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2011-06-30 Thu

#794. ˡ§Ȼη [grimms_law][phonetics][consonant][fricativisation]

Grimm's Law ˤĤƤϡ[2009-08-08-1]εˡ§Ȥϲפ䤽¾͡˰äƤˡ§ϡĸĺΤ줾줬Ĵħ1ܤ򥷥եȤƤ椯Ȥ롥㤨С*bh > *b ѲϡĴ̵ͭϤΤޤޤˡĴͼΤߤѲaspiration 򼺤äˤΤȤ롥ޤ*b > *p ѲϡĴĴͼϤΤޤޤˡ̵ΤȤ롥
Ȥ*p > *f ѲĴ˴ؤ2ܤѲƤ롥̵ǤѤäƤʤĴͼĺ໤ѲƤФǤʤĴξ鿰ؤѲƤ롥ԲƱͤǡ*dh > *d, *d > *t Ѳ1ܤΥեȤ뤬*t > *þ Ѳϡĺ໤ءפȡֻԤءפ2ܤΥեȤͿƤ롥ΤˡξȿԤȻϤ줾ĴȤƤ϶ˤƶ᤯ˤۤɤΤȤǤϤʤ⤷ʤǤϥˡ§Ȥ⤤ָηŪѲפ˽ꤽ
εĹ餯Ƥ*p > *f ꤹΤϡΰξڵŪƷμ³ϼ뤬̵ξĺ *p б໤ *ɸ ѲΤΤϤǤϤʤ[ɸ] ܸΡ֤աפ˸ҲȤƤߤԼʲȤϻפʤˡ§ *ɸ ǤϤʤǽ餫 *f ؤοܤȤƤΤˤϤ´򴶤Ƥ
Ĵؤ˴ؤ Martinet Ρֻη֡פˤĤƤɤȤˡ꤬褷褦˻פä̵ξ໤ [ɸ] ϳΤܸ¸ߤ뤬Ūˤä໤ȤƤ԰ĴΤ褦ܸˤʤ̵໤ [f] ϡ໤ȤƤϰꤷĴȤϤǤ롥ĴﴱˤŪĺΤΤ໤ΤΤ롥ξϸߤ̩٤⤯ƵΥȥåѡȤƤ褯ǽޤĺĴﴱξ໤ѤȤƤ⡤ˤʤˡĴ԰ˤʤ餶򤨤ʤդˡϷ֤뤿˸ƵΥȥåѡȤʤˤŪ໤ĴﴱʤΤǤ롥

Du fait des interstices entre les dents, une occlusion labio-dentale est difficilement réalisable. On constate donc que la position des organes qui est la plus recommandée pour l'articulation fricative, ne vaut rien pour l'occlusion et, vice cersa, que la position favorable à l'occlusion ne permet pas de produits fricatifs satisfaisnts. Cette situation se retrouvera ailleurs. (Martinet 67)

Ȼδ֤˷֤뤿ˡĺϼ¸Τ񤷤äơ໤Ĵ˺Ǥդ路ﴱΰ֤ĺˤϤޤΩդƱͤǡĺԹΤ褤֤Ŭڤ໤λФʤȤȤʬ롥ξϡ¾ξˤ⸫롥


ʾĴﴱʪŪͤȡˡ§̵ĺ໤θ̤ϡĴﴱԤ˾եȤƤ뤳ȤǺȤʤ롥*p ໤ˤä *ɸ Ѳ⡤Ѥ *f إեȤۤ໤Ȥ¸³䤹Ʊͤˡ*t ໤ˤä *s Ѳ⡤Ѥ *θ إեȤۤ໤Ȥ¸³䤹ޤ*s Ǥ˰ĸ¸ߤƤȤ¤顤*θ ؤΥեȤͻ򤹤̤äΤ⤷ʤ
ˡ§Ϳ⤦1Ĥ̵ĺ *k ˤĤƤϡ*x ؤѲϥȥ졼ȤŪ *h ѲȤͤȡǤ [x] ໤ȤƤ԰ꤵͿƤΤ⤷ʤȤȤ߹碌ɤ餫ȤȥȥåѡͤǤꡤ໤ǤϤʤȿФˡ[h] ĴѤϤɤ餫Ȥ໤Τ褦˻פ롥
໤Ȼ褤ȤȯϿäְŪ໤ؤΰܹԡפˡ§ɽ魯Ѳνפ1ĤäȤСξ *p Ԥ *t 줾໤ǤϤʤ໤ؤѲͳ򤷤䤹ʤ롥

Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-08-22-1]

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2011-06-29 Wed

#793. she --- 奤󥰥ˤ۷ʬ [personal_pronoun][dialect][map][she]

ε[2011-06-28-1]˰³ she ꡥϸŤѸˤ she ֤͡ˤäȤҤ٤ѸǤĴ٤3;νñ̾ΰ۷ʣ¸ߤ롥ʲϿޤϡ20ȾФλǤΥ󥰥ɤˤ she ΰ۷ʬۤǤ Upton and Widdowson, p. 80 Ͽޤ˴Ťƺˡ

Map of Variants of

Ѹ West Midlands ǤϡűѸ West-Saxon hēo б֤Ȥ ha ho ԤʤƤԤƬ /h/ æޤǷѾΤϿ޾Фɽ路 oo Ȥ֤Ǥ롥ŪˤϤäȤŤ֤ȤäƤ褤
ʬۤ er her /h/ æ֤ǡher ΤϽͭʷŪʷȤɸѸǤ⤪ʤߤǤ롥Ǥ er ʤȤ she ѤƤ뤳Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥ۤ˼гʷʷ֤ȤƤϡ[2011-06-17-1], [2009-10-24-1], [2009-10-25-1]ʤɤεǸ褦ˡyou ŵǤ롥гʤä you ʤ ye ֤ߡyou ϼʤŪʤ̤ǤʤФ꤫̤ǤʤѤ­Ƥ롥

Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.

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2011-06-28 Tue

#792. she --- Ǥ٤ι⤤츻Ծܤθ [personal_pronoun][she][etymology][pchron][homonymic_clash]

[2009-12-28-1]ε2000ǯαѸήԸޡפǸȤꡤAmerican Dialect Society 2000ǯΥɤ she ä12ȾФ˽ƱѸ˸졤2000ǯθˤơ줽ΤΤФǤʤ referent ¸ߴŪƤ¤ƧޤƤμޤαѸǤνФ The Peterborough Chronicle 1140ǯεϿʬǡscæ ȤֻǸ롥 scæ λؼоݤHenry I ̼Dz̷Ѿä Stephen Ȥꤢä˾ Matilda ǤΤȤ⤪⤷ Matilda ϸ©Ҥ Henry II Ȥƥ󥰥ɲ̤ˤĤ뤳Ȥ¾ Plantagenet īϻϤΩԤȤ⤤롤Ūˤפ scæ äȤˤʤ롥ս Earle and Plummer Ǥѡ

Þer efter com þe kynges dohter Henries þe hefde ben Emperice in Alamanie. 7 nu wæs cuntesse in Angou. 7 com to Lundene 7 te Lundenissce folc hire wolde tæcen. 7 scæ fleh 7 for les þar micel.


Ȥ she ȤϡѸˤǤͭ̾ʤȤˡ츻ԾܤǤ롥[2010-03-02-1]εָѸδܸ100εȳפ she ťΥɸ줫μѸȤƿ줿ΤϰĤˤʤѸäΤʤǤϺǤ٤ι⤤츻ԾܤθȤäƤ褤
ƤƤȤˡʣǤ롥ξܺ٤ϤҲ𤷤ȻפǤϤ󤬶ͭƤ뤳ȤŦƤűѸ3;νñ̾ hēo 䤽ΰ۷ϡѸޤǤ첻경űѸ3;ñ̾ 3;ʣ̾ hīe νȯãƱ֤ˤʤäƤޤäƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) ΰϤϡΤ褯ʬʤ she ޤ᤿ΰ۷3;νñ̾ΥåȤή¥3;ʣ̾ they μƤ⡤Ʊ۵ͤˤäƻư;̾κη̤ȤǤ롥
she εõ븦ϡΰ۷ʬۡǯ塤ŪħѤʤɤδϢμưƤĶإѥǤ롥hēo, hīe, sēo, sīo, hjō, sho, yo, ha, ho, ȝho, scæ, etc. 椫ʤɤΤ褦ˤ she 򤵤졤夷ƤΤѸ츻ؤκ1ĤǤ롥

Earle, John and Charles Plummer, eds. Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel with Supplementary Extracts from the Others. London: OUP, 1892. 2 vols.

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2011-06-27 Mon

#791. iambic pentameter Υ [meter][chaucer]

ԤαΧʬ (scansion) ϡ§ŬǽϤȤŪ󥹤ɬפȸ뤳Ȥ⤢̤ꡤǤϤʤʣ scansion ǽʡΤ׻Ԥ⾯ʤʤ˷礯Ȥ⤢롥äȤŵŪȤ褦ʻԤǤϤ줤˵§ƤϤޤΤΤǤꡤʤȤ⤳Τ褦ʾˤϵ§μ롥
Chaucer iambic pentameter ˡscansion μºݤ­궵Ƥ붵ܤ Glowka 롥Glowka ˽iambic Ԥ scansion μޤ¤٤ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥

(1) ӱ˶򿶤
(2) ¿ˤĤƶ򲾤ᡤζޤ iamb
- ǤƬǤʤ¤1˶뤳ȤǰƬ
(3) ¾λӤ餫 iamb ȤʤΤ򸫤Ĥ
- μʱ¦ˤ֤Ȥ Nuclear Stress Rule ǰƬ
- ʣ1ǡʺ¦ˤ֤Ȥ Compound Stress Rule ǰƬ
(4) ̵ e ν
- ³첻ݤ߹ޤæ elision βǽǰƬ
- ήʤɤݤ߹ޤæ syncopation βǽǰƬ
(5) ¾ιθ
- ä13Ӥ trochaic substitution βǽǰƬ ([2011-06-25-1])
- ̵᤬Ϣ³Ƹ anapest βǽǰƬ
- 1礯 headless line βǽǰƬ

