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Grimm's Law ˤĤƤϡ[2009-08-08-1]εˡ§Ȥϲפ䤽¾͡˰äƤˡ§ϡĸĺΤ줾줬Ĵħ1ܤեȤƤ椯Ȥ롥㤨С*bh > *b ѲϡĴ̵ͭϤΤޤޤˡĴͼΤߤѲaspiration äˤΤȤ롥ޤ*b > *p ѲϡĴĴͼϤΤޤޤˡ̵ΤȤ롥
Ȥ*p > *f ѲĴ˴ؤ2ܤѲƤ롥̵ǤѤäƤʤĴͼĺѲƤФǤʤĴξ鿰ؤѲƤ롥ԲƱͤǡ*dh > *d, *d > *t Ѳ1ܤΥեȤ뤬*t > *þ ѲϡĺءפȡֻԤءפ2ܤΥեȤͿƤ롥ΤˡξȿԤȻϤ줾ĴȤƤ϶ˤƶˤۤɤΤȤǤϤʤ⤷ʤǤϥˡ§Ȥ⤤ָηŪѲפ˽ꤽ
εĹ餯Ƥ*p > *f ꤹΤϡΰξڵŪƷμ³ϼ뤬̵ξĺ *p б *ɸ ѲΤΤϤǤϤʤ[ɸ] ܸΡ֤աפ˸ҲȤƤߤԼʲȤϻפʤˡ§ *ɸ ǤϤʤǽ餫 *f ؤοܤȤƤΤˤϤ´Ƥ
Ĵؤ˴ؤ Martinet Ρֻη֡פˤĤƤɤȤˡ꤬褷褦˻פä̵ξ [ɸ] ϳΤܸ¸ߤ뤬ŪˤäȤƤĴΤ褦ܸˤʤ̵ [f] ϡȤƤϰꤷĴȤϤǤ롥ĴﴱˤŪĺΤΤΤΤ롥ξϸߤ̩٤⤯ƵΥȥåѡȤƤ褯ǽޤĺĴﴱξѤȤƤ⡤ˤʤˡĴˤʤ餶ʤդˡϷ֤뤿˸ƵΥȥåѡȤʤˤŪĴﴱʤΤǤ롥
Du fait des interstices entre les dents, une occlusion labio-dentale est difficilement réalisable. On constate donc que la position des organes qui est la plus recommandée pour l'articulation fricative, ne vaut rien pour l'occlusion et, vice cersa, que la position favorable à l'occlusion ne permet pas de produits fricatifs satisfaisnts. Cette situation se retrouvera ailleurs. (Martinet 67)
Ȼδ֤˷֤뤿ˡĺϼ¸ΤäơĴ˺Ǥդ路ﴱΰ֤ĺˤϤޤΩդƱͤǡĺԹΤ褤֤ŬڤλФʤȤȤʬ롥ξϡ¾ξˤ⸫롥
ʾĴﴱʪŪͤȡˡ§̵ĺθ̤ϡĴﴱԤ˾եȤƤ뤳ȤǺȤʤ롥*p ˤä *ɸ Ѳ⡤Ѥ *f إեȤۤȤ¸³䤹Ʊͤˡ*t ˤä *s Ѳ⡤Ѥ *θ إեȤۤȤ¸³䤹ޤ*s Ǥ˰ĸ¸ߤƤȤ¤顤*θ ؤΥեȤͻ̤äΤ⤷ʤ
ˡ§Ϳ⤦1Ĥ̵ĺ *k ˤĤƤϡ*x ؤѲϥȥ졼ȤŪ *h ѲȤͤȡǤ [x] ȤƤꤵͿƤΤ⤷ʤȤȤ߹碌ɤ餫ȤȥȥåѡͤǤꡤǤϤʤȿФˡ[h] ĴѤϤɤ餫ȤΤ褦˻פ롥
Ȼ褤ȤȯϿäְŪؤΰܹԡפˡ§ɽ魯Ѳνפ1ĤäȤСξ *p Ԥ *t 줾ǤϤʤؤѲͳ䤹ʤ롥
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
ε[2011-06-28-1]˰³ she ꡥϸŤѸˤ she ֤͡ˤäȤҤ٤ѸǤĴ٤3;νñ̾ΰ۷ʣ¸ߤ롥ʲϿޤϡ20ȾФλǤΥɤˤ she ΰ۷ʬۤǤ Upton and Widdowson, p. 80 Ͽޤ˴Ťƺˡ

Ѹ West Midlands ǤϡűѸ West-Saxon hēo б֤Ȥ ha ho ԤʤƤԤƬ /h/ æޤǷѾΤϿФɽ路 oo Ȥ֤Ǥ롥ŪˤϤäȤŤ֤ȤäƤ褤
ʬۤ er her /h/ æ֤ǡher ΤϽͭʷŪʷȤɸѸǤ⤪ʤߤǤ롥Ǥ er ʤȤ she ѤƤ뤳Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥ۤ˼гʷʷ֤ȤƤϡ[2011-06-17-1], [2009-10-24-1], [2009-10-25-1]ʤɤεǸ褦ˡyou ŵǤ롥гʤä you ʤ ye ֤ߡyou ϼʤŪʤ̤ǤʤФ꤫̤ǤʤѤƤ롥
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
[2009-12-28-1]ε2000ǯαѸήԸޡפǸȤꡤAmerican Dialect Society 2000ǯΥɤ she ä12ȾФ˽ƱѸ˸졤2000ǯθˤơ줽ΤΤФǤʤ referent ¸ߴŪƤ¤ƧޤƤμޤαѸǤνФ The Peterborough Chronicle 1140ǯεϿʬǡscæ ȤֻǸ롥 scæ λؼоݤHenry I ̼Dz̷Ѿä Stephen Ȥꤢä˾ Matilda ǤΤȤ⤪⤷ Matilda ϸ©Ҥ Henry II Ȥƥɲ̤ˤĤ뤳Ȥ¾ Plantagenet īϻϤΩԤȤ⤤롤Ūˤפ scæ äȤˤʤ롥ս Earle and Plummer Ǥѡ
Þer efter com þe kynges dohter Henries þe hefde ben Emperice in Alamanie. 7 nu wæs cuntesse in Angou. 7 com to Lundene 7 te Lundenissce folc hire wolde tæcen. 7 scæ fleh 7 for les þar micel.
Ȥ she ȤϡѸˤǤͭ̾ʤȤˡ츻ԾܤǤ롥[2010-03-02-1]εָѸδܸ100εȳפ she ťΥɸ줫μѸȤƿ줿ΤϰĤˤʤѸäΤʤǤϺǤ٤ι⤤츻ԾܤθȤäƤ褤
ƤƤȤˡʣǤ롥ξܺ٤ϤҲ𤷤ȻפǤϤͭƤ뤳ȤŦƤűѸ3;νñ̾ hēo 䤽ΰ۷ϡѸޤǤ첻경űѸ3;ñ̾ hē 3;ʣ̾ hīe νȯãƱ֤ˤʤäƤޤäƱ۵ ( homonymic clash ) ΰϤϡΤ褯ʬʤ she ޤΰ۷3;νñ̾ΥåȤή¥3;ʣ̾ they μƤ⡤Ʊ۵ͤˤäƻư;̾κη̤ȤǤ롥
she εõ븦ϡΰ۷ʬۡǯ塤ŪħѤʤɤδϢμưƤĶإѥǤ롥hēo, hīe, sēo, sīo, hjō, sho, yo, ha, ho, ȝho, scæ, etc. 椫ʤɤΤ褦ˤ she 졤夷ƤΤѸ츻ؤκ1ĤǤ롥
Earle, John and Charles Plummer, eds. Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel with Supplementary Extracts from the Others. London: OUP, 1892. 2 vols.
ԤαΧʬ (scansion) ϡ§ŬǽϤȤŪɬפȸ뤳Ȥ⤢̤ꡤǤϤʤʣ scansion ǽʡΤԤ⾯ʤʤ˷礯Ȥ⤢롥äȤŵŪȤ褦ʻԤǤϤ줤˵§ƤϤޤΤΤǤꡤʤȤ⤳Τ褦ʾˤϵ§μ롥
Chaucer iambic pentameter ˡscansion μºݤ궵Ƥ붵ܤ Glowka 롥Glowka ˽iambic Ԥ scansion μޤ¤٤ȰʲΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) ӱ˶
(2) ¿ˤĤƶᡤζޤ iamb
- ǤƬǤʤ¤1˶뤳ȤǰƬ
(3) ¾λӤ餫 iamb ȤʤΤĤ
- μʱ¦ˤ֤Ȥ Nuclear Stress Rule ǰƬ
- ʣ1ǡʺ¦ˤ֤Ȥ Compound Stress Rule ǰƬ
(4) ̵ e ν
- ³첻ݤ߹ޤæ elision βǽǰƬ
- ήʤɤݤ߹ޤæ syncopation βǽǰƬ
(5) ¾ιθ
- ä13Ӥ trochaic substitution βǽǰƬ ([2011-06-25-1])
- ̵Ϣ³Ƹ anapest βǽǰƬ
- 1礯 headless line βǽǰƬ
äȤŵŪʻԤǤϡ(1), (2), (3) μǤ褽 scansion λ롥嵭ŪʼǤϰ̣ȻפΤǡGlowka (31--35) Dz⤵Ƥ̤ˡGP (ll. 19--20) couplet Ƥߤ롥
(1) ӱ˶
/ Befil that in that seson on a day, / In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay
x / | | x /| / Befil that in that seson on a day, x / | | x /| / In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay
x / | x / | x /|x / |x / Befil that in that seson on a day, x / | x / | x /|x / |x / In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay
ѸħŤǤϿ¿뤬ʤΤ1Ĥ˸ʬ롥Ѹ -ing 礭ʬ -ing, -ande, -ende, -inde 4बꡤ줾ħŪʬۤʲϡLALME Dot Map 345--51 Ȥơ褽ʬۤƸΤǤ롥

-ing ϤǤ England ʬۤƤꡤħȸƤ֤ΤϤդ路ʤ⤷ʤΰ۷֤ȤƸ -nd(e) 첻ʬκ褯̤롥-ande ʬۤ Northern East Midlands ˤƤϰʤĤƤ Danelaw ˤ˰פ롥-ende East Midlands -inde South-West Midlands ˽椹롥ɥնʣΰ۷֤ѻΤϡϤޤ˽ζǤ뤳ȤƤ롥
ʬ¾ˤϡľˡ3;ñ߸ľˡʣ߸ħ褯ɽ魯ΤȤΤƤ롥2ܤʬۤϻǰʤľ LALME Dot Map ˤͿƤʤŪǤϤ뤬Burrow and Turville-Petre (31--32) εҤͤˡϿƤߤ


3ĤưܤǤ⡤١ѸιʤߤǤ
McIntosh, Angus, M. L. Samuels, and M. Benskin. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English. 4 vols. Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986.
