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ˤȤ뤳Ȥ¿Τǡ˴Ϣǯɽ֤ƤǤ롥#1427. פʱ˴ؤǯɽ ([2013-03-24-1]) Ǥǯɽϻ߷ (744--45) αǯɽɲäɽ * ƹϢơѸ - Wikipediaξͭѡ
| 9c | Vespasian Psalter ΥƥֻӡԴ (interlinear gloss)ޡ |
| 10cƬ | Paris Psalter ΥƥOEֻӡס50ӤޤǤϥȥȤ뻶ʸʲƬʤ |
| c950 | Lindisfarne Gospels 700ǯä줿ƥʡʸιԴ֤ˡ950ǯ.Ρ֥ꥢˤäƤ |
| 10cȾ | Rushworth Gospels Lindisfarne Gospels ιԴˤʤ餦ޥ̥ޡˤȼ |
| c1000 | West-Saxon Gospels ɸŪȥˤǽ!)ܳŪ |
| Ælfric's Heptateuch 'ʸˡ' Ælfric κǽ7 (Genesis-Judges) ͳʸΤǾΡ | |
| c1120 | Eadwine's Psalterium Triplex Υƥֻӡפ˥Υޥȱä |
| a1350 | West-Midland Psalter William of Shoreham λƱܤˤդޤƤΤǡĤƤƱͤ˵Ƥ |
| Richard Rolle's Psalter Υƥֻӡפ˥Ρ֥ꥢˤä | |
| c1384 | Wycliffite Bible (Early Version) J. Wyclif Nicholas of Hereford 濴ȤʤäƥƥŪǽδѸƥˡ |
| c1388--95 | Wycliffite Bible (Later Version) Wyclif John Purvey 濴Ȥʤäơ嵭ŪѸɽ˲Ρ |
| c1520 | Murdoch Nisbet: Wyclif Version in Scots Wycliffite Bible Υåȥ |
| 1525--26 | Tyndale's New Testament Υꥷ츶ŵľǽΰܱ. 1534, 1535 |
| 1530 | Martin Bucer: The Earliest English Psalter printed Martin Bucer οƥˤ롥1535ǯԤ Primer ʤɤ˼Ͽ줿 |
| Tyndale's Pentateuch | |
| 1531 | Tyndale's Jona |
| 1535 | Coverdale's Bible 'ͤ (Miles Coverdale) ˤ' ǽΰܴ |
| 1537 | Matthew Bible Tyndale δ̤Ƥä礱Ȥ Coverdale äƤ롥 'Matthew' Tyndale ͧ John Rogers ε̾ |
| 1539 | Taverner's Bible Matthew Bible β |
| The Great Bible Coverdale ˤ Matthew Bible βΡֻӡ1949ǯǤ Prayer Book ˼Ͽ | |
| 1550 | Sir John Cheke֥ޥפӡ֥ޥ륳פκǽΰ |
| 1560 | The Geneva Bible Ρֿפ1557ǯǡCalvin ɤγؼԡԤζϤˤʤ롥ΤǴʸȤ路罰˾˹סήۤ |
| 1567 | Testament newydd Υ륺1588 |
| 1568 | The Bishops' Bible Matthew Parker 紴˼綵ѰȤ The Great Bible AV ܤȤʤ |
| 1582--1610 | The Rheims-Douai Bible Ρֿפ1582ǯǡΦ˴̿ΥȥåγؼԡԤζϤˤʤ롥ƥνRichard Challoner (1749--72) ήǤδäȤʤ |
| 1602 | Tiomna Naadh William Daniel ˤ륢ɸ1686 |
| 1611 | Authorised Version άAVȤƹǤ King James Bible Ȥ⤤Lancelot Andrews ѰĹȤ50;̾ԡؼԤʤѰǴĺȤȤˡShakespeare¤ǶѸʤꤷȤ롥ήǤ1769ǯ Benjamin Blayney ƽ Oxford Ǥˤ |
| 1611--1881 | ʹ70Ǥ줿 |
| 1640 | *The Bay Psalter Book Massachusetts Bay ˿̱һ Richard Mather, John Eliot ۤ1ֻ̾ӡפˤȤŤν |
| 1729 | Daniel Mace: The New Testament in Greek and English ΥꥷʸȱαѸθѸ¿ȿǤƤȤ |
| 1755 | John Wesley's New Testament θŵˤꡤAV Ѹ12Τ AV ˱ƶ |
| 1764 | Anthony Purver: A New and Literal Translation of...the Old and New Testament 18cȾήԤʸΤʼͳԤˤʤ Quaker Bible ȤФ |
| 1768 | Edward Harwood: A Liberal Translation of the New TestamentξĹ cliché ѤŪʸΤѥե졼 |
| 1808 | *Charles Thomson: The Holy Bible ƹˤ뼷 (Septuaginta) κǽα |
| 1833 | *Noah Webster: The Holy Bible...in Common Version AV θŸŪɽ¯ |
| 1876 | *Julia E. Smith's Bible κǽνˤʴˡ |
| 1881--85 | The Revised Version άRV츶ˤȤŤ AV βߤ¿Ű |
| 1898--1901 | The Twentieth Century New Testament κǽʿפʸλߡ1904ƹ1961 |
| 1901 | *The American Standard Version άASVRV ݼƹ¦Ѱˤ |
| 1903 | F. RWeymouth: The New Testament in Modern Speech μ鹻ꥷʸˤȤŤΤʸߤ롥1924, 1929 |
| 1913--24 | James Moffatt: A New Translation of the Bible ñʤΰۤ¿οߤŪ |
| 1923 | *E. J. Goodspeed: The New Testament: An American Translation 'ΥꥫѸ'J. M. P. Smith ˤ1927ǯ |
| 1937 | *C. B. Williams: The New Testament in the Language of the People Υѥե졼Ū |