äȤŵŪʻԤǤϡ(1), (2), (3) μǤ褽 scansion λ롥嵭ŪʼǤϰ̣ȻפΤǡGlowka (31--35) Dz⤵Ƥ̤ˡGP (ll. 19--20) couplet 򥹥󤷤Ƥߤ롥

(1) ӱ˶򿶤

	                               /
	Befil that in that seson on a day,
	
	                                 /
	In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay


(2) ¿ˤĤƶ򲾤ᡤζޤ iamb
	 x / |       |  x   /|         /
	Befil that in that seson on a day,
	
	x   /  |        | x  /|          /
	In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay


(3) ¾λӤ餫 iamb ȤʤΤ򸫤Ĥ
	 x / |  x  / |  x   /|x  / |x  /
	Befil that in that seson on a day,
	
	x   /  | x   /  | x  /|x   / |x  /
	In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay


Glowka, Arthur Wayne. A Guide to Chaucer's Meter. Lanham, Md.: UP of America, 1991.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-27-1]

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2011-06-26 Sun

#790. Ѹˤư޸ʬ [me_dialect][inflection][suffix][participle][lalme][map][3pp][3sp]

ѸħŤǤϿ¿뤬ʤΤ1Ĥ˸ʬ롥Ѹ -ing 礭ʬ -ing, -ande, -ende, -inde 4बꡤ줾ħŪʬۤ򼨤ʲϡLALME Dot Map 345--51 򻲾Ȥơ褽ʬۤƸΤǤ롥

Map of Present Participle Suffix in ME Dialects

-ing ϤǤ England ʬۤƤꡤħȸƤ֤ΤϤդ路ʤ⤷ʤΰ۷֤ȤƸ -nd(e) 첻ʬκ褯̤롥-ande ʬۤ Northern East Midlands ˤƤϰʤĤƤ Danelaw ˤ˰פ롥-ende East Midlands -inde South-West Midlands ˽椹롥ɥնʣΰ۷֤ѻΤϡϤޤ˽ζǤ뤳Ȥ򼨤Ƥ롥
ʬ¾ˤϡľˡ3;ñ߸ľˡʣ߸ħ褯ɽ魯ΤȤΤƤ롥2ܤʬۤϻǰʤľ LALME Dot Map ˤͿƤʤ޼ŪǤϤ뤬Burrow and Turville-Petre (31--32) εҤ򻲹ͤˡϿ޲Ƥߤ

Map of Present Indicative 3rd Person Singular Suffix in ME Dialects

Map of Present Indicative Plural Suffix in ME Dialects


3Ĥư޸ܤǤ⡤١ѸιʤߤǤ

McIntosh, Angus, M. L. Samuels, and M. Benskin. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986.
Burrow, J. A. and Thorlac Turville-Petre, eds. A Book of Middle English. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005.

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2011-06-25 Sat

#789. Chaucer trochaic substitution [chaucer][meter]

ѸαʸŵȤС13Ⱦ˻Ϥޤ The Poema Morale The Owl and the Nightingale ʤɤ iambic tetrameter 䡤Chaucer ɽ iambic pentameter 󤲤롥η ( iamb ) ζؤħȤ뤬ޤ˵§嶯ʤη֤ñĴ򾷤ˡˤε§ˤ ( trochee ) θ뤳Ȥ롥 trochaic substitution ȸƤФ졤ѸǤʤ
㤨С Chaucer λ (GP 105) Ǥϡ1Ӥ trochaic substitution Ƥ롥

An Example of Trochaic Substitution in Chaucer


trochaic substitution ˤֶפȤ3Ҥ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬3ҼΤϸѸǤ̤ΤȤäOrmulum ʤɤᤤʳǤѸˤǧ롥ޤꥢʤΦλǤ2Ҥ3Ҥη֤η졤Ѹ3Ҥʷʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ԤΤɤΰ֡ʻӡˤ substitution 䤹Ĵ椬롥ʲϡLi (1995) οͤ˴Ť Minkova (191) 󼨤Ƥ롤Chaucer αʸѥΤˤ substitution ΨǤ롥

Trochaic Substitutions in Chaucer


̤˻ԤƬǼͳ٤⤯Ǽͳ٤㤤ͻ̤ʤΤϡӱ֤ǤꡤӱôɬȼʤФʤʤȤ󤬤뤿Ǥ롥ǡƬϵڤ˻Ϥ뤿ˡͻ̤䤹CT ǤȤ櫓 substitution Ψ⤤ΤϡƱʤˤΤ˭٤򼨤Ƥ褦˻פ
Minkova (191) ꡤƻӤ substitution 󤲤褦

- Redy to wenden on my pilgrimage (GP 21)
- Of his offryng and eek of his substaunce. (GP 489)
- Ful semely after hir mete she raughte. (GP 136)
- The smylere with the knyf under the cloke (KnT 1999)


Minkova, Donka. "The Forms of Verse" A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 176--95.
Li, Xingzhong. "Chaucer's Metres." Diss. U of Missouri, Columbia. 1995.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-06-27-1]

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2011-06-24 Fri

#788. half an hour [syllable][pronunciation][prosody]

30ʬפ half an hour ɽ뤬äƸƻǽĶǤ a (good) half hour ȤѤ롥˿̷ƻ줬֤ϡ¾ˤ all the boys, both the books, many a time ʤɤ궦̤Ūħ򼨤Ƥ롥ŪħظˤϡΧŪװƯƤ褦˻פ롥嵭Τ⡤θ뤳ȤǶ ( trochee ) ȤʤꡤѸΰŪʥꥺˤ褯Ŭ礹롥Τ褦˸ꡤ̣ŪɬפΤʤʤɤ̵β뤳ȤˤäƱΧȤϡѸǤϾʤʤ
Bolinger (151--53) ϱΧԹˤä줦عʸڥʤʸޤˤǷǤƤ롥¦걤ΧŪɽǤ롥

an aloof person    vs.    an aloof kind of person
It's a compact book.    vs.    It's a compact little book.
a half hour    vs.    half an hour
without doubt    vs.    without a doubt
mother mine    vs.    pal o' mine
Outside these I have no preference.    vs.    Outside of these I have no preference.
Beware the Ides of March    vs.    Beware of Brutus
a little bread    vs.    a bit of bread
a dozen eggs    vs.    a gross of eggs
a morsel bread    vs.    a piece of bread
I dare not tell her.    vs.    We dare to judge.
He dared adventure himself.    vs.    The players dared to satirise.
the lessons these things have taught us    vs.    the lessons these things have taught to all of us
He's gone fishing.    vs.    He's gone a-fishing.
Why did you have to go tell her?    vs.    Why did you have to go and tell her?
Who was it that told you?    vs.    Who was it told you?
a quite long report    vs.    quite a long report
*very a long report    vs.    a very long report
*a so pretty girl    vs.    so pretty a girl
so pretty a girl    vs.    such a pretty girl
*a that pretty girl    vs.    that pretty a girl
*a too remote place    vs.    too remote a place
*an enough good reason    vs.    a good enough reason
a good enough reason    vs.    a reason good enough


[2011-04-09-1]εΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2)פ[2011-06-12-1]εֲʬƻ -ed ᲽפʤɤǤ⿨줿褦ˡΧ¿ξ硤ѶŪ˸ѹ¥װȤϡ̤װˤäưƤŪѲ¿ʤȤ⹳Ȥ⤹оäƤǽΤŪʸݻװȤƺѤƤȹͤ롥Χˤϡ㳰¿ֵ§פȸƤ֤ˤϼ夹뤬餯Ѹ˸¤餺Ū˺ѤƤȹͤۤɤ˱ϰϤַװʾϤͭƤΤǤϤʤ
a Jàpanese stúdent ʤɤˤ붯 back shifting 䡤Amelia's love makes the burning sand grow green beneath him and the stunted shrubs to blossom. ˤǸɸ to ʤɡΧδؤܤϿ¿

Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-12-28-1]

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2011-06-23 Thu

#787. Frisian [frisian][germanic][map][phonetics][palatalisation]

[2009-06-17-1]ε֥ɥ衼åѸ²ηޤͷӤǡפ˷Ǥޤ䡤[2009-05-08-1]ε֥ȸGothicˤȱѸˡפ˷Ǥޥɤηޤʬ褦ˡŪ˱Ѹ˺Ǥᤤեꥸ (Frisian) Ǥ롥̤ˤϤۤȤǧΤƤʤθ줬Ūʸ줿Ѹ˺ǤᤤȸƤԥʤȻפ롥Ϥ Frisian ȤˤĤƳ⤹롥
Frisian ϡProto-Indo European -> Germanic -> West Germanic -> Low Germanic -> Anglo-Frisian ȤȯãϩѸȶͭƤ롥Ǹ Anglo-Frisian ȤʬϡҤ뤤ĤβħξǶͭƤ뤳Ȥ˴Ťʬꤹ븫⤢롥ξˤϡOld Frisian Old English Low Germanic ľ˥եåȤ˰֤Ť뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ߤ Frisian ʬۤϿ޾dzǧ褽ĤǰϤäʬ Frisian ιԤʤƤϰǤ롥ʥʬξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡEthnologue θʬϿ⻲ȡ