Burrow, J. A. and Thorlac Turville-Petre, eds. A Book of Middle English. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005.
ѸαʸŵȤС13Ⱦ˻Ϥޤ The Poema Morale The Owl and the Nightingale ʤɤ iambic tetrameter 䡤Chaucer ɽ iambic pentameter 롥η嶯 ( iamb ) ζؤħȤ뤬ޤ˵§嶯ʤη֤ñĴˡˤε§ˤ ( trochee ) θ뤳Ȥ롥 trochaic substitution ȸƤФ졤ѸǤʤ
㤨С Chaucer λ (GP 105) Ǥϡ1Ӥ trochaic substitution Ƥ롥

trochaic substitution ˤֶפȤ3Ҥ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬3ҼΤϸѸǤ̤ΤȤäOrmulum ʤɤᤤʳǤѸˤǧ롥ޤꥢʤΦλǤ2Ҥ3Ҥη֤η졤Ѹ3Ҥʷʤ櫓ǤϤʤ
ԤΤɤΰ֡ʻӡˤ substitution 䤹Ĵ椬롥ʲϡLi (1995) οͤ˴Ť Minkova (191) Ƥ롤Chaucer αʸѥΤˤ substitution ΨǤ롥

̤˻ԤƬǼͳ٤⤯Ǽͳ٤㤤ͻ̤ʤΤϡӱ֤ǤꡤӱôɬȼʤФʤʤȤ뤿Ǥ롥ǡƬϵڤ˻Ϥ뤿ˡͻ̤䤹CT ǤȤ櫓 substitution Ψ⤤ΤϡƱʤˤΤ˭٤Ƥ褦˻פ
Minkova (191) ꡤƻӤ substitution 褦
- Redy to wenden on my pilgrimage (GP 21)
- Of his offryng and eek of his substaunce. (GP 489)
- Ful semely after hir mete she raughte. (GP 136)
- The smylere with the knyf under the cloke (KnT 1999)
Minkova, Donka. "The Forms of Verse" A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 176--95.
Li, Xingzhong. "Chaucer's Metres." Diss. U of Missouri, Columbia. 1995.
30ʬפ half an hour ɽ뤬äƸƻǽĶǤ a (good) half hour ȤѤ롥˿̷ƻ줬֤ϡ¾ˤ all the boys, both the books, many a time ʤɤ궦̤ŪħƤ롥ŪħظˤϡΧŪװƯƤ褦˻פ롥嵭Τ⡤θ뤳ȤǶ ( trochee ) ȤʤꡤѸΰŪʥꥺˤ褯Ŭ礹롥Τ褦˸ꡤ̣ŪɬפΤʤʤɤ̵β뤳ȤˤäƱΧȤϡѸǤϾʤʤ
Bolinger (151--53) ϱΧԹˤä줦عʸڥʤʸޤˤǷǤƤ롥¦걤ΧŪɽǤ롥
an aloof person vs. an aloof kind of person It's a compact book. vs. It's a compact little book. a half hour vs. half an hour without doubt vs. without a doubt mother mine vs. pal o' mine Outside these I have no preference. vs. Outside of these I have no preference. Beware the Ides of March vs. Beware of Brutus a little bread vs. a bit of bread a dozen eggs vs. a gross of eggs a morsel bread vs. a piece of bread I dare not tell her. vs. We dare to judge. He dared adventure himself. vs. The players dared to satirise. the lessons these things have taught us vs. the lessons these things have taught to all of us He's gone fishing. vs. He's gone a-fishing. Why did you have to go tell her? vs. Why did you have to go and tell her? Who was it that told you? vs. Who was it told you? a quite long report vs. quite a long report *very a long report vs. a very long report *a so pretty girl vs. so pretty a girl so pretty a girl vs. such a pretty girl *a that pretty girl vs. that pretty a girl *a too remote place vs. too remote a place *an enough good reason vs. a good enough reason a good enough reason vs. a reason good enough
[2011-04-09-1]εΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2)פ[2011-06-12-1]εֲʬƻ -ed ᲽפʤɤǤ줿褦ˡΧ¿ξ硤ѶŪ˸ѹ¥װȤϡ̤װˤäưƤŪѲ¿ʤȤȤ⤹оäƤǽΤŪʸݻװȤƺѤƤȹͤ롥Χˤϡ㳰¿ֵ§פȸƤ֤ˤϼ夹뤬餯Ѹ˸¤餺Ū˺ѤƤȹͤۤɤ˱ϰϤַװʾϤͭƤΤǤϤʤ
a Jàpanese stúdent ʤɤˤ붯 back shifting 䡤Amelia's love makes the burning sand grow green beneath him and the stunted shrubs to blossom. ˤǸɸ to ʤɡΧδؤܤϿ¿
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.
[2009-06-17-1]ε֥ɥ衼åѸ²ηޤͷӤǡפ˷Ǥޤ䡤[2009-05-08-1]ε֥ȸGothicˤȱѸˡפ˷Ǥޥɤηޤʬ褦ˡŪ˱Ѹ˺Ǥᤤեꥸ (Frisian) Ǥ롥̤ˤϤۤȤǧΤƤʤθ줬Ūʸ줿Ѹ˺ǤᤤȸƤԥʤȻפ롥Ϥ Frisian ȤˤĤƳ⤹롥
Frisian ϡProto-Indo European -> Germanic -> West Germanic -> Low Germanic -> Anglo-Frisian ȤȯãϩѸȶͭƤ롥Ǹ Anglo-Frisian ȤʬϡҤ뤤ĤβħξǶͭƤ뤳Ȥ˴Ťʬꤹ븫⤢롥ξˤϡOld Frisian Old English Low Germanic ľ˥եåȤ˰֤Ť뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ߤ Frisian ʬۤϿdzǧ褽ĤǰϤäʬ Frisian ιԤʤƤϰǤ롥ʥʬξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡEthnologue θʬϿ⻲ȡ

Ethnologue: Frisian in Family Tree ˤȤꡤFrisian Ū3Ĥؤȶʬ롥֤뤤κۤϤޤޤǡǽǤʤȤ¿3ΤʤǼפ Western Frisian Ǥ롥Ethnologue: Western Frisian Ƥ2001ǯĴˤȡ̳פ Friesland ޤˤ濴Ȥ47ͤüԤ¸ߤ롥Ʊο70% Western Frisian äۤȤɤȤѼԤǤ롥20 "Frisian movement" ˤ West Frisian θŪϰ̤Ͼ徺ƤƤꡤθѸ1ĤȤƤοưϿʤǤƤ롥
Friesland ˹ɥĤαϰ褫ǥޡˤƹԤʤƤΤFrisian ̤νǤ롥ɥĤ Saterland 5000٤ä Saterfriesisch ˤ䡤ɥĤ Schleswig-Holstein α礦1٤üԤˤäƻѤƤ Northern Frisian ̤ˤʤǤˡƱɥĤ Ostfriesland, Lower Saxony ʤɤ2000٤üԤͭ Eastern Frisian ȸƤФ줬뤬̾Τʶ路Ȥˡ̩ˤ Frisian 1ѼȤ Low German 1ѼȤۤŬڤȤ롥
Frisian κǸŤʸϡʬŪ11̤ˡΧʸǡ13μܤǸ¸Ƥ롥ɽ蘆Ƥ Old Frisian ʳ16Ⱦޤ³1573ǯΤΤȤʸǸˡʹ3δ Frisian ǻĤ줿ʸϤۤȤɤߤĤäƤʤ19ˤʤȡRomanticism ˤ̱²ȤƤ Frisian ܤ졤1938ǯ Frisian Academy Ω졤1943ǯˤǤ줿 Frisian ưϾˤҤ٤Ȥꡤ˥ȤȤˤäƻٻƤ Western Frisian ˤäǤꡤʳνˤɸʤ˺¸³βǽȹͤƤ롥
Frisian ȱѸ˶̤벻ħȤƤϡ(1) Germanic *f, *þ, *s Ԥɡξü ( ex. OFr fīf "five" ( < Germanic *fimf ), OFr mūth "mouth" ( < Germanic *munþ- ), OFr ūs "us" ( < Germanic *uns ) ) 䡤(2) 첻Ԥ Germanic *g θ ( ex. OFr tzin "chin" ( < Germanic *kinn ), OFr lētza "leech, physician" ( < Germanic *lēkj- ) ) ʤɤ롥
εǡwilly-nilly θΤˡŪʸ (enclitic) Ūʸ (proclitic) ȤѸƳϡˤĤƤ⤦⤹롥
ܸ (clitic) Ȥϡϸʼͳǡˤܤ˰¸ƶФвæȼܼŪʷؤȤϥꥷʸˡѸ¾Ӥ֤ؤΤˤѤ롥ܸľθ˴ܸǤꡤʲΤ褦˸ѸθɽǤˤˤߤ롥
I'm, you're, it's, she'll, we've, they'd, don't, wanna, He is a tough'un., That's more'n I know.