| 1940 | The New Testament in Basic English Basic English δø850ɬפ150ä10001949ǯ |
| 1941 | *The Confraternity Version Rheims-Douai (1582--1510) Challoner (1749--72) ˤȤĤƹʶIJǧο |
| 194--50 | Ronald Knox: The Holy Bible=ƥοʸ˰տޤ줿̣ɼԤ˲ʤʸᤶ롥1955 |
| 1945--59 | *The Berkeley Version β The Modern Language Bible (1969) |
| 1946--52 | *The Revised Standard Version άRSVASV ܤȤΤʸʸθ2 AV οȹԤʤäAV ΡִǤǸŵŪʸΡפ³ϤǤ¤¸뤳ȤɸȤ |
| 1947--58 | J. B. Phillips: The New Testament in Modern English οʤ Letters to Young Churches (194719572) Ϥᡤŵΰ̣ʸΤǤ¤¤褦ȻߤΤ Four Prophets (1963) ǡ |
| 1952 | E. V. Rieu: The Four Gospels Penguin Books ©Ҥ C. H. Rieu ˤ The Acts 1957ǯǡ |
| C. K. Williams: The New Testament: A New Translation of Plain English γͤФѸ춵ηи1700 'plain English' | |
| 1961--70 | The New English Bible AVΩʿʸ奤ꥹѸɸ֤롥ʸλѰߤ |
| 1966 | The Jerusalem Bible Υե La Bible Jerusalem (1961) ϤȤäʸŪ The New Jerusalem Bible (1985) |
| 1966--76 | *Good News Bibleor Today's English Version θμ㤤ɼؤʤɤ褦ʿפƸ |
| Dick Williams & Frank Shaw: Liverpool Vernacular Gospels Υס1977 | |
| 1968--70 | *Clarence Jordan: Cotton Patch Version ƹ |
| 1970 | *The New American Bible The Confraternity Versionοä̾ƽǡ1987 |
| 1971 | *Kenneth Taylor: The Living Bible: An Expanded Paraphrase ʿʸˤѥե졼ƹƻ Billy Graham οǤҤήۤ |
| 1973--78 | *The New International Version AV ºŤĤĸѸ첽ߤʸŪФƤ you, your 롥̤Фθʤ |
| 1981 | *The New Jewish Version Υ䶵ε The Holy Scriptures according to the Massoretic Text (1917) 뿷 |
| 1982 | The Revised Authorized Versionor the New King James Version θŸˡŰŪ˿ |
| 1989 | The Revised English Bible The New English Bible (l961--70) ̲thou, thy, thee δɽβʤɸ岽䤷ʤ뤬ԤǤŰ |
| *The New Revised Standard Version δԤ1990ǯthou, thy, thee δɽβǤ Revised English Bible Ű | |
| 1991 | *The Bible for Today's Family: Contemporary English Version. New Testament. Τ̤鸽ɼԤ䤹ᤶɽˤĤƤŰ줷ӽߤ |
ε#1707. Woe worth the day! ([2013-12-29-1]) ǡ캬 *wer- (to turn, bend) ͳ褹ư worth ˤĤƼ夲θ캬ͳ褹ñϿ¿äγؽΩĤȻפΤǡرѸ츻ŵ (1643) ˽äƸ캬ͥåȥ
Old English: inward, stalworth, -ward, warp, weird, worm, sorry, worth, wrench, wrest, wrestle, wring, wrinkle, wrist, wry
Middle English: (wrap)
Old Norse: wrong
Other Germanic: gaiter, garrote, ribald, (wrangle), wrath, wreath, wriggle, writhe, wroth
Latin: avert, controversy, converge, converse, convert, dextrorse, diverge, divert, extrovert, introvert, inverse, obvert pervert, prose, reverberate, revert, (ridicule), subvert, transverse, universe, verge, vermeil, vermi-, vermicelli, vermicular, vermin, versatile, verse, version, versus, vertebra
Greek: rhabd(o)-, rhabdomancy, rhapsody, (rhomb, rhombus)
Slavic: verst
Sanskrit: bat (speech)
츫ȷŪˤϴñ˷ӤĤʤ⤢뤬̣Ūˤϡֶʤ꤯ͤäפǤĤʤΤ¿ͤư (worm) ΥȷӤĤΤ¿褦˻פ롥
ǡä weird ԻĤʡ̣ΰˤ夲褦θθ츻űѸޤ̤ȡ(ge)wyrd ʱ̿ˤˤɤĤűѸʸؤˤƤȤ櫓פñǤ공ǰǤ롥"to happen" ̣ weorþan ̾Ǥꡤ"what is to happen" ʵ٤ȡˤ̣ɸѸǤϡֱ̿פθϸåȥʤɤǤϤθƤ롥
ơθϸűѸ衤̾ȤѤƤ1400ǯ餤ֱ̿ʤפ̣ƻȤƤˡȯãƻˡȤƤϡShakespeare Macbeth ˤ weird sisters ̿3ˤѤȤ˱ƶͿShelley, Keats ʤɤΥޥɻͤ⤽ˤʤäShelley ϰֱ̣̿ʤפԲĻĤʡĶŪʡפؤȳ礷ˡִ̯ʡѤʡפθȯŸޥɻͤʤǤϤΰ̣ȯŸΤȤ褦θϡűѸȸѸʸؤħ륭ɤȤäƤ褤ΤǤϤʤ
ߤθ weird ϡѸ wērd, weird ͳ褹Ȥ롥Shakespeare 1st Folio Ǥϡthe weyward sisters Ȥֻ졤츻Ū˶̤٤ wayward ʶʡޤʡˤȤκƱ롥