Distribution of Frisian Languages

Ethnologue: Frisian in Family Tree ˤȤꡤFrisian Ū3Ĥؤȶʬ롥֤뤤κۤϤޤޤǡ򤬲ǽǤʤȤ¿3ΤʤǼפ Western Frisian Ǥ롥Ethnologue: Western Frisian Ƥ2001ǯĴˤȡ̳פ Friesland ޤˤ濴Ȥ47ͤüԤ¸ߤ롥Ʊο͸70% Western Frisian äۤȤɤȤѼԤǤ롥20 "Frisian movement" ˤ West Frisian θŪϰ̤Ͼ徺ƤƤꡤθѸ1ĤȤƤοưϿʤǤƤ롥
Friesland ˹ɥĤαϰ褫ǥޡˤƹԤʤƤΤFrisian ̤νǤ롥ɥĤ Saterland 5000٤ä Saterfriesisch ˤ䡤ɥĤ Schleswig-Holstein α礦1٤üԤˤäƻѤƤ Northern Frisian ̤ˤʤǤˡƱɥĤ Ostfriesland, Lower Saxony ʤɤ2000٤üԤͭ Eastern Frisian ȸƤФ줬뤬̾Τʶ路Ȥˡ̩ˤ Frisian 1ѼȤ Low German 1ѼȤۤŬڤȤ롥
Frisian κǸŤʸϡʬŪ11̤ˡΧʸǡ13μܤǸ¸Ƥ롥ɽ蘆Ƥ Old Frisian ʳ16Ⱦޤ³1573ǯΤΤȤʸǸˡʹ3δ Frisian ǻĤ줿ʸϤۤȤɤߤĤäƤʤ19ˤʤȡRomanticism ˤ̱²ȤƤ Frisian ܤ졤1938ǯ Frisian Academy Ω졤1943ǯˤǤ줿 Frisian ưϾˤҤ٤Ȥꡤ˥ȤȤˤäƻٻƤ Western Frisian ˤäǤꡤʳνˤɸʤ˺¸³βǽȹͤƤ롥
Frisian ȱѸ˶̤벻ħȤƤϡ(1) Germanic *f, *þ, *s Ԥɡξü ( ex. OFr fīf "five" ( < Germanic *fimf ), OFr mūth "mouth" ( < Germanic *munþ- ), OFr ūs "us" ( < Germanic *uns ) ) 䡤(2) 첻Ԥ Germanic *g θ ( ex. OFr tzin "chin" ( < Germanic *kinn ), OFr lētza "leech, physician" ( < Germanic *lēkj- ) ) ʤɤ롥

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2011-06-22 Wed

#786. ܸܸ [clitic][affix][morphology][terminology]

εǡwilly-nilly θΤˡŪʸ (enclitic) Ūʸ (proclitic) ȤѸƳϡˤĤƤ⤦⤹롥
ܸ (clitic) Ȥϡϸʼͳǡˤܤ˰¸ƶ򼺤ФвæȼܼŪʷؤȤϥꥷʸˡѸ¾Ӥ֤ؤΤˤѤ롥ܸľθ˴ܸǤꡤʲΤ褦˸ѸθɽǤˤˤߤ롥

I'm, you're, it's, she'll, we've, they'd, don't, wanna, He is a tough'un., That's more'n I know.


嵭Τ褦ˡ;̾δؤ㤬¿ܸ̾줬ղäϾʤMy mother's late. Peter'd been there. ʤɤ㤬ߤ롥
ܸľθ˴ܸǡѸŪʤʲΤ褦ɽˤߤ롥

How d'ye do? ([2011-06-17-1]), 'Tis fine today., Go an' see it.


ǽ2㤬ɽǤ뤳Ȥ¬뤫⤷ʤŪˤϸܤβϾʤʤä㤨СŪη̤ȤƤܸˤϡo'clock ( < "of the clock" ), alive ( < "on live" ), willy-nilly ε ǾҲ𤷤 nill nam ʤɤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2011-10-20-1]

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2011-06-21 Tue

#785. ޥ٤¬뤿10 [typology][germanic][inflection][morphology]

[2009-11-04-1]εָűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫פǡޥΡ֥ޥ١פӤ򸫤ӤδϡȤƷŪʴ Lass ӽФ10Ĥιܤˤ롥10ܤޥ٤λɸȤƤɤΤ餤ҴŪʤΤɤΤ褦ӽФ줿ΤʤɤϤ뤬ӸԤʤݤΤȤƤ˻ͤˤʤ롥Lass (26) ꡤ10ܤ󤲤Ƥ

(1) root-initial accent
(2) at least three distinct vowel qualities in weak inflectional syllables
(3) a dual
(4) grammatical gender
(5) four vowel-grades in (certain) strong verbs
(6) distinct dative in at least some nouns
(7) inflected definite article (or proto-article)
(8) adjective inflection
(9) infinitive suffix
(10) person and number marking on the verb

δϡޥɤӤ˸¤餺㤨ѸɤӡˤѸθġΥƥȤθӤˤѤǤ롥ºݤΤȤ¿ѸƥȤδܤΥȥˤ褦ʸŪҤϡ嵭10ܤΤ٤ƤǤʤȤܤ夲Τ̤Ǥ롥
ѸƥȤӤ˸¤ΤǤСĿŪˤ "nominal plural formation" äȤǤ롥

Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 7--41.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-04-30-1] [2015-06-14-1]

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2011-06-20 Mon

#784. ˸ؤ abductive discipline [abduction][language_change][abduction]

[2011-04-24-1]εָ츻ؤμΧפǿ줿 abductionʲˤȤϡ츻ؤФǤʤ˸ΤƤϤޤ롥ѲΡ֤ʤפФ˸ؼԤ٤ϡȤ櫓 abductive ˤʤ餶򤨤ʤ¿ξ硤βϤ餯ʣŪǤ롥٤Ƥװ夹뤳ȤϤǤʤװ֤δطװνŤߤ餫ˤ뤳Ȥ⤷ФкǤ롥Ǥ⡤ƺǽפȻפ뤤ĤװФ˾ơŪߤΤ˸ؤܤǤ롥
ʲΰ񤤤Ȥ롥

It is to be admitted that any answers to the "how" and "why" will only be plausible or provisional because historical linguistics is an abductive discipline (Andersen; Anttila 196--98, 285--86). This means that the suggested description and explanation of the language change is a reasoned inference made with reference to universals such as human experience, human nature, and culture, and to observed facts. The number of possible inferences made in this way is theoretically infinite, and therefore the best that historical linguists can offer is a subset of the theoretically possible descriptions and explanations. Being methodologically abductive, historical linguistics is different from natural science; it is no less tempting, however, to make such inferences in historical linguistics since it allows for different interpretations for a phenomenon. (Hotta 3)


⤽⤹٤ƤθѲ˸ͳΤȤФθͳΥ٥ŪҲŪ¾˸ؤȤơɤޤ餫ˤǤΤ䤤ΤΤȤƤꡤʤѲθͳä͡Ф뤳ȡabductive ˵ʤ뤳Ȥˤ˴ؤʬ̥ϤǤ롥˸ؤȯŸϡ (deduction) ǤⵢǼ (induction) ǤʤŪǤʤȤƤ abduction ˤäƤ롥ơabduction οηϰʲ̤ƿ, p. 54ˡ

ä٤£äѻ롤
⤷ȤǤСäλǤ
äơȤǤȹͤ٤ͳ롥


Andersen, Henning. "Abductive and deductive change." Language 49 (1873): 765-93.
Anttila, Raimo. Historical and Comparative Linguistics. Rev. ed. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1989.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
ƿ ͵ إ֥󡡲ȯ١Ҧ˼2009ǯ

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2011-06-19 Sun

#783. home ̾Ūгʤ [adverbial_accusative][case][adverb]

Ѹ̾ˤŪŪʤȤˡ롥ŪʤŪгʤؤΤǡˡŪг (adverbial accusative) ȤƤФ롥̾ʶˤʶˤȤѤŪŪʤλˤȤޤʤŵŪ򾯿󤲤ȰʲΤ褦ʤΤֻŪŪʤˤƤ̾ʶˡˡ

- It's fine today.
- Come this way.
- They walked ten miles.
- We are united to each other heart and soul.
- What the hell is all this?


ѸΤ褦Ū˻ȤƤ go home ⵯ򤿤ɤ̾ home ŪʤˤʤűѸ hām Ѳ̾ǤꡤñʤñгʤƱΤ˷־϶̤ĤʤAnd hiȝ cyrdon ealle ham "And they all returned home" ʤɤˤơ餫򼨤гʤȤѤƤ롥
Τ褦 home ȤƲᤵ졤ˤϡֲȤءʵˡפȤΰֲ̣ȤˡʤˡפȤ֤ΰ̣ؤȳ礷ƤäˡܵϤءǼޤ٤ءפ֤ͤäءޤȤˡפΰ̣drive a nail home The spear struck home to the lion's heart. ʤɤɽ߽Ф줿 bring sth home to sb come home to sb ˤڤˡפδްդ⤳αĹˤ롥

- It suddenly came home to him that he was never going to see Julie again.
- The sight of his pale face brought home to me how ill he really was.


˵󤲤ܤ came home to him ʬϤȡǤ home Ȥơ¾Ǥ to him ֻȤƤ줾 came 򽤾ȤƲ򤵤뤫⤷ʤΰ̣ home Ūʰ̣ˡθȡष to him home Ȥ̾ͿʤȤơʤˤȤäơˤΡΡ˳˿פۤɤΰդǤäƤ椭home ɽ魯ŪгʤȤ came ˤäƤ椯Ȳ᤹ۤɽ魯̣򤷤䤹

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2011-06-18 Sat

#782. willy-nilly [etymology][affix][morphology]

willy-nilly ϡֹԤФäˡʤΡˡ䤪ʤˡʤΡˡפ̣ǡʤǵӱƧϤΤ褤ɽǤ롥will I [he, ye] nill I [he, ye] Ȥɽ١ˤʤäƤꡤջ֤ɽ魯ư will Ȥ nill ( < ne + will ) 򤽤줾֤̾ɽǤ롥OED ˤȽФ1608ǯǡʸ󤲤Ƥ롥

Thou shalt trust me spite of thy teeth, furnish me with some money wille nille.