嵭Τ褦ˡ;̾δؤ㤬¿ܸ̾줬ղäϾʤMy mother's late. Peter'd been there. ʤɤ㤬ߤ롥
ܸľθ˴ܸǡѸŪʤʲΤ褦ɽˤߤ롥
How d'ye do? ([2011-06-17-1]), 'Tis fine today., Go an' see it.
ǽ2㤬ɽǤ뤳Ȥ¬뤫⤷ʤŪˤϸܤβϾʤʤä㤨СŪη̤ȤƤܸˤϡo'clock ( < "of the clock" ), alive ( < "on live" ), willy-nilly ε ǾҲ𤷤 nill nam ʤɤ롥
[2009-11-04-1]εָűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹϸߤˤɤ줯餤ۤʤ뤫פǡޥΡ֥ޥ١פӤӤδϡȤƷŪʴ Lass ӽФ10Ĥιܤˤ롥10ܤޥ٤λɸȤƤɤΤ餤ҴŪʤΤɤΤ褦ӽФ줿ΤʤɤϤ뤬ӸԤʤݤΤȤƤ˻ͤˤʤ롥Lass (26) ꡤ10ܤƤ
(1) root-initial accent
(2) at least three distinct vowel qualities in weak inflectional syllables
(3) a dual
(4) grammatical gender
(5) four vowel-grades in (certain) strong verbs
(6) distinct dative in at least some nouns
(7) inflected definite article (or proto-article)
(8) adjective inflection
(9) infinitive suffix
(10) person and number marking on the verb
δϡޥɤӤ˸¤餺㤨ѸɤӡˤѸθġΥƥȤθӤˤѤǤ롥ºݤΤȤ¿ѸƥȤδܤΥȥˤ褦ʸŪҤϡ嵭10ܤΤ٤ƤǤʤȤܤ夲Τ̤Ǥ롥
ѸƥȤӤ˸¤ΤǤСĿŪˤ "nominal plural formation" äȤǤ롥
Lass, Roger. "Language Periodization and the Concept of 'middle'." Placing Middle English in Context. Eds. Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Päivi Pahta and Matti Rissanen. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 7--41.
[2011-04-24-1]εָ츻ؤμΧפǿ줿 abductionʲˤȤϡ츻ؤФǤʤ˸ΤƤϤޤ롥ѲΡ֤ʤפФ˸ؼԤ٤ϡȤ櫓 abductive ˤʤ餶ʤ¿ξ硤βϤ餯ʣŪǤ롥٤Ƥװ夹뤳ȤϤǤʤװ֤δطװνŤߤ餫ˤ뤳Ȥ⤷ФкǤ롥Ǥ⡤ƺǽפȻפ뤤ĤװФ˾ơŪߤΤ˸ؤܤǤ롥
ʲΰȤ롥
It is to be admitted that any answers to the "how" and "why" will only be plausible or provisional because historical linguistics is an abductive discipline (Andersen; Anttila 196--98, 285--86). This means that the suggested description and explanation of the language change is a reasoned inference made with reference to universals such as human experience, human nature, and culture, and to observed facts. The number of possible inferences made in this way is theoretically infinite, and therefore the best that historical linguists can offer is a subset of the theoretically possible descriptions and explanations. Being methodologically abductive, historical linguistics is different from natural science; it is no less tempting, however, to make such inferences in historical linguistics since it allows for different interpretations for a phenomenon. (Hotta 3)
⤽⤹٤ƤθѲ˸ͳΤȤФθͳΥ٥ŪҲŪ¾˸ؤȤơɤޤ餫ˤǤΤ䤤ΤΤȤƤꡤʤѲθͳä͡Ф뤳ȡabductive ˵ʤ뤳Ȥˤ˴ؤʬ̥ϤǤ롥˸ؤȯŸϡ (deduction) ǤⵢǼ (induction) ǤʤŪǤʤȤƤ abduction ˤäƤ롥ơabduction οηϰʲ̤ƿ, p. 54ˡ
ä٤£äѻ롤
⤷ȤǤСäλǤ
äơȤǤȹͤ٤ͳ롥
Andersen, Henning. "Abductive and deductive change." Language 49 (1873): 765-93.
Anttila, Raimo. Historical and Comparative Linguistics. Rev. ed. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1989.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
ƿ ͵ إ֥ȯ١Ҧ˼2009ǯ
Ѹ̾ˤŪŪʤȤˡ롥ŪʤŪгʤؤΤǡˡŪг (adverbial accusative) ȤƤФ롥̾ʶˤʶˤȤѤŪŪʤλˤȤޤʤŵŪȰʲΤ褦ʤΤֻŪŪʤˤƤ̾ʶˡˡ
- It's fine today.
- Come this way.
- They walked ten miles.
- We are united to each other heart and soul.
- What the hell is all this?
ѸΤ褦Ū˻ȤƤ go home ⵯɤ̾ home ŪʤˤʤűѸ hām Ѳ̾ǤꡤñʤñгʤƱΤ˷־϶̤ĤʤAnd hiȝ cyrdon ealle ham "And they all returned home" ʤɤˤơ餫гʤȤѤƤ롥
Τ褦 home ȤƲᤵ졤ˤϡֲȤءʵˡפȤΰֲ̣ȤˡʤˡפȤ֤ΰ̣ؤȳ礷ƤäˡܵϤءǼޤ٤ءפ֤ͤäءޤȤˡפΰ̣drive a nail home The spear struck home to the lion's heart. ʤɤɽ߽Ф줿 bring sth home to sb come home to sb ˤڤˡפδްդ⤳αĹˤ롥
- It suddenly came home to him that he was never going to see Julie again.
- The sight of his pale face brought home to me how ill he really was.
˵ܤ came home to him ʬϤȡǤ home Ȥơ¾Ǥ to him ֻȤƤ줾 came ȤƲ뤫⤷ʤΰ̣ home Ūʰ̣ˡθȡष to him home Ȥ̾ͿʤȤơʤˤȤäơˤΡΡ˳˿פۤɤΰդǤäƤ椭home ɽ魯ŪгʤȤ came ˤäƤ椯Ȳ᤹ۤɽ魯̣䤹
willy-nilly ϡֹԤФäˡʤΡˡ䤪ʤˡʤΡˡפ̣ǡʤǵӱƧϤΤ褤ɽǤ롥will I [he, ye] nill I [he, ye] Ȥɽ١ˤʤäƤꡤջ֤ɽ魯ư will Ȥ nill ( < ne + will ) 줾֤̾ɽǤ롥OED ˤȽФ1608ǯǡʸƤ롥
Thou shalt trust me spite of thy teeth, furnish me with some money wille nille.