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
ɸʸϡֺϲȤ˼פ̣롥ǡworth ϸűѸ weorþan (to become, be, be done, be made; to happen) ̤ưǤꡤֲ͡ʤΤˡפ̣ worth Ȥ̤ΤǤ롥ĸޤ̤СξϵŪƱǤǽϤ뤬ߤ˰ۤʤȤƤƤ褤ưϡɥĸ werden (to become) ƥ verto (to turn) ʤɤƱǤ롥
űѸ weorþan Ϲ٤δưäѸǤɸΤ褦硤뤤 Woe worth you! Τ褦˿;̾ȼǤѤʤϢɽȤơWoe betide (to) me! Woe is me. ʡ#1439. ͳ褹ɽ ([2013-04-05-1]) ˵1Ȥơˤ롥
ư worth ˴ؤ뤳ɽϡ;ιʸäƤ롥ɸʸǤСwoe worth 졤the day Ϳʤ줬礱Ƥ롥Сworth ;ưǤꡤ³ˡ3;ñߤζɽ路Ƥ롥ɽ魯³ˡˡȤȤˤʤŤϡwoe Τۤ well ǽǡξˤϡ?˹פ̣
μɽϡűѸˤꡤOED Ǥ worth, v. 1 θ 1c ΤȤˡ뤤 woe, int., and adv., n., and adj. θ 4a ΤȤˡ¿ɽĤ롥MED Ǥϡworthen (v.) θ 2c(b) ˵Ҥ롥Ѹ줫Ĥ˼
a1150(OE) Vsp.D.Hom.(Vsp D.14) 5/15: Ne wurðe þe næfre swa wa þæt þu þe ne wene betere, for þan þe se wene þe ne lætt næfre forwurðen.
c1275 (?a1200) Laȝamon Brut (Calig.) (1963) l. 1678 Wa worðe þan monne. þe lond haueðe mid menske.
(c1300) Havelok (LdMisc 108) 2221: Euere wurþe him yuel and wo!
c1400(?c1390) Gawain (Nero A.10) 2127: Wel worth þe, wyȝe, þat woldez my gode.
a1425(c1385) Chaucer TC (Benson-Robinson) 2.344-6: Wo worth the faire gemme vertulees! Wo worth that herbe also that dooth no boote! Wo worth that beaute that is routheles!
OED ˤȡѸλǤϡ16--17 woe-worth Τ褦˥ϥեǤĤʤ줿줿ޤ18--19ˤϥåȥʤɤνʹ줿
űѸưȤƤ weorþan ˤϤۤѤȤʤäƤޤäͳˤĤƤϡؼԴ֤ǽʶȤƤ롥Mustanoja (616--18) ˤС줫αƶ䵡ǽŪҲ𤵤Ƥ뤬ޤϤĤƤʤ
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
αѸޥη Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ǡФεΤо줹 (ll. 135--56) ǡɸΡone the + ǾפɽʰѤ Andrew and Waldron Ǥˡ
Þer hales in at þe halle dor an aghlich mayster,
On þe most on þe molde on mesure hyghe;
On þe most ϡ"the very biggest (one)" ۤɤζĴ줿̣"one of the very biggest (ones)" Ȥ϶̤뤳Ȥդ줿ǾƯ one ˡǤ롥ѸǤˤ˸ˡǡMED Ǥ ōn (pron.) θ 7b ΤȤˡ¿㤬Ƥ롥OED Ǥϡone, adj., n., and pron. θФȤΤȤ C. pron. 3a ˡεҤ롥
Mustanoja (297) ˤȡthe + Ǿפˡthe + פȤ㤬 Trin. Hom. 185 1ĤȤ
þat is þat bihotene lond, þar is on þe wunsume bureh and on þe hevenliche wunienge þar alle englen inne wunien
the + ǾפΤ̤ۤǤꡤˡ11ʸڤ롥ane þa mæstan synne, on þe fairest toun, oon the grettest remedye, oon the unworthieste, oon the beste knyght, on þe sellokest swyn ʤˤȤޤʤˡ16ˤϤޤȤʤꡤSpenser Shakespeare ۤܺǸλѼԤȤʤ롥ޤˡѸ˲ڡ餤ƻäդɽäȤ롥
Middle High German, Early Modern High German, Middle Low German, Middle Dutch, Old NorseSwedish ʤ¾Υޥˤбɽʸڤ졤ꥷ μóνος ƥ unus ζĴˡˤ̤Ȥꡤޤե une dame la plus belle ˤӤΤǡѸ one the most ηˤϤδͿΤǤϤʤȵ⤢뤬Mustanoja (298--99) ϱѸȼȯãȸƤ롥
There is every reason to look upon the types one the good man and one the best man as natural outgrowths of the organic structural pattern of native linguistic usage. They offer striking parallels to the common OE type min se leofa (leofesta) freond. The characteristic feature in constructions of this kind is the isolation of an attribute or other defining word from the noun or noun-group by means of an intervening element (called a Gelenkspartikel and particule d'articulation by German and French Romance scholars). This isolation has the effect of bringing out into relief the idea expressed by the attribute, i.e., of making this word and the whole group more emphatic.
