꡤɤǤϽ̱μѾ塤ѸϰŪʸäΤǤꡤλ¤ĴƤȤϽפȻפ
ѸפˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ statistics γƵǼ夲ƤʲΤΤ϶äʤˤȤäƽ鼪ä
English is the language of navigation, aviation and of Christianity; it is the ecumenical language of the World Council of Churches
Five of the largest broadcasting companies in the world (CBS, NBC, ABC, BBC and CBC) transmit in English, reaching millions and millions of people all over the world
Of the 163 member nations of the U.N., more use English as their official language than any other. . . . After English, 26 nations in the U.N. cite French as their official tongue, 21 Spanish and 17 Arabic.
People who count English as their mother tongue make up less than 10% of the world's population, but possess over 30% of the world's economic power
ŪŵϼƤʤޤ2010ǯߤιϢ192Ǥꡤ嵭3ܤ163˴Ťפ1990ǯ餤λǤοͤ⤷ʤ see United Nations member States - Growth in United Nations membership, 1945-present )
ΥȤˤ¾ˤ English Dictionaries English Literature ʤɤΥڡ롥
8ϥϥǥϥ ( Hungarian ) ˿ƤΤǡϥȤ줬°륦² ( Uralic ) ˤĤƴؿäñƤߤ
ϥϡ² ( Indo-European ) °ѸȤ̵طȹͤ뤬桼饷²βˤξ²ڤطˤ롥Ʊˤȥ桼饷²ϰ²²륿² ( Altaic ) ʤ롥ܸ륿²˴ޤԤ⤤Τǡξˤܸ졤Ѹ졤ϥϤ⤫˷ҤäƤȤˤʤ롥βϤƤȤơϥ°륦²δʰޤƤߤ褦ʥСʡɡ¾p. 46 οޤȤ˺ˡ

Britannica ²ʬۿ⻲ȡޤ²γƸξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡEthnologue report for Uralic ȡ
²̾ϥ뻳̮ ( the Urals ) ͳ褷ºݡƱ²ʬۤϻ̮濴˹äƤ롥ϥ9˥˰ܽƤޥ㡼ͤθǡߤ¾Ʊ²줫礭ΥʬۤƤ롥եɤθѸΥեɸ졤ʥӥΥȾͷ̱åͤä륵߸졤ȥ˥θѸΥȥ˥ϸߤ˶ᤤطˤեϤθϥ°륦ϤȤ3000ǯʬΥȹͤƤ롥ΤḽߤǤϡϥ㤨ХեɸδطϱӸŪʲб餫Ǥ롥
θ²θŪħʣʳηϤ첻Ĵ ( vowel harmony ) ˤ롥եɸ15ʡϥ17ʤܤꤽʸ˵§Ūͽ¬ǽȤ첻Ĵ¤1ĤñƱ첻Τߤ¸Ǥ첻ε§ǡηŪƱ ( assimilation ) ȹͤ롥
ѸˤηŪ첻Ĵ¤ϤʤѸޤॲޥˤĤ i-mutation ϰ첻Ĵ¤ȹͤʤʤi-mutation ˤĤƤϡfoot ʣϤʤ feet פεȡ
ӤΤ˰²ηޤ[2010-07-26-1], [2009-06-17-1]ȡ
Сʡɡƥޥ塼ޥꥢݥ ԡ ˼ ؿʸա١νӡ2005ǯ46--47ǡ
첻 ( Great Vowel Shift ) ˤĤƤϡޤǤ[2009-11-18-1]Ϥ gvs γƵƤGVS Ѹ˾礭ǤΤϡ츫ηŪ˵äƤʤΤ褯Ȥ㳰뤫㳰ޤ GVS Ȥݤ褦ȤȡɤƤˤϤʤΤȤʤΤǤ롥
GVS ǤʤȤ¿ԤˤäƻŦƤꡤ push chain drag chain ʤɤѸǵǽŪƤݤǤϸ̤βѲνȤǧ뤳Ȥ¿ʤäƤǤСGVS ϰǤϤʤ "local" ǤɽǤ"local" ΰ̣ˤĤƤ Nevalainen (120--21) ñƤǤ롥
The Great Vowel Shift was local in three respects. First, it never ran its course in all regional dialects: in the northern dialects it affected the front vowels but not all back vowels. Secondly, it did not proceed uniformly across the lexicon as one might expect a fully regular sound change to do, that is, it did not affect all the words that contained a sound that qualified for a given change. Finally, there are some developments in words containing long vowels with outcomes that could not have been predicted from their Middle English forms. Some of these 'irregularities' in the southern mainstream variety may be attributed to dialect contact.