ѸǤ ne ư֤ΤήǤꡤФưȰΤˤʤäȯ뤳Ȥ¿ä nill ( ne + will ) Ϥ nam ( ne + am ), nas ( ne + was ) ʤɤ㤬ꡤŪ (proclitic) ne ȤѸʹߤȯãˡư˸֤ notƤû̷Ǥ n'tŪ (enclitic) 꼭ȸ졤isn't, haven't, won't ( < wonnot < wol not ) ʤɡѸǤʤߤǤ롥
will ȤƤ won't εˤĤƤ[2009-07-25-1]εone ȯ¤äȯפǼ夲17˱Ѹ˸줿⤷θŪ nill ᤤʳǿŪ won't ִƤΤǤСɸɽ willy-nilly ǤϤʤ*willy-wonty ʤȤɤʤäƤ⤷ʤ䡤euphony Ȥ餹ФϤ willy-nilly ΤۤϤ褤顤ˤ褳ɽ򤵤夷ƤȹͤΤ⤷ʤ
̾ɽ魯 y Ϥ켫ΤȤܤƤΤǡnilly ʬ will 濴ȤƸܼ n- ܼ -y Ʊղä줿ʣʸɽ路Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ѸȤƤϲʤɽʬϤ򤹤 will-y-n-ill-y ȼ¤5ĤηǤʤäƤ롥Ū (synthetic) 񤤤Ķۤ¿Ū (polysynthetic) ʿ񤤤ȸäƤ٤֡¿ŪפȤѸˤĤƤϡ[2010-10-01-1]εַˤ෿פ򻲾ȡ

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2011-06-17 Fri

#781. How d'ye do? [personal_pronoun]

űѸѸˤ2;̾˿ζ̤¸ߤѸǼСñ thouʣ ye Ǥ롥ye you 褽줾ʤгʡͿʤɽ路Ѹʹߡߤ˺Ʊ2;̾˴Ϣϡ[2009-10-11-1], [2009-10-24-1], [2009-10-25-1], [2009-10-29-1], [2010-02-12-1], [2010-03-26-1], [2010-07-11-1], [2010-10-08-1], [2011-03-01-1]򻲾ȡ
thou ye ϸߤǤϡԸդ뤤ϡդüʸ̮䴷ɽѤ뤳Ȥ롥Ǥ ye ˤĤƸƤߤ褦θ϶Ǥ /ˈjiː/, Ǥ /ji/ ȯ졤Ȥ <ee> Τ褦֤뤳Ȥ⤢롥ߤǤϡΤ褦ɽѤ뤳Ȥ롥

Abandon hope, all ye who enter here. ( Dante, The Divine Comedy )
Do ye not know me? ֻ¸ʤΤǤ
Hark ye. ʹ
Hear ye, hear ye! ̱֡˸äơʹʹ
How d'ye do? ֽޤơ
I tell ye. ֤ޤ˸äƤ
Look ye. ָ
Thank ye. ֤꤬Ȥ
What d'ye think? ֤ɤפ
Ye are the salt of the earth. Ϥαʤ ( Matt. 5:13
Ye gods! ֤Ϥ
Ye hills and brooks


How d'ye do? ʤɤμȤƤ ye you μȲ򤵤뤳Ȥ뤬ĤƤ2;̾ʷɾΡ ye ŪŪĤȹͤ٤Ǥ롥
Ʊֻ괧 the ɽ魯⤦1Ĥ ye ˤĤƤϡ[2009-05-11-2]εֱѹΥѥ֤ ye äƤ椷פ򻲾ȡ

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2011-06-16 Thu

#780. ٥ꥢ meat [semantic_change][proverb]

εCornish Manx ([2011-06-15-1]) Cornish pasty ˷ڤڤLDOCE5 ˤ "a folded piece of pastry, baked with meat and potatoes in it, for one person to eat" 礭 D Υ˥å塦ѥϡѹϤΤȲƤǹƤꡤ Cornwall μ׻Ȥ1ĤȤʤäƤ롥ɥʤɤγѤǤ Cornish pasty shop Ϥ褯ܤˤ롥
Υѥ Cornwall ȤηӤĤͳ꤫ǤϤʤ褦1718 Cornwall ΥפμڤȤȯŸƤΤȤ롥ܥ塼बꡤˤǿ٤Τ̥ϤäΤǤϤʤʥܥ塼बꤹƥӡΤˤȤĤ˿٤Ȱߤ⤿Τաˡܤߤȼ̿ Wikipedia: Pasty 򻲾ȡ
ѥˤ͡ʼब뤬ä˥ꥹޥ˿ mince pie Ȥѥ롥LDOCE5 ˤ "a pie filled with mincemeat, especially one that people eat at Christmas" Ȥ롥ŤۻҥѥǡGoogle Ǽ̿ߤСΤȤȻפΤǤϤʤ
mince pie εͤʪΤȤ mincemeat Ȥmincemeat CALD3 Ǥߤȡ"a sweet, spicy mixture of small pieces of apple, dried fruit and nuts, (but not meat), which is often eaten at Christmas in mince pies" Ȥ롥 mincemeat ˤϰճʤȤäƤ餺ͤʪˤ mince pie ٥ꥢ󿩤Ǥ뤳Ȥʬ롥
meat ΰ̣Ọ̇̄ѲˤĤΤäƤСԻ׵ĤʤȤǤϤʤmeat ϸűѸǤϡֿʪפΰդǤꡤפΰդ˸ꤵƤΤ13ʹߤΤȤǤ롥Ǥϰ̣ü첽 ( specialisation ) Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤʰ̣ü첽¾ϡ[2009-09-01-1], [2010-08-13-1], [2010-12-14-1], [2010-12-15-1], [2011-02-15-1]ε򻲾ȡˡ
The Authorized Version of the Bible Ǥ meat ϡֿʪפΰդǤѤƤʤСѸǤϾ嵭 mincemeat 䲼ξδɽ˸ŤǧΤߤǤ롥

- before [after] meat ֿοϤˡ
- green meat ʪ
- meat and drink ְʪ cf. meat and drink to sb ?ˤȤäƲγڤߡ
- One man's meat is another man's poison. ֹäϲǡʡͤιߤϤޤޡˡ
- sit down to meat ֿˤĤ
- sweetmeat ֺۻҡ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-08-22-1] [2014-09-02-1]

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2011-06-15 Wed

#779. Cornish Manx [cornish][manx][celtic][language_death][metathesis][map][book_of_common_prayer]

[2011-06-10-1], [2011-06-14-1]εǥȽꤢϡȽΤʤǻ¾λȤʤäƤ륳󥦥 (Cornish) ȥޥ (Manx) Ҳ𤹤롥
Cornish ϡߡȥѥΰ Cornish pasty ǤΤƤ륤󥰥ɤκ Cornwall äƤ Brythonic (P-Celtic) ϤθǤ롥Cornish θŤʸ¿ϸ¸Ƥʤ14ȾΤΤȤ8000ԤĶ뱤ʸĤäƤ롥16פλ Cornish οȱѸοƩϤޤꡤ1777ǯˡϿƤǸü Dolly Pentreath ˴ʤäȤǻȤʤä[2011-06-10-1]ΥȸɤηޤǼȤꡤߥե󥹤Υ֥륿˥äƤ֥ȥ (Breton) ȺǤᤤǤ롥
"revived Cornish", "pseudo-Cornish", "Cornic" ȤΤ褷 Cornish Ǥʹ롥 ϡ20˥󥦥ζڰͭ͡ Cornish ͰŪ褵ΤǡºŪʸǤϤʤħŪʸȤ٤ʸˡ伭ȯԤƤꡤǤ Breton Welsh ǸäʤɤλߤʤƤ롥Price ɾϼ긷McArthur 265 ¹ˡ

It is rather as if one were to attempt in our present state of knowledge to create a form of spoken English on the basis of the fifteenth-century York mystery plays and very little else.


Ethnologue: Cornish ˤС2003ǯοפǿɴͤüԤȤ뤬Ǥ Cornish Ϥ "revived Cornish" ؤƤ롥
ˡManx ϥå峤 (the Irish Sea) ⤫֥ޥ (the Isle of Man) äƤ Goidelic (Q-Celtic) ϤθǤ롥ǸŤʸϡ1610ǯε (The Book of Common Prayer) Ǥ롥Manx 4˥ɤΰܽԤˤäƻޤ줿ȹͤ졤10--13ˤϥ󥰤θ Old Norse ˤä˸Ū˱ƶ18ޤǤϥޥμפʸäʹߤϱѸοƩʤǸü Ned Mandrell 1974ǯ˴ʤꡤߤǤ1ȤƤϻȤʤäƤ롥Cornish ξƱ褦ˡManx οͰŪ¸αĤߤϤʤƤ뤬ħŪʰ̣礤ĶΤǤϤʤ
̾ϡ֥ޥθפ̣ ON manskr ME Manisk(e) ȤäΤǡθҲž ( metathesis ) 򵯤 Manx ȤʤäEthnologue: Manx 򻲾ȡ

Map of Cornwall and the Isle of Man

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Price, Glanville. The Languages of Britain. London: Arnold, 1984.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.

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2011-06-14 Tue

#778. P-Celtic Q-Celtic [celtic][indo-european][family_tree][phonetics][assimilation]

[2011-06-10-1]ε֥ȸʬۡפǥȽʬϿޤȷޤ򼨤ηޤǤϾܺ٤ʶʬѤƤ[2009-06-17-1]ΰޤ˼ƤŪʶʬˤСꥹ濴Ȥ륱Ƚ礭 Brythonic Goidelic 췲Ȥʬʲ޻ȡˡ

Family Tree of Celtic Languages, Traditional Version

Brythonic 췲 Goidelic 췲ϡ줾̾ P-Celtic Q-Celtic ȤƤФ롥ζʬϡĸ *kw ԤǤ /p/ ȯŸԤǤϤΤޤ޼Ѥ줿ʤ߿ /k/ ȯŸ˻¤˴Ť/kw/ /p/ ؤѲϰ츫˻פ뤬ĴŪˤ /w/ α߿չƱĺ /k/ ˺Ѥξĺ /p/ ص夷롥
̵ͭȤΰ㤤Ϥ뤬ƱβѲϰ²¾θɤǤƤ롥㤨Сĸǡֵפɽ魯 *gwōus θƬҲϥޥɤؤ /k/ ȤꡤѸ cow, ɥĸ Kuh ʤɤ˻ĤäƤ뤬¾θɤǤξ /b/ ؤѲθ̤ϥƥ bōs, ꥷ boûs ʤɤ˳ǧ롥ե󥹸ƥ줫ѸؼѤ줿 beef bovine ϡŪ cow ƱǤ롥ʡرѸ츻ŵ(pp. 1666--67) Ρֿθ츻ȸθ츻פ򻲾ȡ
P-Celtic ɽ Welsh Q-Celtic ɽ Irish Ʊ ( cognate ) ǸӤƤߤ褦ʲɽϡPrice (17) ˴Ť Fennell (30) ޤȤ᤿ӤƸΤǤ롥