one the + ǾȤΥ뤳ȤˤäŪڤӰ̣Ū˺ΩȤ˴ؤơMustanoja (299) ϼΤ褦ɽȤδϢŦƤ롥
This peculiar rhythmic arrangement, which probably has counterparts in most languages of the world, is responsible for such common types as all the world, both the(se) boys, half a bottle, too long a story, what a night, etc.
half a bottle Τ褦ɽθˤĤƤϡ#788. half an hour ([2011-06-24-1]) DZΧŪװMustanoja Τ褦˰̣ŪǽŪװθɬפ
one the most ηѸ˺餤ƻäɽȤȤǤСλޤ̻ŪĴɬפȤʤ롥
Andrew, Malcolm and Ronald Waldron, eds. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript. 3rd ed. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2002.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
Gramley (354--55) Ȥʤ顤#960. Basic English ([2011-12-13-1]) ˤĤѸ춵Ѥ Basic English ǽ줿ä1ĵ
Basic English ϡ1930ǯ C. K. Ogden ˤäƺꤵ졤 I. A. Richards ˤäƲ졤1990ǯ Bill Templer ˤäƺƲ줿衤EFL Τᡤ뤤ϹȤƷײ褵줿ΤαƶϤϾä850δܸäʤꡤư be, do, have, may, will, come, get, give, go, keep, let, make, put, say, see, seem, send, take 18ĤΤߤ˸ꤵƤ롥ºݤˤϡؽԤϰŪ100ȡƼˤȤä濴ŪʬŪ50ɲäƳؤ֤褦ԤƤꡤ1000θäɸȤʤ롥1000ϸФȤƿοǤꡤ㤨 be 1ȥȤ뤬ʤѷbeen, being, was, were, am, are, is ϶̤ƳФʤФʤʤޤOgden ɸŪʥ٥ãˤϡŪ˻Ѥ (ex. geography, gram, hotel) ޤơ2000ϽɬפȹͤƤꡤBasic English Ρ850פȤʸϡޤǺǾ¤ΤΤȤȤ館Ƥɬפ롥
ʸˡˤĤƤϡ٤ܤϸ¤Ƥꡤ̤ϰʲ10ܤƤФ褤10ܤ British English ؤΤʤɤϡ21θߤǤϴۤ˴뤬ȯˤ륤ꥹѸΰ֤Ť褯Ƥ롥
1. Use an "S" to make a noun plural.
2. Adjectives can be extended using "-ER" and "-EST."
3. Verb can end in "-ING" and "-ED."
4. Adjectives become adverbs by adding "-LY."
5. "MORE" and "MOST" are used to talk about amounts.
6. "Opposite" adjectival meaning is expressed using "UN-."
7. To make questions use opposite word order and "DO."
8. Operators and pronouns conjugate as in normal English.
9. Two nouns (e.g. milkman) or a noun and a directive (sundown) make combined words (compounds).
10. Measures, numbers, money, days, months, years, clock time, and international words are in the British form, for example Date/Time: 20 May 1972 at 21:00.
Ǥϡä1ġ
One day last May there was a rat in a hole. It was a good rat which took care of its little ones and kept them out of the way of men, dogs, and poison. About sundown a farmer who was walking that way put his foot into the hole and had a bad fall. "Oh," was his thought, when he got on his legs again, "a rat for my dog, Caesar!" Naturally the rat had the same idea and kept very quiet. After an hour or two, Caesar got tired of waiting, and the farmer put his spade over the top of the hole, so that the rat was shut up till the morning when there might be some sport. But the farmer's daughter, May, had seen him from her window. "What a shame," said May, "Poor rat! there is no sport in letting cruel dogs loose on good mothers! I will take the spade away. There --- the rat may go." Then she took the spade to her father: "See! your spade was out there in the field, and I went to get it for you. Here it is." "You foolish girl," was his answer, "I put that spade over a rat-hole till the morning and now --- the rat may go."