(1) GVS δŰ٤ˤäưۤʤ뤳ȡ(2) ܤǤͽۤ벻Ѳ٤Ƥθä˹ԤϤäƤʤȡ(3) ͽۤ벻ѲϤȽϤδط㳰¸ߤ뤳ȡȤޤȤơ㳰 "dialect contact" ˤäȤ롥
ǯGVS ǤϤʤȤͤ夬äƤƤΤϡ̤βѲطʤˤ֤ܿȤ櫓üԤɤδ֤εΥμȤäҲŪװ뤳ȤܤƤؤȯãˤäơꥹνˤؤδؿޤäƤȤطƤ롥
Ҳؤؤȯã GVS κƲϤΤ褦ϢưƤȹͤ뤬"dialect contact" ȤȯۼΤϼ¤˸ŤΤǤ롥ȤΤϡ19Ⱦ˳ʸˡ ( neo-grammarians ) Ʊ褦ʤȤͤƤǤ롥ϲѲϸ§Ȥ㳰ʤӤƺѤȹͤºݤΤȤ㳰˽Ф魯Ȥ ( analogy ) ( borrowing ) ˤΤȤƽƤԤμѤȤäμѤΤȤؤƤꡤ嵭 "dialect contact" ȤۤƱǤȤäƤ褤
ߵäƤ GVS κƹͻϡʸˡŪʹͤؤñʤǤϤʤҲؤؤθ椬ʤƤƤΤǡ GVS ƲѲˤĤȤ˸̤˹ͻ뤳ȤˤʤäƤΤǤϤʤGVS Ϥ줫ѸˤμפʥơޤǤ³
ǶܳŪͤϡSmith, Chapter 6 ȡ
Nevalainen, Terttu. An Introduction to Early Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
Smith, Jeremy J. Sound Change and the History of English. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
[2010-07-30-1]εǡѸ <h> ֻɽ魯Ҳ [h] ˤޤĤ뺮ŪطʤǤϱѸäˤ <h> [h] δط3ѥʬʬ䤹Ƥߤ褦< > ֻ[ ] ȯɽ魯
| [h] | no [h] | |
| <h> | host | hour |
| no <h> | ? | able |
ѡʷˡɸȯ˼ΤʤͤѡʷˡɸȯռƤäƸäѤ뤳Ȥǡovercorrection ľˤȤ hyperurbanism ʲԲˤȤ⤤η꽤 ( hypercorrect form ) Ȥ
[2010-07-13-1]ǿ줿褦ˡ꽤üԤѤȸѤκٰռƤ뤫餳츽ݤǤ롥h ξǤС¿ܤΤʤüԤ <h> [h] κˤĤƤ٤ϰռƤ뤫餳Ū첻ΤߤǤ褤Ȥ虜虜 /h/ ԤȯƤޤȤȤˤʤ롥
β꽤Ѹ˾ζ̣ȤƤϡ16դ˽줿 Henry Machyn Diary 㤬롥ϥɥλΩλ֤äǡŪʤɬɸŪֻƤ櫓ǤϤʤǸΤ褢٤ǤʤȤ˸ <h> ֻǤ롥Helsinki Corpus Ĵ Nevalainen (127) ˤȡMachyn playing Ȥ٤Ȥ playhyng ֤ꡤordained Ȥ٤Ȥ hordenyd ֤äƤ㤬Ȥ
ξˤ <h> ä֤Ƥꡤ餯 [h] ȯƤΤȹͤΤǡ̩ˤ playhyng hordenyd ΥޥȥåκޥȤϤʤʤΤ褦Ū /h/ 꽤ȤƻŪʸѤξѤƤȤȤϡɸֻ <h> ʤäȤƤ /h/ ȯ줿¿äȤ롥ߤǤ⡤ɸˡ˸¤кޥ¿ޤΤǤϤʤ
ʤߤˡNevalainen (127) ˤ hypercorrect /h/ λѤ褦ˤʤΤϵϼΩ18꤫ǤꡤMachyn λˤϤޤ٤ѤȤϤʤäƤʤäȤΤȤǤ롥
ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
Nevalainen, Terttu. An Introduction to Early Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
ؼѥء٤Ƭɸδɽ˴ؤͤ ( pp. 1--8 ) ɽϡֱںߤ˹ߤפ̣봷ɽǡϢۤͶᤫܤαѸ춵Ǥ⤷Фм夲롥ͭ̾ʴɽ¤ϼʱѸɽȤߤʤȤϤǤʤΤǤϤʤȤʤƤ롥
κ1Ĥϡ1ؤ BNC ( The British National Corpus ) Ǥ㤬鷺ʤȤ¤Ǥ롥ºݤ˸ƤߤȰʲ3㤷餺ʤդΥ֥ѥˡ3ĤϹʸȤʸ̮ǸƤꡤȤϹͤʤ
1. It was raining cats and dogs and the teachers were running in and out helping us get our stuff in and just couldn't do enough for us.