ѸǤ ne ư֤ΤήǤꡤФưȰΤˤʤäȯ뤳Ȥ¿ä nill ( ne + will ) Ϥ nam ( ne + am ), nas ( ne + was ) ʤɤ㤬ꡤŪ (proclitic) ne ȤѸʹߤȯãˡư˸֤ notƤû̷Ǥ n't 롥Ū (enclitic) 꼭ȸ졤isn't, haven't, won't ( < wonnot < wol not ) ʤɡѸǤʤߤǤ롥
will ȤƤ won't εˤĤƤ[2009-07-25-1]εone ȯ¤äȯפǼ夲17˱Ѹ˸줿⤷θŪ nill ᤤʳǿŪ won't ִƤΤǤСɸɽ willy-nilly ǤϤʤ*willy-wonty ʤȤɤʤäƤ⤷ʤ䡤euphony Ȥ餹ФϤ willy-nilly ΤۤϤ褤顤ˤ褳ɽ夷ƤȹͤΤ⤷ʤ
̾ɽ魯 y Ϥ켫ΤȤܤƤΤǡnilly ʬ will 濴ȤƸܼ n- ܼ -y Ʊղä줿ʣʸɽ路Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ѸȤƤϲʤɽʬϤ will-y-n-ill-y ȼ¤5ĤηǤʤäƤ롥Ū (synthetic) Ķۤ¿Ū (polysynthetic) ʿȸäƤ٤֡¿ŪפȤѸˤĤƤϡ[2010-10-01-1]εַˤפȡ
űѸѸˤ2;̾˿ζ̤¸ߤѸǼСñ thouʣ ye Ǥ롥ye you 褽줾ʤгʡͿʤɽ路Ѹʹߡߤ˺Ʊ2;̾˴Ϣϡ[2009-10-11-1], [2009-10-24-1], [2009-10-25-1], [2009-10-29-1], [2010-02-12-1], [2010-03-26-1], [2010-07-11-1], [2010-10-08-1], [2011-03-01-1]ȡ
thou ye ϸߤǤϡԸդ뤤ϡդüʸ̮䴷ɽѤ뤳Ȥ롥Ǥ ye ˤĤƸƤߤ褦θ϶Ǥ /ˈjiː/, Ǥ /ji/ ȯ졤Ȥ <ee> Τ褦֤뤳Ȥ⤢롥ߤǤϡΤ褦ɽѤ뤳Ȥ롥
Abandon hope, all ye who enter here. ( Dante, The Divine Comedy )
Do ye not know me? ֻ¸ʤΤǤ
Hark ye. ʹ
Hear ye, hear ye! ̱֡˸äơʹʹ
How d'ye do? ֽޤơ
I tell ye. ֤ޤ˸äƤ
Look ye. ָ
Thank ye. ֤꤬Ȥ
What d'ye think? ֤ɤפ
Ye are the salt of the earth. Ϥαʤ ( Matt. 5:13
Ye gods! ֤Ϥ
Ye hills and brooks 黳
How d'ye do? ʤɤμȤƤ ye you μȲ뤳Ȥ뤬ĤƤ2;̾ʷɾΡ ye ŪŪĤȹͤ٤Ǥ롥
Ʊֻ괧 the ɽ魯⤦1Ĥ ye ˤĤƤϡ[2009-05-11-2]εֱѹΥѥ֤ ye äƤ椷פȡ
εCornish Manx ([2011-06-15-1]) Cornish pasty ˷ڤڤLDOCE5 ˤ "a folded piece of pastry, baked with meat and potatoes in it, for one person to eat" 礭 D Υ˥å塦ѥϡѹϤΤȲƤǹƤꡤ Cornwall μȤ1ĤȤʤäƤ롥ɥʤɤγѤǤ Cornish pasty shop Ϥ褯ܤˤ롥
Υѥ Cornwall ȤηӤĤͳ꤫ǤϤʤ褦1718 Cornwall ΥפμڤȤȯŸƤΤȤ롥ܥ塼बꡤˤǿ٤Τ̥ϤäΤǤϤʤʥܥ塼बꤹƥӡΤˤȤĤ˿٤Ȱߤ⤿Τաˡܤߤȼ̿ Wikipedia: Pasty ȡ
ѥˤ͡ʼब뤬ä˥ꥹޥ˿ mince pie Ȥѥ롥LDOCE5 ˤ "a pie filled with mincemeat, especially one that people eat at Christmas" Ȥ롥ŤۻҥѥǡGoogle Ǽ̿ߤСΤȤȻפΤǤϤʤ
mince pie εͤʪΤȤ mincemeat Ȥmincemeat CALD3 Ǥߤȡ"a sweet, spicy mixture of small pieces of apple, dried fruit and nuts, (but not meat), which is often eaten at Christmas in mince pies" Ȥ롥 mincemeat ˤϰճʤȤäƤ餺ͤʪˤ mince pie ٥ꥢǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥
meat ΰ̣Ọ̇̄ѲˤĤΤäƤСԻĤʤȤǤϤʤmeat ϸűѸǤϡֿʪפΰդǤꡤפΰդ˸ꤵƤΤ13ʹߤΤȤǤ롥Ǥϰ̣ü첽 ( specialisation ) Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤʰ̣ü첽¾ϡ[2009-09-01-1], [2010-08-13-1], [2010-12-14-1], [2010-12-15-1], [2011-02-15-1]εȡˡ
The Authorized Version of the Bible Ǥ meat ϡֿʪפΰդǤѤƤʤСѸǤϾ嵭 mincemeat 䲼ξδɽ˸ŤǧΤߤǤ롥
- before [after] meat ֿοϤˡ
- green meat ʪ
- meat and drink ְʪ cf. meat and drink to sb ?ˤȤäƲγڤߡ
- One man's meat is another man's poison. ֹäϲǡʡͤιߤϤޤޡˡ
- sit down to meat ֿˤĤ
- sweetmeat ֺۻҡ
[2011-06-10-1], [2011-06-14-1]εǥȽꤢϡȽΤʤǻ¾λȤʤäƤ륳 (Cornish) ȥޥ (Manx) Ҳ𤹤롥
Cornish ϡߡȥѥΰ Cornish pasty ǤΤƤ륤ɤκ Cornwall äƤ Brythonic (P-Celtic) ϤθǤ롥Cornish θŤʸ¿ϸ¸Ƥʤ14ȾΤΤȤ8000ԤĶ뱤ʸĤäƤ롥16פλ Cornish οȱѸοƩϤޤꡤ1777ǯˡϿƤǸü Dolly Pentreath ˴ʤäȤǻȤʤä[2011-06-10-1]ΥȸɤηޤǼȤꡤߥեΥ֥륿˥äƤ֥ȥ (Breton) ȺǤᤤǤ롥
"revived Cornish", "pseudo-Cornish", "Cornic" ȤΤ褷 Cornish Ǥʹ롥 ϡ20˥ζڰͭ͡ Cornish ͰŪ褵ΤǡºŪʸǤϤʤħŪʸȤ٤ʸˡ伭ȯԤƤꡤǤ Breton Welsh ǸäʤɤλߤʤƤ롥Price ɾϼ긷McArthur 265 ¹ˡ
It is rather as if one were to attempt in our present state of knowledge to create a form of spoken English on the basis of the fifteenth-century York mystery plays and very little else.
Ethnologue: Cornish ˤС2003ǯοפǿɴͤüԤȤ뤬Ǥ Cornish Ϥ "revived Cornish" ؤƤ롥
ˡManx ϥå峤 (the Irish Sea) ⤫֥ޥ (the Isle of Man) äƤ Goidelic (Q-Celtic) ϤθǤ롥ǸŤʸϡ1610ǯε (The Book of Common Prayer) Ǥ롥Manx 4˥ɤΰܽԤˤäƻޤ줿ȹͤ졤10--13ˤϥθ Old Norse ˤä˸Ū˱ƶ18ޤǤϥޥμפʸäʹߤϱѸοƩʤǸü Ned Mandrell 1974ǯ˴ʤꡤߤǤ1ȤƤϻȤʤäƤ롥Cornish ξƱ褦ˡManx οͰŪ¸αĤߤϤʤƤ뤬ħŪʰ̣礤ĶΤǤϤʤ
̾ϡ֥ޥθפ̣ ON manskr ME Manisk(e) ȤäΤǡθҲž ( metathesis ) Manx ȤʤäEthnologue: Manx ȡ

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.
Price, Glanville. The Languages of Britain. London: Arnold, 1984.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
[2011-06-10-1]ε֥ȸʬۡפǥȽʬϿޤȷޤηޤǤϾܺ٤ʶʬѤƤ[2009-06-17-1]ΰޤ˼ƤŪʶʬˤСꥹ濴Ȥ륱Ƚ礭 Brythonic Goidelic 췲Ȥʬʲȡˡ

Brythonic 췲 Goidelic 췲ϡ줾̾ P-Celtic Q-Celtic ȤƤФ롥ζʬϡĸ *kw ԤǤ /p/ ȯŸԤǤϤΤޤѤ줿ʤ߿ /k/ ȯŸ˻¤˴Ť/kw/ /p/ ؤѲϰ츫˻פ뤬ĴŪˤ /w/ α߿չƱĺ /k/ ˺Ѥξĺ /p/ ص夷롥
̵ͭȤΰ㤤Ϥ뤬ƱβѲϰ²¾θɤǤƤ롥㤨Сĸǡֵפɽ魯 *gwōus θƬҲϥޥɤؤ /k/ ȤꡤѸ cow, ɥĸ Kuh ʤɤ˻ĤäƤ뤬¾θɤǤξ /b/ ؤѲθ̤ϥƥ bōs, ꥷ boûs ʤɤ˳ǧ롥եƥ줫ѸؼѤ줿 beef bovine ϡŪ cow ƱǤ롥ʡرѸ츻ŵ(pp. 1666--67) Ρֿθ츻ȸθ츻פȡ
P-Celtic ɽ Welsh Q-Celtic ɽ Irish Ʊ ( cognate ) ǸӤƤߤ褦ʲɽϡPrice (17) ˴Ť Fennell (30) ޤȤӤƸΤǤ롥
| Welsh (Brythonic = P-Celtic) | Irish (Goidelic = Q-Celtic) | meaning |
|---|---|---|
| pwy | cé | "who" |
| pedwar | ceathair | "four" |
| pen | ceann | "head" |
| pair | ċoire | "cauldron" |
| pryd | cruth | "appearance" |
Ѹǯɽϡɤγˤܤ뤷饤Ǥ⸫Ĥ㤨ѸǯɽˡűѸˤܥ֥ȤƤǤƤ椳ȹͤƤ롥ȤơCrystal (298--300) άǯɽƸΤǤƤ¾ľܴܤ˱Ѹˤ˴Ϣǯɽ timeline ȡ
| 449 | Invasion by Angles, Saxons, and Jutes | |
| 450--480 | Earliest runic inscriptions in Old English | |
| 597 | Augustine brings Christianity to Kent | |
| 680 | Approximate earliest date for the composition of Beowulf | |
| 700 | Approximate dating of earliest Old English manuscripts | |
| 735 | Death of the Venerable Bede | |
| 787 | Viking raids begin | |
| 871 | Alfred becomes King of Wessex | |
| 886 | Danelaw boundaries settled | |
| 950--1000 | Approximate dates of the main Old English poetry collections | |
| 1016--1042 | Cnut and his sons reign | |
| 1066 | Norman Conquest | |
| 1150--1200 | Earliest texts in Middle English | |
| 1171 | Henry II's invasion of Ireland | |
| 1204 | France reconquers Normandy | |
| 1250--1300 | Edward I's campaigns against the Welsh and Scots | |