äϳΤ basic ⤷ʤˡʸˡɬ basic ǤϤʤȤݤ롥
¾ˤ⥵ץƥȤϡReadings in Basic English ˭٤Ǥ롥Bible in Basic English ⻲ȡ
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
ɸζϸѸǤѤ뤬ʸˡŪˤɤΤ褦ʬϤΤmany years ȤĤʤȲ᤹ȡ¿ĴΤˤʤƻ great ѤΤǤʤ괧 a ԤΤʤΤ֤ʤ¿ǯפΰդȤʤ뤳ȤͽۤǤȤƤ⡤ʸˡŪˤϤɤʤäƤΤ긵ʣμǤϡʬϤˡa great [good] many ΤȤơάˡ֤ʤ¿Ρפɽ魯ϸȤȤ館Ƥ롥ʸϾʤ餺뤳ȤǤ롥
There were a great many people present there.
I've known her for a great many years.
A great many people who voted for her in the last election will not be doing so this time.
Most of the young men went off to the war, and a great many never came back.
We've both had a good many beers.
many ϡ¿פ̣̾ȤȤ館롥̾ʤΤ顤a great ǽƤΤԻĤϤʤȤ a great multitude ⤢Сa large number ⤢롥a great many years ξˤϡʣ̾ years ľܸ³ƤΤ̯ȤȤǤ롥*a great many of years Τ褦 of ߤƤ䤹a great many years ľܤ³ΤϤɤ櫓ƶŪʬϤ褦ȤСa great many years ƱʤȲ᤹ۤʤ
Ūˤϡɸζϡa great many of + ʣ̾פΤ褦ʹ¤ of æΤǤϤʤOED many, adj., pron., and n., and adv. θ 6.a ˤȡa great many of + ʣ̾פη16Ⱦ鸽롥ߤǤ of θˤϴ졤ؼ졤ͭƻȼä̾졤뤤̾줬Τ§Ť̾ʣñΤǸ뤳Ȥ⤢ä 6.b Ǥϡof ȼ鷺 a many ľʣ̾³ˡäƤ롥a many + ʣ̾פη16Ⱦʸڤ졤Ĵa great many + ʣ̾פΤ褦ɽ⡤OED ʸȤƤ18鸽ƤʤºݤˤϤäᤫäǽ⤢ˡޤ 6.c Ǥ a great many ñΤ̾ȤѤˡҤƤ뤬ν16ȾФǤ롥
ŪΩ줫ŪʬϤ褦Ȥ̯ǤȤФݤʤ̻ŪΩǹͤа´¿ʤȤäʤfew ȤäƱͤɽȤ She must have cooked a good few dinners over the years. Τ褦⤢롥
եꥫ (South Africa) Ǥϡ1/10ۤɤι̱ѸȤäƤ롥ΰ̣Ǥ ENL (English as a Native language) ȤäƤ褤Afrikaans, Xhosa, Zulu ۤ¿θ줬̱ˤäѤƤꡤƤΤ褦 ENL ȤϾۤʤʡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1]) ȡˡեꥫäƤѸѼˤĤƤϡ#408. South African English American English Ѽﹽ ([2010-06-09-1]) Ǵñ˼夲Ʊ̱ˤȹä
1488ǯݥȥιҳ Bartholomew Diaz (1450?--1500) ˾ (Cape of Good Hope) ƥؤȸϩ衼åѿͤȤƽƳθ塤¿Υ衼åιϩ褷17ƬˤϥȥꥹιϩΥݥȥˤۤĩ魯褦ˤʤä1652ǯ쥤ɲҤΤζϤȤ Table Bay ʸߤ Cape Townˤ˿̱ϤߤͿ̱Ԥϥ̱̣ Boer ȸƤФ褦ˤʤꡤ Afrikaner ȤƾΤ줿ϥեꥫϡɡޥ졼ʤɤϫƯԤȤĤΦؿʽФƤäơKhoekhoe San ʤɤ轻̱²ȾͤȡǤ餫Ƥä
1795ǯꥹ Cape ̱Ϥå1814ǯ㤤ä1820ǯꥹϡܡͤȥ² (Xhosa) Ȥʶ˳äꡤξԤο̱Ϥߤˤꥤꥹλ۸϶ޤäϰ¤1830ǯ夫40ǯƬˤơȿܡͤ Cape ̱ϤæФؤΰܽ (the Great Trek) Ϥ̤Ȥơ1850ǯ˥ܡͤˤȥ (Transvaal) ȥͳ (Orange Free State) 줿
19Ⱦ⻳ȯȡꥹͤɥĿͤϤ˲ꥹ̱ Natal ȥܡͤ Transvaal Ȥδ֤ǶĥޤꡤԤԤ˷άȤǡܡ (the Boer War; 1880--81, 1899--1902) ȯ1902ǯ˥ܡͤܡͤξ¹ϥꥹ̱ϤȤʤä1910ǯCape, Natal, Transvaal, Orange Free State 4̱ϤϡĹĤФơեꥫϢˮ (Union of South Africa) ؤ硥1961ǯ˸ߤեꥫ¹̾Ѥä
եꥫϰʾΤ褦ʣʿ̱ˤФƤꡤ⤽ȿǤƤ롥ߤιϲ˷Ǥ¦ΤΤǡ6ʻѿ¿ˤΥǥ1994ǯ˲줿ΤǤ롥1928--94ǯˤϱ¦Τ褦ʿްƤѤƤοްƤǤϡ礭ʹ3Ĥξʹ֤Ƥ롥礭ʲĤβʤιΤΥιǤ롥ʹˤĤƤϡ Union JackͳιȥιǤ롥ȱΤΤˤϡĤμʤ뤬ϸߤΥιǤ롥ĤޤꡤΤȤƥΥ롼ġʥܡ͡ˤȤɤʤ⡤ꥹ̱ϤȤƤˤǤ롤̱ˤθ褦ʹäȤ褦
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4֤ε ##1698,1699,1700,1701 ǡGramley αѸˤѥ˥ꡤ7ϤΤȤʤ顤Ѹο͡ΰܽȤȼѸȻˤŪϤ뤤ϽпϤˤƤϤΰϢκǸȤơƱ pp. 7--8 ꡤֳϰ (the Caribbean) ؤο͡ȱѸοʽФ
| FROM | TO |
|---|---|
| 17th Century Movements | |
| Britain | Bermuda (1609); Providence Island (1631); Cayman Islands (1670) |
| Ireland | St. Kitts (1624); Barbados (1627); Nevis, Barbuda (1628) |
| Africa | Bermuda (1609) |
| Bermuda | Providence (1631); Bahamas (1648); Jamaica (1655); Turks + Caicos (1678) |
| New England | Providence (1631) |
| St. Kitts | Nevis, Barbuda (1628); Antigua (1632); Montserrat (1633) |
| The Leeward Islands | Anguilla (1650); Jamaica (1655); St. Thomas (1672) |
| Barbados | Suriname (1651); Jamaica (1655) |
| Suriname | Jamaica (1655) |