Welsh (Brythonic = P-Celtic)Irish (Goidelic = Q-Celtic)meaning
pwy"who"
pedwarceathair"four"
penceann"head"
pairċoire"cauldron"
prydcruth"appearance"


Ƚθ¸ǤŤʸϡWelsh Breton gloss ǡ800ǯ鸽롥12ʹߤϡä Welsh ʸؤλ˭٤äƤ롥

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Price, Glanville. The Languages of Britain. London: Arnold, 1984.
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ

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2011-06-13 Mon

#777. Ѹάǯɽ [timeline][history][historiography]

Ѹǯɽϡɤγˤ⵭ܤ뤷饤Ǥ⸫Ĥ㤨ѸǯɽˡűѸˤܥ֥ȤƤǤƤ椳ȹͤƤ롥ȤơCrystal (298--300) άǯɽƸΤǤƤ¾ľܴܤ˱Ѹˤ˴Ϣǯɽ timeline 򻲾ȡ

449   Invasion by Angles, Saxons, and Jutes
450--480   Earliest runic inscriptions in Old English
597   Augustine brings Christianity to Kent
680   Approximate earliest date for the composition of Beowulf
700   Approximate dating of earliest Old English manuscripts
735   Death of the Venerable Bede
787   Viking raids begin
871   Alfred becomes King of Wessex
886   Danelaw boundaries settled
950--1000   Approximate dates of the main Old English poetry collections
1016--1042   Cnut and his sons reign
1066   Norman Conquest
1150--1200   Earliest texts in Middle English
1171   Henry II's invasion of Ireland
1204   France reconquers Normandy
1250--1300   Edward I's campaigns against the Welsh and Scots
1362   English first used at the opening of Parliament
1375--1400   Chaucer's main works written
1384   Wyclif's translation of the Bible
1400--1450   The Great Vowel Shift
1400--1600   Main period of older Scots literature
1476   Introduction of printing
1475--1650   Renaissance loan words into English
1549   Book of Common Prayer written
1560--1620   English plantation settlements in Ireland
1584   Roanoke settlement in America
1590--1616   Shakespeare's main works written
1600   East India Company established trading posts in India
1603   Act of Union of the crowns of England and Scotland
1604   Publication of Robert Cawdrey's A Table Alphabeticall
1607   First permanent English settlement in America
1609   First English settlement in the Caribbean
1611   Authorized Version of the Bible
1619   Arrival of first African slaves in North America
1620   Arrival of the Pilgrim Fathers in America
1623   First Folio of Shakespeare's plays published
1627   British established in Barbados
1655   British acquire Jamaica from Spain
1707   Union of the Parliaments of England and Scotland
1712   Jonathan Swift's proposal for an English Academy
1713   British control in eastern Canada recognized
1721   Publication of Nathaniel Bailey's Universal Etymological English Dictionary
1755   Publication of Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language
1762   Publication of Robert Lowth's Short Introduction to English Grammar
1765--1947   British Raj in India
1776   American independence declared
1780--1800   First wave of emigration to Canada from the USA
1783   Loss of American colonies of Britain
1788   Establishment of first penal colony in Australia
1791   Establishment of Upper and Lower Canada
1794   Publication of Lindley Murray's English Grammar
1800--1910   Main period of European emigration to the USA
1802   Ceylon and Trinidad ceded to Britain
1803   Act of Union between Britain and Ireland
1806   British control established in South Africa
1808   Sierra Leone made colony
1814   Tobago, Mauritius, St Lucia and Malta ceded to Britain
1816   Colony of Bathurst (Gambia) established
1819   British established Singapore
1828   Publication of Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language
1840   Official colony established in New Zealand
1842   Hong Kong ceded to Britain
1861   Lagos (Nigeria) established as colony
1865--1900   Movement of blacks to northern parts of the USA after the American Civil War
1867   Independence of Canada
1874   Gold Coast (Ghana) established as colony
1884--1928   Publication of the Oxford English Dictionary
1888--1894   British protectorates established in Kenya, Zanzibar, Uganda
1901   Independence of Australia
1907   Independence of New Zealand
1910   Union of South Africa established
1919   Tanganyika ceded to Britain
1922   Partition of Northern Ireland and Eire
1922   Establishment of the BBC
1925   Afrikaans given official status in South Africa
1931   British Commonwealth recognized
1947   Independence of India
1948   Independence of Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
1957   Independence of Ghana
1957--63   Independence of Malaysia
1960   Independence of Nigeria
1940--1975   Main period of immigration to Britain from Europe, Caribbean and Asia
1961   Independence of Sierra Leone and Cyprus
1962   Independence of Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda
1963   Independence of Kenya
1964   Independence of Tanzania, Malawi, Malta, Zambia
1965   Independence of The Gambia, Singapore
1966   Independence of Guyana, Botswana, Lesotho, Barbados
1968   Independence of Mauritius, Swaziland, Nauru
1970--1984   Independence of possessions in Caribbean and Pacific
1972   Independence of Bangladesh
1972   First network e-mail sent
1975   Independence of Papua New Guinea
1977   Voyager spacecraft leaves with English message
1984   Independence of Brunei
1986   Independence of Marshall Islands
1988   CD-ROM of the Oxford English Dictionary
1990   Independence of Namibia
1991   Independence of the Federated States of Micronesia
1991   Implementation of the World Wide Web
1994   Independence of Palau
2000   Oxford English Dictionary goes online


Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
߷ ˧ͺ 顡ԡرѸǯɽ?ѸˡѸػˡʸػˡ̻?١ҡ1993ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-06-12 Sun

#776. ʬƻ -ed [pde][phonetics][language_change]

[2011-01-30-1]εΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻפ[2011-04-09-1]εΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2)פǡaged, jagged ʤɤ2Ȥȯ¤ˤĤaged ˤĤƤ、̾ˤäɤ줬뤳Ȥ˸ڤaged ɽʬƻ -ed ȯɤϡ̻ŪѲ߿ʹǤ뤳Ȥ򼨺ƤΤȹͤ롥Ѳϡ̵ -ed ƤȤꡤᲽǤ롥Bolinger (148fn) ϡ-ed Ჽ1920ˤƿʹԤƤǤŪʲѲǤɾƤ롥

The reduction of -ed has been perhaps the most striking phonological change in English in the past century and a half. Poutsma (Part II, §2, p. 569) quotes Bradley to the effect that "Within the memory of living persons it was still usual in the reading of the Bible or the Liturgy to make two syllables of such words as loved or changed, which are now pronounced in one syllable." As a child I gave striped and streaked two syllables each. The disintegration continues; I have heard jagged pronounced as one syllable by a-twelve-year old.


޸ȤƤ -ed α̿Ჽˤ뤳ȤϡѸˤή줫餫Ǥ롥礭Ĭή˹ĬήȤơ2ݻΥꥺ餹ȤΧŪװ롥СξĬή礭Ĭή򤻤ߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤ⡤ʹԤ٤餻뤯餤ˤϺѤƤȹͤ롥κѤ˸³ãĤĤȤȤaged, beloved, naked, wicked ʤɤ٤Ū⤤ -ed ΩǤʤʤϱ󤯤ʤΤ⤷ʤ

Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.

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2011-06-11 Sat

#775. 첻ܤϡȯֻЪΥκθ [gvs][spelling_pronunciation_gap]

ѸȯֻбطŪ11礭æƤ¤ˤĤƤϡspelling_pronunciation_gap νˤƤξŪطʤˤĤƤ[2009-06-28-2]ε֤ʤ֤ȯЪΥƤ椯ΤפǽҤ٤Ȥ櫓 ( Great Vowel Shift; see [2009-11-18-1] ) ֻȯ԰פ⤿餷θǤȡ¿αѸ˳ǼĥƤ롥
μĥοΰ̣򤹤ˤϡ⤦ͤʤФʤʤȤΤϡ㤨 name ȯ /nɑːm/ /neɪm/ GVS ľܤνϤ /nɛːm/ ˤѲȤȼΤȯֻЪΥ߽ФȤϹͤʤ[2009-11-19-1], [2009-11-20-1], [2011-05-13-1]εʤɤǸ褦 GVS ˤ㳰ϤΤΡ§ȤƶΤĹ첻ФưΧƯǤȤСȯֻδطѲΧäϤǤ롥<a> /ɑː/ ؤб򼺤ä /eɪ/ ؤб櫓ǤꡤϰӤƤ<a> = /eɪ/ οطӤƼƤʾ塤ä԰פϤʤȤǤ롥GVS ȯֻЪΥ⤿餷θȤߤʤƤ褤Τ
Ǥ٤礫ɤ̤ȤơǤȹͤͳϤ롥ˡGVS Ĺ첻Τߤ˺ѤȤפɬפ롥û첻ɽ魯 <a> ֻ /a/ ʸˤ /æ/ ˤβбޤޤäѸνηϤľܤ첻ĹûɸΤǤϤʤΰ̣ǤϸűѸ <a> 1ʸʤȤĹû첻2бƤ櫓ǡǤۤ11δطƤŪˤ첻ĹûۤɤκǤСЪΥפȸƤ֤ۤɤοȤϤʤʤ줬Ĺ첻Τߤ˺Ѥ GVS ˤꡤѸǤ <a> û첻ȤƤ /æ/ ˡĹ첻ȤƤ /eɪ/ б뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäϤñʲĹûǤϤʤ<a> Ȥ1ʸΰۤʤ2б뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäΤǤ롥ΰ̣ǡGVS ϳΤˡָפȸƤ٤
ˡGVS ˤ <a> 첻Ȥ /eɪ/ б褦ˤʤȡ̤ /eɪ/ бֻʤȤ߹碌ˤȤδ֤νʣ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥aim say ʤɤ <ai> <ay> ϸѸǤŵŪ /eɪ/ ؤбֻ <a> ⻲ƤȤʤȡۤ11ɤǤϤʤǤ⡤GVS Ǥΰüǧ롥
GVS ȯֻЪΥθǤȤĥϷ̤ȤƤϼ뤬ľŪʸȤϡǵ褦ˤŪʸȤ٤

Referrer (Inside): [2016-03-24-1] [2015-12-30-1]