| 1362 | English first used at the opening of Parliament | |
| 1375--1400 | Chaucer's main works written | |
| 1384 | Wyclif's translation of the Bible | |
| 1400--1450 | The Great Vowel Shift | |
| 1400--1600 | Main period of older Scots literature | |
| 1476 | Introduction of printing | |
| 1475--1650 | Renaissance loan words into English | |
| 1549 | Book of Common Prayer written | |
| 1560--1620 | English plantation settlements in Ireland | |
| 1584 | Roanoke settlement in America | |
| 1590--1616 | Shakespeare's main works written | |
| 1600 | East India Company established trading posts in India | |
| 1603 | Act of Union of the crowns of England and Scotland | |
| 1604 | Publication of Robert Cawdrey's A Table Alphabeticall | |
| 1607 | First permanent English settlement in America | |
| 1609 | First English settlement in the Caribbean | |
| 1611 | Authorized Version of the Bible | |
| 1619 | Arrival of first African slaves in North America | |
| 1620 | Arrival of the Pilgrim Fathers in America | |
| 1623 | First Folio of Shakespeare's plays published | |
| 1627 | British established in Barbados | |
| 1655 | British acquire Jamaica from Spain | |
| 1707 | Union of the Parliaments of England and Scotland | |
| 1712 | Jonathan Swift's proposal for an English Academy | |
| 1713 | British control in eastern Canada recognized | |
| 1721 | Publication of Nathaniel Bailey's Universal Etymological English Dictionary | |
| 1755 | Publication of Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language | |
| 1762 | Publication of Robert Lowth's Short Introduction to English Grammar | |
| 1765--1947 | British Raj in India | |
| 1776 | American independence declared | |
| 1780--1800 | First wave of emigration to Canada from the USA | |
| 1783 | Loss of American colonies of Britain | |
| 1788 | Establishment of first penal colony in Australia | |
| 1791 | Establishment of Upper and Lower Canada | |
| 1794 | Publication of Lindley Murray's English Grammar | |
| 1800--1910 | Main period of European emigration to the USA | |
| 1802 | Ceylon and Trinidad ceded to Britain | |
| 1803 | Act of Union between Britain and Ireland | |
| 1806 | British control established in South Africa | |
| 1808 | Sierra Leone made colony | |
| 1814 | Tobago, Mauritius, St Lucia and Malta ceded to Britain | |
| 1816 | Colony of Bathurst (Gambia) established | |
| 1819 | British established Singapore | |
| 1828 | Publication of Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language | |
| 1840 | Official colony established in New Zealand | |
| 1842 | Hong Kong ceded to Britain | |
| 1861 | Lagos (Nigeria) established as colony | |
| 1865--1900 | Movement of blacks to northern parts of the USA after the American Civil War | |
| 1867 | Independence of Canada | |
| 1874 | Gold Coast (Ghana) established as colony | |
| 1884--1928 | Publication of the Oxford English Dictionary | |
| 1888--1894 | British protectorates established in Kenya, Zanzibar, Uganda | |
| 1901 | Independence of Australia | |
| 1907 | Independence of New Zealand | |
| 1910 | Union of South Africa established | |
| 1919 | Tanganyika ceded to Britain | |
| 1922 | Partition of Northern Ireland and Eire | |
| 1922 | Establishment of the BBC | |
| 1925 | Afrikaans given official status in South Africa | |
| 1931 | British Commonwealth recognized | |
| 1947 | Independence of India | |
| 1948 | Independence of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) | |
| 1957 | Independence of Ghana | |
| 1957--63 | Independence of Malaysia | |
| 1960 | Independence of Nigeria | |
| 1940--1975 | Main period of immigration to Britain from Europe, Caribbean and Asia | |
| 1961 | Independence of Sierra Leone and Cyprus | |
| 1962 | Independence of Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda | |
| 1963 | Independence of Kenya | |
| 1964 | Independence of Tanzania, Malawi, Malta, Zambia | |
| 1965 | Independence of The Gambia, Singapore | |
| 1966 | Independence of Guyana, Botswana, Lesotho, Barbados | |
| 1968 | Independence of Mauritius, Swaziland, Nauru | |
| 1970--1984 | Independence of possessions in Caribbean and Pacific | |
| 1972 | Independence of Bangladesh | |
| 1972 | First network e-mail sent | |
| 1975 | Independence of Papua New Guinea | |
| 1977 | Voyager spacecraft leaves with English message | |
| 1984 | Independence of Brunei | |
| 1986 | Independence of Marshall Islands | |
| 1988 | CD-ROM of the Oxford English Dictionary | |
| 1990 | Independence of Namibia | |
| 1991 | Independence of the Federated States of Micronesia | |
| 1991 | Implementation of the World Wide Web | |
| 1994 | Independence of Palau | |
| 2000 | Oxford English Dictionary goes online |
[2011-01-30-1]εΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻפ[2011-04-09-1]εΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2)פǡaged, jagged ʤɤ2Ȥȯ¤ˤĤaged ˤĤƤ、̾ˤäɤ줬뤳Ȥ˸ڤaged ɽʬƻ -ed ȯɤϡ̻ŪѲ߿ʹǤ뤳ȤƤΤȹͤ롥Ѳϡ̵ -ed ƤȤꡤᲽǤ롥Bolinger (148fn) ϡ-ed Ჽ1920ˤƿʹԤƤǤŪʲѲǤɾƤ롥
The reduction of -ed has been perhaps the most striking phonological change in English in the past century and a half. Poutsma (Part II, §2, p. 569) quotes Bradley to the effect that "Within the memory of living persons it was still usual in the reading of the Bible or the Liturgy to make two syllables of such words as loved or changed, which are now pronounced in one syllable." As a child I gave striped and streaked two syllables each. The disintegration continues; I have heard jagged pronounced as one syllable by a-twelve-year old.