| Jamaica | Cayman Islands (1670) |
| St. Thomas | St. John (1684) |
| 18th Century Movements | |
| Belize | the Moskito Coast (1730) |
| Jamaica | the Moskito Coast (1730) |
| Leewards | St. Croix (1733); Guyana (1740s); St. Vincent, Grenada (1763) |
| St. Thomas | St. Croix (1733) |
| Barbados | Guyana (1740s); St. Vincent, Grenada (1763), Trinidad (1797) |
| American South | Bahamas (1780ff) |
| Moskito Coast | Belize, Andros, Bahamas (1786) |
| Windwards | Trinidad (1797) |
| 19th Century Movements | |
| US (freed slaves) | Samaná (Dominican Republic) (1824) |
| San Andrés | Cocas del Toro (Panama) (1827) |
| Cayman Islands | Bay Islands (Honduras) (1830s) |
| Jamaica | Puerto Limón (Costa Rica) (1871) |
| US | Puerto Rico (1898) |
| 20th Century Movements | |
| Jamaica | Panama (1904--1914) |
| US | the American Virgin Islands (1917) |
#1699. ꥫȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-21-1]) εǤϡꥫ֤פο͡ΰܽȱѸγˤꥫ֤ءפοήˤ⡤ꥫѸηǤϽפμǤ롥ꥫ̱ˤϰʬʤѸˤȤˤäƤϡؤʥꥹȤ긵ˤȽ롥#158. ꥫѸλʬ ([2009-10-02-1]) ϾܤܳŪʰ̱ˤϴάɽGramley αѸˤѥ˥ˤä7ϤΤ (pp. 6--7) Ƹ褦ŪϤȤƹʳϰޤޤƤ롥
| FROM | TO |
|---|---|
| Southern England | Eastern New England, the coastal South (from the early 17th century) |
| The Caribbean | Virginia and the plantation South (from the early 17th century) |
| Northern England, Scotland, Ulster | Southeast Pennsylvania, the Piedmont, and the Appalachian South (all from the late 17th century) |
| Germany | Pennsylvania (from the late 17th century) |
| The 13 colonies | Upper Canada, the Maritimes (in the late 18th century) |
| Haiti | Louisiana (in the late 18th century) |
| New England | Northwest Territory (from the early 19th century) |
| Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas, and Georgia | the Ohio Valley and Southern Appalachians (from the 18th century) |
| US (freed slaves) | Liberia (from 1822) |
| Upper Canada | the Prairie and Mountain provinces; British Columbia (19th century) |
| Midwest | the Oregon Territory, California, and the Mountain West (19th century) |
| New England | Hawaii (late 19th century) |
| Far West | Alaska (late 19th century) |
| US (colonial administration) | Philippines (from 1898--1946) |
ε#1699. ꥫȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-21-1]) ơϥꥹǤƱ͡Gramley αѸˤѥ˥ꡤ7ϤΤ p. 6 žܤ롥ꥹΤɤϰ褫顤Τɤϰؿ͡ȱѸ줬ư˼ΤǤ롥
| FROM | TO |
|---|---|
| Southwest England | Southeastern Ireland (from 1556 to well into the 17th century) |
| Scotland + England | Ulster (from 1606 to the 1690's) |
| England + Scotland | North America (from 1607) |
| Britain + Ireland | the Caribbean (esp. Barbados) (from 1627) |
| Britain + Ireland | Australia (from 1788) |
| England | South Africa (from 1820) |
| Britain + Australia | New Zealand (from 1820) |
| Britain (exploration, trade, colonial administration) | West Africa: Gambia (1661, 1816); Sierra Leone (1787); Ghana (1824; 1850); Nigeria (1851, 1861); Camero on (1914) |