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2011-06-10 Fri

#774. ȸʬ [celtic][indo-european][family_tree][map]

[2011-04-12-1]εBritannica Online ǻȤǤϿޡפǾҲ𤷤²νɤʬϿޤǤϡȸɤΤΤ礱ƤõƤ⸫ʤäΤǡ (19) 򻲹ͤˡޤʥȸʬϿޤƤߤ

Distribution of Celtic Languages  *

ȸʬϿޤȸƤΤϡMan Manx Cornwall Cornish ϻ¾夹Ǥ˻ȤʤäƤ뤫Ǥ롥1ǯ˥衼åΦγϤʬۤƤȤ륱ȽϡǤϥ衼åѤնǤ the British Isles Brittany (see [2011-05-01-1]) Ǻ١¸³Ƥ롥
(148) 򻲾ȤȸɤηޤƤߤηޤϡ[2009-06-17-1]ǷǤޤΰʤȸɤοޡʽʬˡˤȤϼ㴳ۤʤ롥ϡǯθοŸȿǤ̤Ǥ롥

Family Tree of Celtic Languages

ꥹΥȽѤˤĤƤϡEthnologue Languages of Ireland Ͽޤ⻲ȡ

إȤο̮١̼ҡ2007ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2011-06-09 Thu

#773. PPCMBE COHA [corpus][coha][ppcmbe][lmode][adjective][comparison][inflection][representativeness]

ܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤夲Ƥ2Ĥ˱Ѹ쥳ѥ PPCMBE ( Penn Parsed Corpus of Modern British English; see [2010-03-03-1]. ) COHA ( Corpus of Historical American English; see [2010-09-19-1]. ) ˤĤơܻ᤬رѸ쥳ѥ٤κǿ˸ΡȤȯɽƤ롥ξԤȤ2010ǯ˸줿ѸΥѥ줾ѼǤ뤳ȡޤԻŪۤʤ뤳Ȥ٤ӤоݤˤŬʤɽϤȤ륳ѥΰŪħ٤뤳Ȥϰ̣
PPCMBE 1700--1914ǯΥꥹѸƥ949,000ǹƤꡤParsed Corpora of Historical English 1ʤƱͤ˹ʸϤ줿Ťб륳ѥȤ³ռǤ롥ͭǥǡꤹɬפ롥COHA 1810--2009ǯΥꥫѸƥ4Ͽ祳ѥǤ롥ϡʸϤϤƤʤCOHA ̵ǥ饤󥢥Ǥ뤿Ȥ䤹󥿡եꤵƤΤǽʥǡǤʤȤ롥
ѥεϤȤط뤬PPCMBE ɽ (representativeness) 񤬤롥PPCMBE ΥѥƥȤ18غ٤ʬषƥǯ10ǯߤǤȤȡȤʤޥܤ¿롥ϡʬ٤ͭյʬϷ̤ФʤȤȤǤꡤѤ˺ݤդפ롥
COHA ΥѥƥȤ Fiction, Popular Magazines, Newspapers, Non-Fiction Books 4绨Ĥ˶ʬƤ롥٤ʬθˤѤǤʤ10ǯߤǤƥޥܤŬڤʥΥƥȤۤƤꡤɽϤ褯ݤƤ롥Fiction ιΨɤλ50%ƤꡤFiction θħä˸áˤѥΤθħ˱ƶͿƤȹͤ졤ʬϤκݤˤϤդפ롥
ܻϡξѥΰʾħ򡤸Ѹˤƻӵ顦ǾˤäƼƤ롥CONCE (Corpus of Nineteenth-Century English) Ѥ Kytö and Romaine ԸˤС19δ֡ӵαФ޷γϡ30ǯߤƬ57.1%67.8%ؤäƤȤƱͤĴ COHA PPCMBE 10ǯߤ˻ܤȤԤǤ1810ǯ64.7%1910ǯ74.3%¤äƤ뤳ȤΤ줿ԤǤ1810ǯ79.4%1910ǯ78.0%ޤɤ줬㤷äȤܡp. 56ˡCONCEƱͤ30ǯߤʬϤľȡPPCMBE ǤͭդѲܴۤѻǤۤɤη̤ǤȤ
ѥϤ줾ȼħäƤ롥褯İѤɬפ뤳ȤǧϢơ[2010-06-04-1]εή˵դäƤӵˡפ򻲾ȡ

2ĤλŦѥ---ɽסرѸ쥳ѥ18桤Ѹ쥳ѥز2011ǯ49--59ǡ
Kytö, M. and S. Romaine. "Adjective Comparison in Nineteenth-Century English." Nineteenth-Century English: Stability and Change. Ed. M. Kytö, M. Rydén, and E. Smitterberg. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 194--214.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-08-15-1] [2015-09-29-1]

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2011-06-08 Wed

#772. Magna Carta [history][reestablishment_of_english][bl][retronym][magna_carta]

ѹʸˡʤ̳ΤMagna Carta ס1215ǯThe Great Charterˡס1628ǯThe Petition of Rightˡŵס1689ǯThe Bill of Rightsˤ3Ĥδˡŵ2Ĥ϶17λʪǽϤ13ȤʤᤤäȤϤˡŵȤƹ⤤ɾͿΤ17ΤȤǤꡤΡˤη굯פη̤Ȥ٤Ǥ롥Ǥ⡤13󥰥ɹˤ Magna Carta ᤰäƷ깭ƤȤϳΤǤ롥
̤ˤä John ϡ㲦 Henry II Richard I ͭƤե󥹤ιڤˤäƼä1204ǯΥΥޥǥӼä˼ˤ󥰥ɤΦ­ΰؤȲ󵢤ŪȤʤäʤνϡ2ˤ錄륤󥰥ɤǤΥե󥹸οȱѸδŪʷȤʤäƤꡤѸˤˤȤäƤ礭ˡθ John ϥե󥹲 Philip II åԤΤ襤ĩब1214ǯ̤֡襤Ԥʤ롥 Richard I ³ݤΤνǤ˶줷ǤˤȤäơJohn ⳰μѤ񤤤ΤȤʤꡤĤ1215ǯ²ΰ John 緯Ȥߤʤʤݤ롥ϤʤͤΩƤʬҤä礤ʸƥǽ񤫤줿ζʸϡƥॺ Runnymede 𸶤ˤ1215ǯ615Ĵȯۤ줿
ֽ׵ (The Articles of the Barons) ȸƤФ줿ζƤ63򤫤ʤ뻨¿׵ǤꡤŪϴʤJohn ؤζŪľŪ׵ܤǤꡤ򤵤줿褦ΩäȤտޤϤʤääơḽϤι⤤ɾϤ̣DzǤŪǤ⤢ΤʸˤäCԤ¤ä褦Ȥȡ䴷Ĵ줿ȤŪյ礭
John ϤζʸĴϤʤ餹տޤϤʤľ˥޶ Innocent III ̵ȤƤޤä1216ǯˤ John »षᡤ²ϷѤ Henry III ΤȤǶʸǺȯԤ1217ǯ1225ǯˤ⽤ǤȯԤ졤ʹߡ1225ǯǤӤӳǧƤ椯Ȥˤʤ롥ä1297ǯ Edward I ˤǧϽפǡMagna Carta ˡϿ˼뤳ȤˤʤäʸȽ̤Ƹξ礭̤ȤȤϡ¤Ϥʤ17˺ѤʥƤӳФޤ졤ʰյդ줿ȤȤǤ롥
ơѸ The Great CharterܸϡפϤ줾ƥ Magna Carta ǡˤʸ餷 MagnaGreat ϡ衤ȤƤΰ礵ɽ魯ΤǤϤʤŪ礭򵭽Ҥƻˤʤä1217ǯνǤǡӤ˴ؤबڤΥΩָӷϡ (The Charter of the Forest) Ȥ줿ΤǡĤʬϡפȤ̾ΤǸƤФ뤳ȤˤʤäˤʤǤϡ[2011-05-01-1]εpanda BritainפǻŦ giant panda Great Britain ȤޤäƱǤ롥
Magna Carta ˤĤƤϡThe British Library Treasures in Full: Magna Carta ܤMagna Carta ޥǥdzؤ٤롥

ʸ嵭2013/03/28(Thu)Ʊ BL β⤹Ф餷

إҥȥꥫ롦ɡꥹǡ١2000ǯ47--52ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-04-14-1] [2013-03-26-1]

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2011-06-07 Tue

#771. ̾ñʣ [corpus][statistics][plural][countability]

Biber et al. (Section 4.5.6 [pp. 291--22]) ˡ̾ñʣ٤˴ؤ뵭Ҥ롥Ѹˤ绨ĤʬۤǤϤ뤬LSWE Corpus 500쥵֥ѥѤǤͤʤΤǻͤޤǤ˥⤷Ƥޤƥ֥ѥ100˴ƤΥդκƸʿͥǡͿƤʤäΤǥդ鳵ɤ߼äƤκƸˡ

Distribution of Plural v. Singular Common Nouns Across Registers by LGSWE


(1) conversation transcription (CONV), fiction text (FICT), newspaper text (NEWS), academic text (ACAD) 4֥ѥ֤κ㤷
- §ȤʣȤʤԲĻ̾ޤƤȤϤ٤ƤΥ֥ѥñʣ٤⤤
- äǤñ٤Ū⤤
- 񤭸դǤäդʣ٤3--4ܤ⤤
(2) ġ̾Ǥߤȡ¿̾줬ñ뤤ʣΤ줫ؤζФ򼨤
(3) 㤨С̾75%ʾγñȤ롥ex. car, god, government, grandmother, head, house, theory.
(4) 㤨С̾75%ʾγʣȤ롥ex. grandchildren, parents, socks, circumstances, eyebrows, onlookers, employees, perks.