ȤƤ -ed α̿Ჽˤ뤳ȤϡѸˤή줫餫Ǥ롥礭Ĭή˹ĬήȤơ2ݻΥꥺ餹ȤΧŪװ롥СξĬή礭Ĭήߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤ⡤ʹԤ٤餻뤯餤ˤϺѤƤȹͤ롥κѤ˸³ãĤĤȤȤaged, beloved, naked, wicked ʤɤ٤Ū⤤ -ed ΩǤʤʤϱʤΤ⤷ʤ
Bolinger, Dwight L. "Pitch Accent and Sentence Rhythm." Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Ed. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kanekiyo. Tokyo: Hakuou, 1965. 139--80.
ѸȯֻбطŪ11礭æƤ¤ˤĤƤϡspelling_pronunciation_gap νˤƤξŪطʤˤĤƤ[2009-06-28-2]ε֤ʤ֤ȯЪΥƤ椯ΤפǽҤ٤Ȥ櫓첻 ( Great Vowel Shift; see [2009-11-18-1] ) ֻȯפ⤿餷θǤȡ¿αѸ˳ǼĥƤ롥
μĥοΰ̣ˤϡ⤦ͤʤФʤʤȤΤϡ㤨 name ȯ /nɑːm/ /neɪm/ GVS ľܤνϤ /nɛːm/ ˤѲȤȼΤȯֻЪΥ߽ФȤϹͤʤ[2009-11-19-1], [2009-11-20-1], [2011-05-13-1]εʤɤǸ褦 GVS ˤ㳰ϤΤΡ§ȤƶΤĹ첻ФưΧƯǤȤСȯֻδطѲΧäϤǤ롥<a> /ɑː/ ؤбä /eɪ/ ؤб櫓ǤꡤϰӤƤ<a> = /eɪ/ οطӤƼƤʾ塤äפϤʤȤǤ롥GVS ȯֻЪΥ⤿餷θȤߤʤƤ褤Τ
Ǥ٤礫ɤ̤ȤơǤȹͤͳϤ롥ˡGVS Ĺ첻Τߤ˺ѤȤפɬפ롥û첻ɽ魯 <a> ֻ /a/ ʸˤ /æ/ ˤβбޤޤäѸνηϤľܤ첻ĹûɸΤǤϤʤΰ̣ǤϸűѸ <a> 1ʸʤȤĹû첻2бƤ櫓ǡǤۤ11δطƤŪˤ첻ĹûۤɤκǤСЪΥפȸƤ֤ۤɤοȤϤʤʤ줬Ĺ첻Τߤ˺Ѥ GVS ˤꡤѸǤ <a> û첻ȤƤ /æ/ ˡĹ첻ȤƤ /eɪ/ б뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäϤñʲĹûǤϤʤ<a> Ȥ1ʸΰۤʤ2б뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤäΤǤ롥ΰ̣ǡGVS ϳΤˡָפȸƤ٤
ˡGVS ˤ <a> 첻Ȥ /eɪ/ б褦ˤʤȡ̤ /eɪ/ бֻʤȤ߹碌ˤȤδ֤νʣ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥aim say ʤɤ <ai> <ay> ϸѸǤŵŪ /eɪ/ ؤбֻ <a> ⻲ƤȤʤȡۤ11ɤǤϤʤǤ⡤GVS Ǥΰüǧ롥
GVS ȯֻЪΥθǤȤĥϷ̤ȤƤϼ뤬ľŪʸȤϡǵ褦ˤŪʸȤ٤
[2011-04-12-1]εBritannica Online ǻȤǤϿޡפǾҲ𤷤²νɤʬϿޤǤϡȸɤΤΤ礱ƤõƤ⸫ʤäΤǡ (19) ͤˡޤʥȸʬϿޤƤߤ
*
ȸʬϿޤȸƤΤϡMan Manx Cornwall Cornish ϻ¾夹Ǥ˻ȤʤäƤ뤫Ǥ롥1ǯ˥衼åΦγϤʬۤƤȤ륱ȽϡǤϥ衼åѤնǤ the British Isles Brittany (see [2011-05-01-1]) Ǻ١¸³Ƥ롥
(148) ȤȸɤηޤƤߤηޤϡ[2009-06-17-1]ǷǤޤΰʤȸɤοޡʽʬˡˤȤϼ㴳ۤʤ롥ϡǯθοŸȿǤ̤Ǥ롥

ꥹΥȽѤˤĤƤϡEthnologue Languages of Ireland Ͽޤ⻲ȡ
إȤο̮١̼ҡ2007ǯ
ܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤夲Ƥ2Ĥ˱Ѹ쥳ѥ PPCMBE ( Penn Parsed Corpus of Modern British English; see [2010-03-03-1]. ) COHA ( Corpus of Historical American English; see [2010-09-19-1]. ) ˤĤơܻرѸ쥳ѥ٤κǿ˸ΡȤȯɽƤ롥ξԤȤ2010ǯ˸줿ѸΥѥ줾ѼǤ뤳ȡޤԻŪۤʤ뤳Ȥ٤ӤоݤˤŬʤɽϤȤ륳ѥΰŪħ٤뤳Ȥϰ̣
PPCMBE 1700--1914ǯΥꥹѸƥ949,000ǹƤꡤParsed Corpora of Historical English 1ʤƱͤ˹ʸϤ줿Ťб륳ѥȤ³ռǤ롥ͭǥǡꤹɬפ롥COHA 1810--2009ǯΥꥫѸƥ4Ͽ祳ѥǤ롥ϡʸϤϤƤʤCOHA ̵ǥ饤Ǥ뤿Ȥ䤹եꤵƤΤǽʥǡǤʤȤ롥
ѥεϤȤط뤬PPCMBE ɽ (representativeness) 롥PPCMBE ΥѥƥȤ18غ٤ʬषƥǯ10ǯߤǤȤȡȤʤޥܤ¿롥ϡʬ٤ͭյʬϷ̤ФʤȤȤǤꡤѤ˺ݤդפ롥
COHA ΥѥƥȤ Fiction, Popular Magazines, Newspapers, Non-Fiction Books 4绨Ĥ˶ʬƤ롥٤ʬθˤѤǤʤ10ǯߤǤƥޥܤŬڤʥΥƥȤۤƤꡤɽϤ褯ݤƤ롥Fiction ιΨɤλ50%ƤꡤFiction θħä˸áˤѥΤθħ˱ƶͿƤȹͤ졤ʬϤκݤˤϤդפ롥
ܻϡξѥΰʾħѸˤƻӵ顦ǾˤäƼƤ롥CONCE (Corpus of Nineteenth-Century English) Ѥ Kytö and Romaine ԸˤС19δ֡ӵαФγϡ30ǯߤƬ57.1%67.8%ؤäƤȤƱͤĴ COHA PPCMBE 10ǯߤ˻ܤȤԤǤ1810ǯ64.7%1910ǯ74.3%¤äƤ뤳ȤΤ줿ԤǤ1810ǯ79.4%1910ǯ78.0%ޤɤ줬㤷äȤܡp. 56ˡCONCEƱͤ30ǯߤʬϤľȡPPCMBE ǤͭդѲܴۤѻǤۤɤη̤ǤȤ
ѥϤ줾ȼħäƤ롥褯İѤɬפ뤳ȤǧϢơ[2010-06-04-1]εή˵դäƤӵˡפȡ
2ĤλŦѥ---ɽסرѸ쥳ѥ18桤Ѹ쥳ѥز2011ǯ49--59ǡ
Kytö, M. and S. Romaine. "Adjective Comparison in Nineteenth-Century English." Nineteenth-Century English: Stability and Change. Ed. M. Kytö, M. Rydén, and E. Smitterberg. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 194--214.
ѹʸˡʤ̳ΤMagna Carta ס1215ǯThe Great Charterˡס1628ǯThe Petition of Rightˡŵס1689ǯThe Bill of Rightsˤ3Ĥδˡŵ2Ĥ϶17λʪǽϤ13ȤʤᤤäȤϤˡŵȤƹ⤤ɾͿΤ17ΤȤǤꡤΡˤη굯פη̤Ȥ٤Ǥ롥Ǥ⡤13ɹˤ Magna Carta ᤰäƷ깭ƤȤϳΤǤ롥
̤ˤä John ϡ㲦 Henry II Richard I ͭƤեιڤˤäƼä1204ǯΥΥޥǥӼä˼ˤɤΦΰؤȲŪȤʤäʤνϡ2ˤ錄륤ɤǤΥեοȱѸδŪʷȤʤäƤꡤѸˤˤȤäƤ礭ˡθ John ϥե Philip II åԤΤ襤ĩब1214ǯ̤֡襤Ԥʤ롥 Richard I ³ݤΤνǤ˶줷ǤˤȤäơJohn ⳰μѤΤȤʤꡤĤ1215ǯ²ΰ John 緯Ȥߤʤʤݤ롥ϤʤͤΩƤʬҤä礤ʸƥǽ줿ζʸϡƥॺ Runnymede ˤ1215ǯ615Ĵȯۤ줿
ֽ (The Articles of the Barons) ȸƤФ줿ζƤ63ʤ뻨¿ǤꡤŪϴʤJohn ؤζŪľŪܤǤꡤ줿褦ΩäȤտޤϤʤääơḽϤι⤤ɾϤ̣DzǤŪǤ⤢ΤʸˤäCԤ¤ä褦Ȥȡ䴷Ĵ줿ȤŪյ礭
John ϤζʸĴϤʤ餹տޤϤʤľ˥ Innocent III ̵ȤƤޤä1216ǯˤ John »षᡤ²ϷѤ Henry III ΤȤǶʸǺȯԤ1217ǯ1225ǯˤ⽤ǤȯԤ졤ʹߡ1225ǯǤӤӳǧƤ椯Ȥˤʤ롥ä1297ǯ Edward I ˤǧϽפǡMagna Carta ˡϿ˼뤳ȤˤʤäʸȽ̤Ƹξ礭̤ȤȤϡ¤Ϥʤ17˺ѤʥƤӳФޤ졤ʰյդ줿ȤȤǤ롥
ơѸ The Great CharterܸϡפϤ줾ƥ Magna Carta ǡˤʸ餷 Magna 뤤 Great ϡ衤ȤƤΰ礵ɽ魯ΤǤϤʤŪ礭Ҥƻˤʤä1217ǯνǤǡӤ˴ؤबڤΥΩָӷϡ (The Charter of the Forest) Ȥ줿ΤǡĤʬϡפȤ̾ΤǸƤФ뤳ȤˤʤäˤʤǤϡ[2011-05-01-1]εpanda BritainפǻŦ giant panda Great Britain ȤޤäƱǤ롥
Magna Carta ˤĤƤϡThe British Library Treasures in Full: Magna Carta ܤMagna Carta ޥǥdzؤ٤롥
ʸ嵭2013/03/28(Thu)Ʊ BL β⤹Ф餷
إҥȥꥫ롦ɡꥹǡ١2000ǯ47--52ǡ
Biber et al. (Section 4.5.6 [pp. 291--22]) ˡ̾ñʣ٤˴ؤ뵭Ҥ롥Ѹˤ绨ĤʬۤǤϤ뤬LSWE Corpus 500쥵֥ѥѤǤͤʤΤǻͤޤǤ˥⤷Ƥޤƥ֥ѥ100˴ƤΥդκƸʿͥǡͿƤʤäΤǥդ鳵ɤäƤκƸˡ

(1) conversation transcription (CONV), fiction text (FICT), newspaper text (NEWS), academic text (ACAD) 4֥ѥ֤κ㤷
- §ȤʣȤʤԲĻ̾ޤƤȤϤ٤ƤΥ֥ѥñʣ٤⤤
- äǤñ٤Ū⤤
- դǤäդʣ٤3--4ܤ⤤
(2) ġ̾Ǥߤȡ¿̾줬ñ뤤ʣΤ줫ؤζФ
(3) 㤨С̾75%ʾγñȤ롥ex. car, god, government, grandmother, head, house, theory.
(4) 㤨С̾75%ʾγʣȤ롥ex. grandchildren, parents, socks, circumstances, eyebrows, onlookers, employees, perks.
(1) ˴ؤơñŪ¿ȼΤϤޤäԻĤǤϤʤҤΤ褦ԲĻ̾ϸ§ȤñʤޤۤȤɤβĻ̾Ǥñ lemma ΤΤǤ뤷̵ɸη֤Ǥ⤢롥ۤˤϡγǰΩ硤㤨 hand in hand, from time to time ʤɤδɽˤƤϡñѤΤ̤Ǥ롥
(2)--(4) ˴ؤơ̾ˤäñʣؤФȤΤäʤ줾θ췲įС "the communicative needs of the language user" (291) ȿǤƤ뤳ȤϤäʬ̾Τʤ餻С֥ߥ˥ɬפñФꤽȤȤľ롥
ǤϡäñλѤ¿ȤΤϡɤ櫓Biber et al. (291--92) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
In general, the high frequency of singular nouns in conversation probably follows from the concern of speakers with individuals: a person, a thing, an event. Writers of academic prose, on the other hand, are more preoccupied with generalizations that are valid more widely (for people, things, events, etc.). This same tendency applies not only to nouns, but also to determiners and pronouns (4.4.3.1, 4.12.1, 4.14.1, 4.15.2.1).