| East Africa: Uganda (1860's); Malawi (1878); Kenya (1886); Tanzania (1880's) | |
| Southern Africa: South Africa (1795); Botswana (19th century); Namibia (1878); Zambia (1888); Zimbabwe (1890); Swaziland (1894) | |
| South Asia: India (1600); Bangla Desh (1690); Sri Lanka (1796); Pakistan (1857) | |
| Southeast Asia: Malaysia (1786); Singapore (1819); Hong Kong (1841) |
ε#1698. ꥫαѸγȻȤΰŪʥѥ ([2013-12-20-1]) ǡꥫ濴ϤȤѸγȻˤĤˤ夫鸽ˤƤαѸγȻ濴ϤȤп˥ꥹʤ¸ߤפ⤫֤19ʹߤΥꥫȯγȻ⡤ߤαѸʬۤ礭Ƥ롥
ꥫȯαѸγȻ⡤ڤγͻӤǿʹԤꥹӤΥꥫڳħϡܻؤŪʳǤϤʤƤˤȤɤޤŪʳäǤ롥Τˡ#255. ȱѸˡ ([2010-01-07-1])#1589. եԥαѸ ([2013-09-02-1])#1697. Liberia ι ([2013-12-19-1]) εǼ夲 Guam, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Liberia ʤɤΤ褦ˡؤŸ⤢ˤϤΤŪˤŪʳȤߤƤ褤ꥫڳȱѸȻˤˤĤƤϡ#1368. Fennell ǡѸάǯɽ ([2013-01-24-1])#1377. Gelderen ǡѸάǯɽ ([2013-02-02-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ʤɤǿƤ뤬Ȥ櫓ܤǯɽʲ˷ǤGramley αѸˤѥ˥Ρ7Ϥ p. 5 ȴФΤǤ롥
1. The original extent of the US according to the Treaty of Paris at the end of the War of Independence in 1783 extended to the Mississippi River.
2. In 1803 the Louisiana Purchase, the territory ceded to the U.S. by Napoleon for $15 million, doubled the territory of the US, which now reached the Rocky Mountains.
3. First West Florida (1810 and 1813) and then East Florida (1819) were taken from Spain by invasion and the payment of $5 million.
4. Texas, once a Mexican state, then an independent republic run by American settlers since 1836, was annexed by the US in 1845.
5. The Northwest Territory (Oregon, Washington, and British Colombia), claimed by Britain and the U.S. as well as Spain and Russia, was peaceably divided between the former two in 1846.
6. In the Mexican-American War (1846--1848) vast conquered areas in the west (California) and southwest (New Mexico, Arizona) were annexed. The US indemnified Mexico for $10 million. Many speakers of Native American languages and Spanish became US citizens.
7. Further Mexican territory (the Gadsden Purchase, 1853) was acquired for $10 million to ease the building of a rail line to California.
8. The US bought Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million in 1867 (Seward's Folly). The original Inuit peoples are today a distinct minority.
9. The kingdom of Hawaii (formerly known as the Sandwich Islands) became a republic after a coup by Americans living there in 1893. It was annexed in 1898. Today the Hawaiian language is making something of a comeback within a context of a society dominated by StE and Hawaiian Creole English.
10. The Spanish-American War ended with the US taking over numerous territories, some such as Cuba only temporarily, others longer. Today Puerto Rico is a commonwealth, Spanish-language American territory, and Guam in the Pacific, a bilingual territory. The Philippines, for which the U.S. paid Spain $20 million, remained an American colony until 1946. Pilipino is the national language in this very multilingual country, and English is a widely used L2.