2. What must you be careful of when it's raining cats and dogs?
3. Fig 4.5 shows the structure of the compound tree for the compounds 'rain cats and dogs', 'tennis ball' and 'tennis court'.
Collins COBUILD Resource Pack The Bank of English ˴Ť500Υѥ Wordbank ǸƤ⡤3㤷ĤʤäϤꥤꥹѸνդ
1. You mean she wasn't wearing a coat, even though it was raining cats and dogs?" said Cicero, gently puzzled.
2. It was the longest section in terms of distance, over 38 miles, and it rained cats and dogs all day long.
3. "Well if you just hold on for a wee while sir, it looks like it'll be raining cats and dogs soon and that'll put it out."
Corpus of Contemporary American English (BYU-COCA) Ǥ23㤬Ĥä٤äդǤȤƤ롥
EFL Ĵ٤ƤߤȡܤʸΤ뤳Ȥ¿ˤä spoken, informal, old-fashioned ʤ̡Υ졼٥뤬ŽƤѰ褬ꤷʤƤȡäȤϤˤ輫äƻȤˤʤɽȤݤޤäƤ
δɽεˤϽ⤢롥(1) ǭߤ礬Ȥ㤷߹礦Ȥ졤줬㤷߱ȷӤĤ줿(2) Τӿ夬ںߤΤȤɸǭΤȤʤä⤤ƤȤ顥(3) ꥷ καταδουπεω ( catadūpeō ) "to fall with a heavy sound" ȷӤĤ줿(4) ̲äǭλѤ˾äƸ졤ο Odin ϢƤȤ顥