ѥΤȤƤϡʣϰ̾2٤ʤȤˤʤ롥ʣθȤʤĤޤʣʤ٤¿ʤФʤʤ˻ˤȤäƤϡʤʤͤʤ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
ܲ Martinet Éléments de linguistique générale ˮذ̸١ˤɤߡ̸ؤνǰˤĤٶľƤ[2011-05-14-1], [2011-05-15-1], [2011-06-02-1], [2011-06-03-1]γƵ Martinet θդѤƤˡ褦䤯ȥΥԡˤäȤMartinet ˤȤäƤΡָ (langue) Ȥϲ (43--44) Ҳ𤷤ʤ櫓ˤϤʤĤǰѤ롥
1-14. Qu'est-ce qu'une langue?
Nous pouvons maintenant tenter de formuler ce que nous entendons par «langue». Une langue est un instrument de communication selon lequel l'expérience humaine s'analyse, différemment dans chaque communauté, en unités douées d'un contenu sémantique et d'une expression phonique, les monèmes : cette expression phonique s'articule à son tour en unités distinctives et successives, les phonèmes, en nombre déterminé dans chaque langue, dont la nature et les rapports mutuels diffèrent eux aussi d'une langue à une autre. Ceci implique 1o que nous réservons le terme de langue pour désigner un instrument de communication doublement articulé et de manifestation vocale, 2o que, hors cette base commune, comme le marquent les termes «différemment» et «diffèrent» dans la formulation ci-dessus, rien n'est proprement linguistique qui ne puisse différer d'une langue à une autre : c'est dans ce sens qu'il faut comprendre l'affirmation que les faits de langue sont «arbitraires» ou «conventionnels».
1-14. (langue) Ȥϲ
桹ϤޡָפƤȤΤΤŤ褦Ȼߤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ȥϡʹ֤ηиƶƱΤˤưۤʤạ̇̄ƤȲɽͿ줿ñ (monème) ؤʬϤˡɽ魯ߥ˥ʤǤ롥βɽϡ٤ŪϢ³Ūñ (phonème) ؤʬᤵ졤οϳƸǷޤäƤꡤߴطϤ켫Ȥ줴Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤ롥ΤȤĤΤȤްդ롥(1) ָפȤѸϡŤʬᤵ줿ˤäɽ륳ߥ˥ʤؤˤȤäƤȤȡ(2) ζ̴פȳǤϡְۤʤǡפְۤʤäƤפȤ줬Ƥ̤ꡤ줴Ȥ˰ۤʤʤǡʤΤ⸷̩ˤϸŪǤϤʤλ¤Ūפ뤤ϡִŪפǤȤĥϡΰ̣ˤ٤Ǥ롥
ۤΤ˸вϤʤʹ֤ϡؤȤΤ˼Ŭ줹ΤǤ롥7000ĤȤΤ줾줬ŪǴŪ줿ηϤθƤꡤޤ¤줿ƱΤǻѤƤˤʤȤΤȤΤäƤ¸ߤξ˵դǡƸϡŪƻˤʤȤɤ⡤ʤۤɤʣηϤɽ路Ƥ롥ԻĤʤ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
[2010-08-28-1]εȯɤΰפǡLongman Pronunciation Dictionary ˼夲ƤɤꥹȤ 1981ǯ BBC ȯɡ Robert Burchfield ԡˤǼ夲ƤȤȯɤΰ Crystal (62) ˷ǺܤƤΤäƤˡBBC 侩ȯˡȯ˼LPD Preference Poll η̤ͿƤˤĤƤϥꥹȯǤλΨѡȤǼ
| Word | BBC recommended | Variant |
|---|---|---|
| adversary | /ˈædvəsəri/ | /ədˈvəːsəri/ |
| apartheid | /əˈpɑːtheɪt/ | /əˈpɑːthaɪt/ |
| apparatus | /ˌæpəˈreɪtəs/ | /ˌæpəˈrɑːtəs/ |
| applicable | /ˈæplɪkəbl/ (15%) | /əˈplɪkəbl/ (85%) |
| ate | /ɛt/ (55%) | /eɪt/ (45%) |
| centenary | /ˌsɛnˈtiːnəri/ | /ˌsɛnˈtɛnəri/ |
| centrifugal | /ˌsɛnˈtrɪfjʊgəl/ | /ˌsɛntrɪˈfjuːgəl/ |
| comparable | /ˈkɒmpərəbl/ | /kəmˈpærəbl/ |
| contribute | /kənˈtrɪbjuːt/ (41%) | /ˈkɑntrɪbjuːt/ (59%) |
| controversy | /ˈkɒntrəvəːsi/ (40%) | /kənˈtrɒvəsi/ (60%) |
| deity | /ˈdiːəti/ (20%) | /ˈdeɪəti/ (80%) |
| derisive | /diˈraɪsɪv/ | /diˈraɪzɪv/ |
| dilemma | /dɪˈlɛmə/ | /daɪˈlɛmə/ |
| diphtheria | /dɪfˈθɪəriə/ | /dɪpˈθɪəriə/ |
| dispute | /dɪsˈpjuːt/ (62%) | /ˈdɪspjuːt/ (38%) |
| economic | /ˌiːkəˈnɒmɪk/ (62%) or /ˌɛkəˈnɒmɪk/ (38%) | <- both accepted |
| envelope | /ˈɛnvələup/ (78%) | /ˈɒnvələup/ (22%) |
| furore | /fjuˈrɔːri/ | /ˈfjʊərɔː/ |
| homosexual | /ˌhɒməˈsɛksjuəl/ (59%) | /ˌhəʊməˈsɛksjuəl/ (41%) |
| inherent | /ɪnˈhɪərənt/ (34%) | /ɪnˈhɛrənt/ (66%) |
| kilometre | /ˈkɪləˌmiːtə/ | /kɪˈlɒmɪtə/ |
| longitude | /ˈlɒnʤɪtjuːd/ (15%) | /ˈlɒŋgɪtjuːd/ (85%) |
| medicine | /ˈmɛdsən/ | /ˈmɛdɪsən/ |
| migraine | /ˈmiːgreɪn/ (61%) | /ˈmaɪgreɪn/ (39%) |
| pejorative | /pɪˈʤɒrətɪv/ | /ˈpiːʤərətɪv/ |
| plastic | /ˈplæstɪk/ (91%) | /ˈplɑːstɪk/ (9%) |
| primarily | /ˈpraɪmərəri/ (49%) | /praɪˈmɛrəli/ (51%) |
| privacy | /ˈprɪvəsi/ (88%) | /ˈpraɪvəsi/ (12%) |
| sheikh | /ʃeɪk/ | /ʃiːk/ |
| Soviet | /ˈsɒviɛt/ (27%) | /ˈsəʊviɛt/ (73%) |
| status | /ˈsteɪtəs/ | /ˈstætəs/ |
| subsidence | /səbˈsaɪdəns/ (47%) | /ˈsʌbsɪdəns/ (53%) |
| trait | /treɪ/ | /treɪt/ |
RP ( = Received Pronunciation ) ǧȯפΩˤĤơ[2009-11-21-1]εֻȳ̿ȳ̿ȱѸˡפǴñ˿줿RP ϡ18Ⱦȳ̿ȳ̿δŪʷ̤Ȥ19ˤ Eton, Harrow, Winchester ʤɤΥѥ֥åȯȷӤĤ졤䤬ƶؤȯȤƹǧ褦ˤʤä⤤ RP ȤˤĤܴ͡ģ䷳ΤʤǸϤᡤRP ϸҤθȤʤäRP ϼҲŪѼǤϰŪ¤ޤǤʤȤ顤1920ǯ塤BBC Ω夲˺ݤƵŪȯȤƺѤ졤ޤޤ͡μ˿褦ˤʤä2ˤϡBBC ̤¿ο͡ˡ RP ἫͳפȤݤĤ졤θҤޤä
RP 200ǯˤ錄äƱѹ⳰ۤ夲Ƥϰ̤ϸߤǤ˴롥㤨СˡIJѹ¾ιŪؤǤϹʹ롥ޤꥹѸǥȤ EFL ؽԤˤȤäƤϡ¾塤ͣΥꥹȯȤäƤ褤ºݤˡѹͤ RP üԤ⳰ͤ RP üԤΤۤ¿ˡѸ츦塤ǤܤӤƤѼǤ⤢롥
ζؤϡRP ŤʹѤθȯposh ȯȤɾ⸽ϤƤꡤĤƤ RP Ūͤɤ餤ǤƤ롥ǥȯãˤϰѼ郎͡μ褦ˤʤäơԴƤ¤餤ǤȤͳ⤢[2010-08-04-1]εEstuary EnglishפǸȤꡤ¾Ѽ郎饤ХȤƱƶϤƤƤȤ⤢
Crystal (68) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤߡRP ˤϲߴäƤ褦Ǥ롥
For the first time since the eighteenth century, the 'prestige accent' has begun to pick up some of the negative aura which traditionally would have been associated only with some kinds of regional speech.