(1) ˴ؤơñŪ¿ȼΤϤޤäԻ׵ĤǤϤʤҤΤ褦ԲĻ̾ϸ§ȤñʤޤۤȤɤβĻ̾Ǥñ lemma ΤΤǤ뤷̵ɸη֤Ǥ⤢롥ۤˤϡγǰΩ硤㤨 hand in hand, from time to time ʤɤδɽˤƤϡñѤΤ̤Ǥ롥
(2)--(4) ˴ؤơ̾ˤäñʣؤФ򼨤ȤΤäʤ줾θ췲įС "the communicative needs of the language user" (291) ȿǤƤ뤳ȤϤäʬ̾Τʤ餻С֥ߥ˥ɬפñФꤽȤȤľ롥
ǤϡäñλѤ¿ȤΤϡɤ櫓Biber et al. (291--92) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

In general, the high frequency of singular nouns in conversation probably follows from the concern of speakers with individuals: a person, a thing, an event. Writers of academic prose, on the other hand, are more preoccupied with generalizations that are valid more widely (for people, things, events, etc.). This same tendency applies not only to nouns, but also to determiners and pronouns (4.4.3.1, 4.12.1, 4.14.1, 4.15.2.1).


ѥΤȤƤϡʣϰ̾2٤ʤȤˤʤ롥ʣθȤʤĤޤʣʤ٤¿ʤФʤʤ˻ˤȤäƤϡʤʤͤʤ

Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.

Referrer (Inside): [2012-12-09-1]

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2011-06-06 Mon

#770. Martinet ˤȤäƸȤϡ [linguistics][arbitrariness]

ܲ Martinet Éléments de linguistique générale ˮذ̸١ˤ򾯤ɤߡ̸ؤνǰˤĤٶľƤ[2011-05-14-1], [2011-05-15-1], [2011-06-02-1], [2011-06-03-1]γƵ Martinet θդѤƤˡ褦䤯ȥΥԡˤäȤMartinet ˤȤäƤΡָ (langue) Ȥϲ (43--44) Ҳ𤷤ʤ櫓ˤϤʤĤǰѤ롥

1-14. Qu'est-ce qu'une langue?
Nous pouvons maintenant tenter de formuler ce que nous entendons par «langue». Une langue est un instrument de communication selon lequel l'expérience humaine s'analyse, différemment dans chaque communauté, en unités douées d'un contenu sémantique et d'une expression phonique, les monèmes : cette expression phonique s'articule à son tour en unités distinctives et successives, les phonèmes, en nombre déterminé dans chaque langue, dont la nature et les rapports mutuels diffèrent eux aussi d'une langue à une autre. Ceci implique 1o que nous réservons le terme de langue pour désigner un instrument de communication doublement articulé et de manifestation vocale, 2o que, hors cette base commune, comme le marquent les termes «différemment» et «diffèrent» dans la formulation ci-dessus, rien n'est proprement linguistique qui ne puisse différer d'une langue à une autre : c'est dans ce sens qu'il faut comprendre l'affirmation que les faits de langue sont «arbitraires» ou «conventionnels».

1-14. (langue) Ȥϲ
桹Ϥޡָפ򤷤ƤȤΤΤŤ褦Ȼߤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ȥϡʹ֤ηиƶƱΤˤưۤʤạ̇̄ƤȲɽͿ줿ñ (monème) ؤʬϤˡɽ魯ߥ˥ʤǤ롥βɽϡ٤ŪϢ³Ūñ (phonème) ؤʬᤵ졤οϳƸǷޤäƤꡤߴطϤ켫Ȥ줴Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤ롥ΤȤĤΤȤްդ롥(1) ָפȤѸϡŤʬᤵ줿ˤäɽ륳ߥ˥ʤؤˤȤäƤȤȡ(2) ζ̴פȳǤϡְۤʤǡפְۤʤäƤפȤ줬Ƥ̤ꡤ줴Ȥ˰ۤʤʤǡʤΤ⸷̩ˤϸŪǤϤʤλ¤Ūפ뤤ϡִŪפǤȤĥϡΰ̣ˤ򤹤٤Ǥ롥


ۤΤ˸вϤʤʹ֤ϡؤȤΤ˼Ŭ줹ΤǤ롥7000ĤȤΤ줾줬ŪǴŪ줿ηϤθƤꡤޤ¤줿ƱΤǻѤƤˤʤȤΤȤΤäƤ¸ߤξ˵դǡƸϡŪƻˤʤȤɤ⡤ʤۤɤʣηϤɽ路Ƥ롥Ի׵Ĥ򴶤ʤ

Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.

Referrer (Inside): [2011-08-13-1]

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2011-06-05 Sun

#769. ȯɤ򼨤ΰ (2) [pronunciation][bre]

[2010-08-28-1]εȯɤ򼨤ΰפǡLongman Pronunciation Dictionary ˼夲ƤɤꥹȤ 1981ǯ BBC ȯɡ Robert Burchfield ԡˤǼ夲ƤȤȯɤΰ򼨤 Crystal (62) ˷ǺܤƤΤäƤˡBBC 侩ȯ򺸤ˡȯ򱦤˼LPD Preference Poll η̤ͿƤˤĤƤϥꥹȯǤλΨѡȤǼ

WordBBC recommendedVariant
adversary/ˈædvəsəri//ədˈvəːsəri/
apartheid/əˈpɑːtheɪt//əˈpɑːthaɪt/
apparatus/ˌæpəˈreɪtəs//ˌæpəˈrɑːtəs/
applicable/ˈæplɪkəbl/ (15%)/əˈplɪkəbl/ (85%)
ate/ɛt/ (55%)/eɪt/ (45%)
centenary/ˌsɛnˈtiːnəri//ˌsɛnˈtɛnəri/
centrifugal/ˌsɛnˈtrɪfjʊgəl//ˌsɛntrɪˈfjuːgəl/
comparable/ˈkɒmpərəbl//kəmˈpærəbl/
contribute/kənˈtrɪbjuːt/ (41%)/ˈkɑntrɪbjuːt/ (59%)
controversy/ˈkɒntrəvəːsi/ (40%)/kənˈtrɒvəsi/ (60%)
deity/ˈdiːəti/ (20%)/ˈdeɪəti/ (80%)
derisive/diˈraɪsɪv//diˈraɪzɪv/
dilemma/dɪˈlɛmə//daɪˈlɛmə/
diphtheria/dɪfˈθɪəriə//dɪpˈθɪəriə/
dispute/dɪsˈpjuːt/ (62%)/ˈdɪspjuːt/ (38%)
economic/ˌiːkəˈnɒmɪk/ (62%) or /ˌɛkəˈnɒmɪk/ (38%)<- both accepted
envelope/ˈɛnvələup/ (78%)/ˈɒnvələup/ (22%)
furore/fjuˈrɔːri//ˈfjʊərɔː/
homosexual/ˌhɒməˈsɛksjuəl/ (59%)/ˌhəʊməˈsɛksjuəl/ (41%)
inherent/ɪnˈhɪərənt/ (34%)/ɪnˈhɛrənt/ (66%)
kilometre/ˈkɪləˌmiːtə//kɪˈlɒmɪtə/
longitude/ˈlɒnʤɪtjuːd/ (15%)/ˈlɒŋgɪtjuːd/ (85%)
medicine/ˈmɛdsən//ˈmɛdɪsən/
migraine/ˈmiːgreɪn/ (61%)/ˈmaɪgreɪn/ (39%)
pejorative/pɪˈʤɒrətɪv//ˈpiːʤərətɪv/
plastic/ˈplæstɪk/ (91%)/ˈplɑːstɪk/ (9%)
primarily/ˈpraɪmərəri/ (49%)/praɪˈmɛrəli/ (51%)
privacy/ˈprɪvəsi/ (88%)/ˈpraɪvəsi/ (12%)
sheikh/ʃeɪk//ʃiːk/
Soviet/ˈsɒviɛt/ (27%)/ˈsəʊviɛt/ (73%)
status/ˈsteɪtəs//ˈstætəs/
subsidence/səbˈsaɪdəns/ (47%)/ˈsʌbsɪdəns/ (53%)
trait/treɪ//treɪt/


Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-09-11-1] [2011-09-03-1]

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2011-06-04 Sat

#768. ѲĤĤ RP ϰ [rp][pronunciation][bre][estuary_english][variety]

RP ( = Received Pronunciation ) ǧȯפΩˤĤơ[2009-11-21-1]εֻȳ̿ȳ̿ȱѸˡפǴñ˿줿RP ϡ18Ⱦȳ̿ȳ̿δŪʷ̤Ȥ19ˤ Eton, Harrow, Winchester ʤɤΥѥ֥åȯȷӤĤ졤䤬ƶؤȯȤƹǧ褦ˤʤä⤤ RP ȤˤĤܴ͡ģ䷳ΤʤǸϤᡤRP ϸҤθȤʤäRP ϼҲŪѼǤϰŪ¤ޤǤʤȤ顤1920ǯ塤BBC Ω夲˺ݤƵŪȯȤƺѤ졤ޤޤ͡μ˿褦ˤʤä2ˤϡBBC ̤¿ο͡ˡ RP ἫͳפȤݤĤ졤θҤޤä
RP 200ǯˤ錄äƱѹ⳰ۤ夲Ƥϰ̤ϸߤǤ˴롥㤨СˡIJ񡤱ѹ񶵲¾ιŪؤǤϹʹ롥ޤꥹѸǥȤ EFL ؽԤˤȤäƤϡ¾塤ͣΥꥹȯȤäƤ褤ºݤˡѹͤ RP üԤ⳰ͤ RP üԤΤۤ¿ˡѸ츦塤ǤܤӤƤѼǤ⤢롥
ζؤϡRP ŤʹѤθȯposh ȯȤɾ⸽ϤƤꡤĤƤ RP Ūͤɤ餤ǤƤ롥ǥȯãˤϰѼ郎͡μ褦ˤʤäơ񹳴ԴƤ¤餤ǤȤͳ⤢[2010-08-04-1]εEstuary EnglishפǸȤꡤ¾Ѽ郎饤ХȤƱƶϤƤƤȤ⤢
Crystal (68) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤߡRP ˤϲߴäƤ褦Ǥ롥

For the first time since the eighteenth century, the 'prestige accent' has begun to pick up some of the negative aura which traditionally would have been associated only with some kinds of regional speech.


Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-01-31-1]

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2011-06-03 Fri

#767. ʬ [double_articulation][phoneme][linguistics]

εָ[2011-06-02-1]˰³ҥȤθħˤĤơ٤ƤθŤʬᤵƤ롥Τνפʬ ( double articulation ) ȸƤФ롥
ʬϡ첽ã٤ʪMartinet monème ȸƤ֤ȤβỌ̇̄ڥǥץ벽줿ŵŪˤϸˤʬ᤹Ǥ롥ȤȤ Martinet Ѥ롥

La première articulation du langage est celle selon laquelle tout fait d'expérience à transmettre, tout besoin qu'on désire faire connaître à autrui s'analysent en une suite d'unités douées chacune d'une forme vocale et d'un sens. (Martinet 37)

ʬϡã٤٤ƤηиŪ¤¾ͤΤ餻˾ह٤Ƥ׵᤬줾첻Ọ̇̄Ϳ줿ñ̤Ϣ³ؤʬϤǤ롥

La première articulation est la façon dont s'ordonne l'expérience commune à tous les membres d'une communauté linguistique déterminée. Ce n'est que dans le cadre de cette expérience, nécessairement limitée à ce quie est commun à un nombre considérable d'individus, qu'on communique linguistiquement. (Martinet 38)

ʬϡθ춦ƱΤ˶̤иŤˡǤ롥¿θĿͤˤȤäƶ̤ʪɬŪ˸¤뤳ηиϰˤƤΤߡͤϸŪ˥ߥ˥Ȥ뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥


ʬˤ¿ monème ڤФ뤬ޤǿʹ֤εѤۤɤͭ¸Ĥޤ롥monème ͭ¸ĤȤ߹碌ˤ̵¤ɽ򻺤뤳ȤǽǤꡤηкȸΨݤ롥ˤҤ٤ƤȤꡤηкȸΨϤޤʬλͭƤ¤줿ƱǤΤ߳ݤդ٤Ǥ롥
ʬˤ겻Ọ̇̄ʤñ monème ¿ڤФ뤬˴ؤƤϤ˾ñ̡Ūñ̤ؤʬϤ뤳ȤǤ롥ʬˤäơphonème פȸƤФñ̤ڤФ롥㤨Сե󥹸 tête /tet/ ϡ/t/, /e/, /t/ 3Ĥʬ᲻ηȤª롥

Chacune de ces unités de première articulation présente, nous l'avons vu, un sens et une forme vocale (ou phonique). Elle ne saurait être analysée en unités successives plus petites douées de sens : l'ensemble tête veut dire «tête» et l'on ne peut attribuer à tê- et à-te des sens distincts dont la somme serait équivalence à «tête». Mais la forme vocale est, elle, analysable en une succession d'unités dont chacune contribue à distinguer tête, par exemple, d'autres unités comme bête, tante ou terre. C'est ce qu'on désignera comme la deuxième articulation du langage. (Martine 38--39)

Ǹ褦ˡʬˤñ̤Τ줾ϡ̣Ȳɽ路Ƥ롥ñ̤ϡ̣Ϳ줿꾮Ϣ³ñ̤ؤʬϤ뤳ȤϤǤʤtête ΤȤơƬפ̣ΤǤꡤtê- -te ˡ碌ơƬפɽ魯Ȥˤʤ褦ʶ̤줿̣Ϳ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤۤϡϢñ̤ؤȡʤΤ줾줬㤨 tête bête, tante, terre Τ褦¾ñ̤ȶ̤Τ˹׸褦ñ̤ؤʬϤ뤳ȤǤ롥줬ʬȤΤǤ롥


ʬˤäڤФ줿ƲǤϤ꾮ñ̤ؤʬǤʤΤǡʬκȤϽλ롥ܤˤƺǸʬˤꡤĤǼޤʤ phonème ǤѤ뤳Ȥˤäơ̵Ȥ⤤ monème ߽ФȤǤΤǤ롥
ˤξʬηкȸΨϤϤꤷʤ

Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.

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2011-06-02 Thu

#766. [linearity][linguistics]

ҥȤθθħ1Ĥ ( linearity ) 롥ȯäˤƼˤϤΤ褦˽ŤΤ뺬ŪʾǤꡤˤäƸι¤礭󤵤Ƥ롥
Ȥϡȯäϻ֤˱äƷѵȤ§Ǥ롥ȯﴱ¾塤ҥȤƱִ֤˰ۤʤʣβȯ뤳ȤǤʤʣβФˤϡ֤˱äƽ֤ˤĤʤ碌뤷ʤʹˤȤäƤƱͤǡʣθ첻ƱʹʬȤΤϡüǽϤäƤʤ¤ԲǽȤϤ鷺Ȥ񤷤顤Ʋ¤ӽ礬ӤӤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥㤨СѸ /t/, /ɒ/, /p/ Ϥ줾̤벻Ǥ¤ӽˤäƤ top, pot, opt ʤɤȰۤʤ줬롥ϰ̣㤨뵡ǽޤǤȸ롥
ϲǤ¤ӤŬѤ櫓ǤϤʤǡ졤硤ᡤʸȤä礭ñ̤⡤¤٤뤳ȤǤȯäʤѸΤ褦ʸŻθˤƤϡDog bites man. Man bites dog. 礭ʰ̣κ򼨤Ụ̤̄礭ѤƤǤ롥ɸȯãǤϡ¤ӽɬŪʰ̣κʤܸǤϡָͤ򤫤פθѤơֿͤ򸤤פɽ뤳ȤǤ롥顤Ǥ礭ʥ٥ˤƤϡϰ̣㤨뵡ǽޤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢Сɬ⤽ǤʤȤ⤢롤ȤȤʬ롥ǤܸΤ褦ˡΰ㤤϶ĴȤäŪʸṲ̄ȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿Υ٥ˤʬŪ˺ѤƤ餷Ȥʬ롥
ϡä˲ǥ٥ˤơȤϤ¤¸ߤηϤȤˤĤơMartinet (40--41) θʸĤǰѤ롥

1-10. Forme linéaire et caractère vocal
Toute langue se manifeste donc sous la forme linéaire d'énoncés qui représentent ce qu'on appelle souvent la chaîne parlée. Cette forme linéaire du langage humain dérive en dernière analyse de son caractère vocal : les énoncés vocaux se déroulent nécessairement dans le temps et sont nécessairement perçus par l'ouïe comme une succession.

1-10. Ūȯħ
٤ƤθϡȯäϢȤФиƤФΤɽŪΤȤɽФ롥ҥȤθΤŪϡɤΤȤҥȤȯħͳ褹롥ɽɬ֤˱äŸΤǤꡤİФˤäɬ³ΤΤȤǧΤǤ롥


Ϣơ[2009-08-18-1]εָ̤Ф --- iconicityפ (3) ⻲ȡ

Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.

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2011-06-01 Wed

#765. 佼ˡϸͤμŪŪñŪʴǰɽ [suppletion]

εָѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ([2011-05-31-1]) ǻȤʸ佼ˡ˴ؤͻspeculative ʤ餽ηؤ̣ޥȸŵ줫佼ˡͻȤǡ (47--48) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤʸʸηϡǤˤƤˡ

Τ䤦ʸݤϡǤϰǡʤ뿴Ū˴𤤤ΤǤ餦
ʾȤϡ餬ǤŪʡϤĤƻѤ뤳ȤκǤˤʸ֤ȤդȤ򼨤Ƥ롥ؤС佼ˡˤĤɽǰϡ桹˺ǤƤΤФǤ롥ΤȤ桹οŪ٤ƸФؤ롥
ֿʹ֤ʤʪ򸫤ȤϡĤŪ˼ʪä˺٤˱ǤΤǤ뤬Ʊʤʪ򸫤Ȥ⡽ϤζǤ뤬ɽݳλʪ򡤤줬üδ봤ȻװԤ˶ᤱжᤤغ٤ظŪİΤǤסʥȥۥջǡˡ
ϿͤˤĤƤϡȤȤȤդȤȤդȤȤϡŪ˰ۤĤĤǤĤΤǤĤơŪѫͤۤˤƤ𤿡ȤդȤϡŤȤչત˹ԤϤ줿ȤۤΤǤϤʤơȤȤǤ롥¨ΤĤƤȤ̣ΤǤ롥ޤȤȤȤϡŤŪʳǤϤʤĤ¾ͤȤϡबͥ뤳ȤǤ롥ϲ¸Ω򰿤϶ϽǤ餦ޤư򼨤̾ʤȡ¾ԤιưԤ򼨤ʡгϤгʤȤϡƱ֤٤ΤǤϤʤĤʤŤ̾ʤ˱Ƥҿ̤ɬܤǤĤʤȤʤȤȤǤϡü𿴤ٹ̤ǤĤΤǤ롥ľϿ²˱ưۺŪɽѤҤ졤˵Ͽ²ˤĤƤƱŪɽѤҤ䤦ʻԹ͡vater : mutter. neffe : nichte Ʊˤդ˻˱ơֻ軰װʾ˱ƽŪ˻ؤƤʤ顤ְ졽ס󡽡פĤΤߤ佼Ū˻ؤ롥ʤǤ뤫ʪλϤǤ롥ڤü˰̤ΤǤ롥ơֺǤϤסʺǾˤ̣׵ᤵ first, prôtus, prīmus ˡΤǤ롥Ϥ줫֤ΤǤ롥ӵ׵ᤵ deúteros, secundus ˡ
ǷפˡϿͤʪŪˡŪˡŪѫͤ˴𤤤ƸΤǤ롥ǷȿʸͤʪŪˡŪˡʪŪѫͤ˴𤤤ƸΤħȤ롥Ÿ϶ŪɽݤŪǰؤΰܹԤǡ˼Ƥ롥ڥ륻ϡ֤ǰ˶̤ʤΤɽϤƤ𤿡סʡָ׻ϻˤȸƤ뤬ϤƤ𤿤ΤǤϤʤơ餯̣ƤΤǤϤޤԥʤɤ⤵Ƥ䤦Ǥ롥ĤޤϱˡǤ롥


ͤμŪŪñŪȯۤȤ speculative Ǥꡤ¾ڤϤǤʤΤΡʸŪʴߤȤƤ⤷

ס佼ˡˤĤơסرѸʸѡ7עʸܱѸʸԽԡˡ1935ǯ39--49ǡ1935ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-12-02-1] [2021-05-17-1]

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