(1) Ρַ㤷פ˰äϡΤ褦ɽ뤳Ȥٻ뤫⤷ʤ
1. fight like cat(s) and dog(s)ˤ߹礦
2. Cats and dogs have different natures.ָǭ[]㤦.
3. They agree like cats and dogs.֡ˡ˸.
It's raining cats and dogs variation ȤƤϡΤ褦ʤΤ褦ʤΤǻͤޤǤˡ
1. It poured cats and dogs.
2. It's pelting cats and dogs.
3. rain pitchforks [buckets, chicken coops, darning needles, hammer handles,ʱástair-rods,ʱ¯trams and omnibuses] ʡإϥѸ켭ŵ٤
4. It's raining pigs and horses. ʥȥꥢˡ
OED ˤȽ1738ǯ Swift ʸϤǤ롥a1652ǯȤ It shall raine . . Dogs and Polecats. ʤϢɽ롥
ˡܲ עؼѥء١ˡ1998ǯ
Ѹˤϡưβʬ˿ΰ۷֤äȤΤƤ롥ä첻Ѳ ( ablaut, or vowel gradation ) ˤäƲʬäűѸζѲưͳ褹ưϡ-ed ؤε§ηȤؤäѰۤμब¿ä
ѸǤʬѰۤΤưϤʤ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨 bid -- bid / bade / bad -- bid / bidden, prove -- proved -- proved / proven, show -- showed -- shown / showed, sow -- sowed / sown -- sown / sowed ʤɤ롥Ѹΰ۷ִ֤ɤϸѸǤϤʤ18̾ʵʸˡ Robert Lowth (1710-87) ǤɤƤƤۤɤ顤ĤʤäȤȤ ( Nevalainen, pp. 93--94 )
Ϥ˴ؤơ[2010-03-03-1]ǾҲ𤷤 PPCEME ( Penn-Helsinki Parsed Corpus of Early Modern English, second edition ) ˤꡤפưʤȤʣưˤβˤĤư۷֤äȸƤߤñ˰֤ȹͤΤ⤢뤬餫˸촴첻βΰۤʤΤ⤢ꡤɤη㤷ʬå١
awake : awaked (1), awoke (3)
bear : bar (6), bare (133), barest (2), beare (1), bore (24)
begin : be-gane (12), be-gayne (1), began (281), began'st (1), begane (13), begann (1), beganne (27), begannyst (1), begayn (1), begayne (1), begon (1), begun (10)
break : brak (6), brake (60), brakest (2), break (2), broake (7), brok (4), broke (49), brokest (1)
come : bacame (1), becam (5), became (79), become (1), cam (475), came (2170), camest (11), camst (4), com (27), come (55), comst (1), ouercame (4), ouercome (2), over-cam (1), overcame (2), overcome (1)
drink : drancke (3), dranckt (1), drank (19), dranke (21), dronke (3), drunk (1), drunke (2)
eat : ate (15), eat (11), eate (12), ete (2)
fall : befel (1), befell (6), fel (15), fele (1), fell (306), felle (4), ffell (1)
find : fande (4), ffond (1), ffonde (1), ffound (1), find (1), fond (2), fonde (2), found (344), founde (63)
get : begat (67), begate (60), begot (3), begott (2), forgat (3), forgate (2), forgot (8), forgote (1), forgott (2), gat (10), gate (15), gatt (4), gatte (1), got (101), gote (23), gott (23)
give : forgaue (2), gaue (261), gauest (9), gave (364), gavest (12), gayff (4), gayffe (2), geve (1), misgaue (1)
help : help'd (2), help't (1), helped (5), helpt (1), holp (1), holpe (1)
know : knew (419), knewe (88), knewest (3), knewyst (1), know (1), knowe (1), knowethe (1), knue (1), knwe (1)
ring : rang'd (1), rong (1), rung (1), runge (1)
run : ran (77), rane (7), rann (3), ranne (38), run (12), rune (1), runn (1)
see : saw (627), saw (1), sawe (237), sawest (14), sawiste (1), see (5)
sing : sang (7), sange (5), song (11), songe (3), sung (13)
sink : sanke (1), sunke (1)
speak : bespake (2), spak (2), spake (318), spoak (1), spoake (8), spock (1), spoke (61), spokest (2)
spring : sprang (1), sprange (5), spronge (1), sprung (3), sprunge (1)
swear : sware (55), swoare (1), swore (56)
take : betoke (1), betook (4), betooke (4), mistook (1), mistooke (2), ouer-tooke (1), ouertoke (2), ouertooke (3), overtook (2), overtooke (2), take (1), taked (3), tok (2), toke (333), tokened (1), tokest (2), took (296), tooke (333), tooke (1), undertook (8), undertooke (2), vnd=er=tooke (1), vndertooke (2)
write : wrat (1), wrate (7), wret (32), wrett (49), writ (19), write (2), writt (8), writte (1), wrot (21), wrote (106), wrote (1), wrott (7), wrotte (3), wryt (1), wryte (1), wrytt (2)
ѸζѲưβʬɤ͡˸椵Ƥ뤬Nevalainen References ʲ2θĤΤǥ⤷Ƥ
Nevalainen, Terttu. An Introduction to Early Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
Gustafsson, Larisa O. Preterite and Past Participle Forms in English, 1680--1790. Studia Anglistica Upsaliensia 120. Uppsala: Uppsala U, 2002.
Lass, Roger. "Proliferation and Option-Cutting: The Strong Verb in the Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries." Towards a Standard English, 1600--1800. Ed. Dieter Stein and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1993. 81--113.
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