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
εָ[2011-06-02-1]˰³ҥȤθħˤĤơ٤ƤθŤʬᤵƤ롥Τνפʬ ( double articulation ) ȸƤФ롥
ʬϡ첽ã٤ʪMartinet monème ȸƤ֤ȤβỌ̇̄ڥǥץ벽줿ŵŪˤϸˤʬ᤹Ǥ롥ȤȤ Martinet Ѥ롥
La première articulation du langage est celle selon laquelle tout fait d'expérience à transmettre, tout besoin qu'on désire faire connaître à autrui s'analysent en une suite d'unités douées chacune d'une forme vocale et d'un sens. (Martinet 37)
ʬϡã٤٤ƤηиŪ¤¾ͤΤ餻˾ह٤Ƥ줾첻Ọ̇̄Ϳ줿ñ̤Ϣ³ؤʬϤǤ롥
La première articulation est la façon dont s'ordonne l'expérience commune à tous les membres d'une communauté linguistique déterminée. Ce n'est que dans le cadre de cette expérience, nécessairement limitée à ce quie est commun à un nombre considérable d'individus, qu'on communique linguistiquement. (Martinet 38)
ʬϡθ춦ƱΤ˶̤иŤˡǤ롥¿θĿͤˤȤäƶ̤ʪɬŪ˸¤뤳ηиϰˤƤΤߡͤϸŪ˥ߥ˥Ȥ뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥
ʬˤ¿ monème ڤФ뤬ޤǿʹ֤εѤۤɤͭ¸Ĥޤ롥monème ͭ¸ĤȤ߹碌ˤ̵¤ɽ뤳ȤǽǤꡤηкȸΨݤ롥ˤҤ٤ƤȤꡤηкȸΨϤޤʬλͭƤ¤줿ƱǤΤ߳ݤդ٤Ǥ롥
ʬˤ겻Ọ̇̄ʤñ monème ¿ڤФ뤬˴ؤƤϤ˾ñ̡Ūñ̤ؤʬϤ뤳ȤǤ롥ʬˤäơphonème פȸƤФñ̤ڤФ롥㤨Сե tête /tet/ ϡ/t/, /e/, /t/ 3ĤʬηȤª롥
Chacune de ces unités de première articulation présente, nous l'avons vu, un sens et une forme vocale (ou phonique). Elle ne saurait être analysée en unités successives plus petites douées de sens : l'ensemble tête veut dire «tête» et l'on ne peut attribuer à tê- et à-te des sens distincts dont la somme serait équivalence à «tête». Mais la forme vocale est, elle, analysable en une succession d'unités dont chacune contribue à distinguer tête, par exemple, d'autres unités comme bête, tante ou terre. C'est ce qu'on désignera comme la deuxième articulation du langage. (Martine 38--39)
Ǹ褦ˡʬˤñ̤Τ줾ϡ̣Ȳɽ路Ƥ롥ñ̤ϡ̣Ϳ줿꾮Ϣ³ñ̤ؤʬϤ뤳ȤϤǤʤtête ΤȤơƬפ̣ΤǤꡤtê- -te ˡ碌ơƬפɽ魯Ȥˤʤ褦ʶ̤줿̣Ϳ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤۤϡϢñ̤ؤȡʤΤ줾줬㤨 tête bête, tante, terre Τ褦¾ñ̤ȶ̤Τ˹褦ñ̤ؤʬϤ뤳ȤǤ롥줬ʬȤΤǤ롥
ʬˤäڤФ줿ƲǤϤ꾮ñ̤ؤʬǤʤΤǡʬκȤϽλ롥ܤˤƺǸʬˤꡤĤǼޤʤ phonème ǤѤ뤳Ȥˤäơ̵Ȥ⤤ monème ߽ФȤǤΤǤ롥
ˤξʬηкȸΨϤϤꤷʤ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
ҥȤθθħ1Ĥ ( linearity ) 롥ȯäˤƼˤϤΤ褦˽ŤΤ뺬ŪʾǤꡤˤäƸι¤礭Ƥ롥
Ȥϡȯäϻ֤˱äƷѵȤ§Ǥ롥ȯﴱ¾塤ҥȤƱִ֤˰ۤʤʣβȯ뤳ȤǤʤʣβФˤϡ֤˱äƽ֤ˤĤʤ碌뤷ʤʹˤȤäƤƱͤǡʣθ첻ƱʹʬȤΤϡüǽϤäƤʤ¤ԲǽȤϤ鷺Ȥ顤Ʋ¤ӽ礬ӤӤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥㤨СѸ /t/, /ɒ/, /p/ Ϥ줾̤벻Ǥ¤ӽˤäƤ top, pot, opt ʤɤȰۤʤ줬롥ϰ̣㤨뵡ǽޤǤȸ롥
ϲǤ¤ӤŬѤ櫓ǤϤʤǡ졤硤ᡤʸȤä礭ñ̤⡤¤٤뤳ȤǤȯäʤѸΤ褦ʸŻθˤƤϡDog bites man. Man bites dog. 礭ʰ̣κỤ̤̄礭ѤƤǤ롥ɸȯãǤϡ¤ӽɬŪʰ̣κʤܸǤϡָͤפθѤơֿͤפɽ뤳ȤǤ롥顤Ǥ礭ʥ٥ˤƤϡϰ̣㤨뵡ǽޤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢Сɬ⤽ǤʤȤ⤢롤ȤȤʬ롥ǤܸΤ褦ˡΰ㤤϶ĴȤäŪʸṲ̄ȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿Υ٥ˤʬŪ˺ѤƤ餷Ȥʬ롥
ϡä˲ǥ٥ˤơȤϤ¤¸ߤηϤȤˤĤơMartinet (40--41) θʸĤǰѤ롥
1-10. Forme linéaire et caractère vocal
Toute langue se manifeste donc sous la forme linéaire d'énoncés qui représentent ce qu'on appelle souvent la chaîne parlée. Cette forme linéaire du langage humain dérive en dernière analyse de son caractère vocal : les énoncés vocaux se déroulent nécessairement dans le temps et sont nécessairement perçus par l'ouïe comme une succession.
1-10. Ūȯħ
٤ƤθϡȯäϢȤФиƤФΤɽŪΤȤɽФ롥ҥȤθΤŪϡɤΤȤҥȤȯħͳ褹롥ɽɬ֤˱äŸΤǤꡤİФˤäɬ³ΤΤȤǧΤǤ롥
Ϣơ[2009-08-18-1]εָ̤Ф --- iconicityפ (3) ⻲ȡ
Martinet, André. Éléments de linguistique générale. 5th ed. Armand Colin: Paris, 2008.
εָѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ([2011-05-31-1]) ǻȤʸ佼ˡ˴ؤͻspeculative ʤ餽ηؤ̣ޥȸŵ줫佼ˡͻȤǡ (47--48) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤʸʸηϡǤˤƤˡ
Τ䤦ʸݤϡǤϰǡʤ뿴Ū˴𤤤ΤǤ餦
ʾȤϡ餬ǤŪʡϤĤƻѤ뤳ȤκǤˤʸ֤ȤդȤƤ롥ؤС佼ˡˤĤɽǰϡ桹˺ǤƤΤФǤ롥ΤȤ桹οŪ٤ƸФؤ롥
ֿʹ֤ʤʪȤϡĤŪ˼ʪä˺٤˱ǤΤǤ뤬ƱʤʪȤ⡽ϤζǤ뤬ɽݳλʪ줬üδ봤ȻװԤ˶ᤱжᤤغ٤ظŪİΤǤסʥȥۥջǡˡ
ϿͤˤĤƤϡȤȤȤդȤ餦ȤդȤȤϡŪ˰ۤĤĤǤĤΤǤĤơŪѫͤۤˤƤ𤿡ȤդȤϡŤȤչત˹ԤϤ줿ȤۤΤǤϤʤơȤȤǤ롥¨ΤĤƤȤ̣ΤǤ롥ޤȤȤȤϡŤŪʳǤϤʤĤ¾ͤȤϡबͥ뤳ȤǤ롥ϲ¸Ω϶ϽǤ餦ޤư̾ʤȡ¾ԤιưԤʡгϤгʤȤϡƱ֤٤ΤǤϤʤĤʤŤ̾ʤ˱Ƥҿ̤ɬܤǤĤ椬ʤȤʤȤȤǤϡüٹ̤ǤĤΤǤ롥ľϿ²˱ưۺŪɽѤҤ졤˵Ͽ²ˤĤƤƱŪɽѤҤ䤦ʻԹ͡vater : mutter. neffe : nichte Ʊˤդ˻˱ơֻ軰װʾ˱ƽŪ˻ؤƤʤ顤ְ졽ספĤΤߤ佼Ū˻ؤ롥ʤǤ뤫ʪλϤǤ롥ڤü˰̤ΤǤ롥ơֺǤϤסʺǾˤ̣ᤵ first, prôtus, prīmus ˡΤǤ롥Ϥ줫֤ΤǤ롥ӵᤵ deúteros, secundus ˡ
ǷפˡϿͤʪŪˡŪˡŪѫͤ˴𤤤ƸΤǤ롥ǷȿʸͤʪŪˡŪˡʪŪѫͤ˴𤤤ƸΤħȤ롥Ÿ϶ŪɽݤŪǰؤΰܹԤǡ˼Ƥ롥ڥ륻ϡ֤ǰ˶̤ʤΤɽϤƤ𤿡סʡָϻˤȸƤ뤬ϤƤ𤿤ΤǤϤʤơ餯̣ƤΤǤϤޤԥʤɤ⤵Ƥ䤦Ǥ롥ĤޤϱˡǤ롥
ͤμŪŪñŪȯۤȤ speculative Ǥꡤ¾ڤϤǤʤΤΡʸŪʴߤȤƤ⤷
ס佼ˡˤĤơסرѸʸѡ7עʸܱѸʸԽԡˡ1935ǯ39--49ǡ1935ǯ
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