19κǽ2/3λΤˡꥫ罰αߤΦء̤ؤڤ礷λˡꥫƤФʴäꤢ19ȾϡHawaii, Guam, other Pacific islands, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, the American Virgin Islands ʤؤʽФκޤǤˤϡˤϿʽФǤפϰ¿ĤƤʤäΤ֤Ǥ롥
嵭 Gramley ˤϡ¾ˤ͡ΰܽȱѸγȻȤδطޤȤɽǡ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
ε#1697. Liberia ι ([2013-12-19-1]) ǡLiberia αѸ줬ꥹѸǤϤʤꥫѸ˴ä֤ƤŪطʤάҤ#376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ ([2010-05-08-1]) ǤŪ˥ꥹѸȥꥫѸαƶˤϰϥꥫѸפȤѸŸ˱ѸŸΰŪʥѥˤĤƹͤƤߤ
̱פʤɤˤ͡ΰưϡ줽ΤΤŪ˹롥ϡgeolinguistics geography of language ȸƤФʬŪ˼갷Ǥ롥19ˤϡѸ濴Ϥϥ֥ƥˤꡤѸ줬̱פˤ̥ꥫֳեꥫȥꥢ˥塼ɡʤɤؤŸƤ19˶ŤȡꥫѸγȻΤ⤦Ĥ濴ϤȤĹƤѸϡ饢ꥫ饹ʥϤᡤֳϥ磻եԥ٥ꥢʤɤؤŸʴϢơ#255. ȱѸˡ ([2010-01-07-1]) ȡˡꥫαѸγȻưǤϡϥꥹξƱͤ˽ž (mercantilism) ڤγ (territorial expansion) ä19ޤǤˤϡ˽ʸȤǤ⥢ꥫȯαѸγ˹
䤬ơNew England ȯƥʥäѸ⡤켫Ȥ⤦Ĥ濴ȤʤȤƤƤγŸ뤳ȤϤʤŪʳȻǤȤɤޤäȻβǿ濴Ϥ߽Ф줿ȤǤϡꥹ䥢ꥫ˼ƤѥѤȤʤѸγȻβޤ줿濴ϤȡΤʤȻGramley (159) οޤͤˡΤ褦ɽ路Ƥߤ

αѸγȻΥѥλǷ֤줿ꥹѸή Jamaica αѸ⡤켫ΤȻ濴ȤʤꡤꥫαرƶڤܤWestern Jamaica 鹭ä Belize, Bay Islands, Corn Islands, Blue Fields, Puerto Limón αѸ줬Ǥ롥ޤAustralia ϡNew Zealand, the Solomon Islands, Fiji, Papua New Guinea ؤŸ濴ϤȤʤäSouth Africa Namibia, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Malawi ؤŸ濴ϤȤʤäˤѥǤ롥
Ѹϡ¾θȰۤʤꡤΥѥˤΤǤ롥Gramley (159--60) ϡѸγˤĤƼΤ褦ʬϤƤ롥
What we see, then, is economically and demographically motivated expansion and closely related to it, a geographical spread of English to a unique extent. While the other major European colonial powers, Spain, Portugal, France, and The Netherlands, also acquired colonial empires, they differed because they did not establish settler communities which repeated the process of expansion to the degree that Britain did. In the case of Russia there was "merely" what is most frequently seen as "internal" expansion eastward. And the late-comers to the field, Germany, Italy, and Japan, were able to acquire relatively few and less desirable territories and were knocked out of the game at the latest by losing World War I (Germany) or World War II (Japan, Italy).
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
оݤȤϳ (vexillology) ȸƤФʬ롥Υǥͳ衤ˤʤɤ⸦оݤȤʤ뤬ˤؤ־ǡ褤Ƥ롥ѸˤǤ⡤ʹߤαѸŸɤΤ˻ͭפǤ롥㤨СѹˤɤǡUnion Jack (Union Flag) ΩηаޤϽפǤʾܤΥȡˡ˴ؤʪ¿־ΥʤΤ¿ΤǡĤҲ𤷤Ƥ
Flags of the World (FOTWO): ͳˤʤɾܺ٤ʾޤߡͭѡ
World Flag Database: ե٥åȽǡ礭ǥɽ롥Ͽޤؤ٤롥
All Flags in Alphabetical Sequence: ե٥åȽ˥ͥǰƼΥեѤǤ롥
̳ʡι: ϰ褴Ȥ˥ͥǰΤ
ơ ٥ꥢ¹ (Republic of Liberia) Ȥι夲롥եꥫΤ̤Ϥˤϡ¿̱²ǤˤĤʤḽˤ˸¤С1822ǯ˥ꥫ̱ (American Colonization Society) ƹιͲϤȤȤ˻Ϥޤ롥ԤȤʤ Monrovia (ꥫ5 James Monroe ˤʤˤذܽꥫβ줬ؤȤʤꡤ1847ǯΩեꥫǺǤŤ¹Ǥ롥̾ˤϡƥǡּͳʡפ̣ liber ޤޤƤ롥

350ͤۤɤι̱Τλ¹ϿѡȤˤʤ鲤ƼζҲŪˤϱƶϤΤ뽸ĤȤʤäƤ롥Ѹ줬ȤƺѤƤΤ⤽ΤǤ롥ѤƤѸѼȤƤϡꥫѸαƶɸŪѼΤۤLiberian English ȸƤФԥѸ⤢롥եꥫˤɸѸѼϡѿ̱ϤˤˤꥤꥹѸΤ礭ФäƤ뤬٥ꥢϥꥫѸ˴ŤƤꡤðۤ¸ߤǤ롥#376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ ([2010-05-08-1]) ǡեꥫΦΤʤͣ٥ꥢԥǼƤ뤳Ȥǧ줿ۤ Ethnologue: Liberia ⻲ȡ
ꥫȤδϢοϡˤ褯Ƥ롥ꥫ (Stars and Stripes) ˤǥǤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥11ܤμʤϷˡεԤο1Ĥ (Lone Star) ϥեꥫˤϤȤʤ٤ΩȤξħɽ魯

ѸѼѸüԤʬࡦǥϡ#217. ѸüԤƱߥǥ ([2009-11-30-1]) Ǽ Kachru ˤŵŪƱߥǥϤȤơ͡ʥǥ model_of_englishes γƵǾҲ𤷤ƤϡGramley (177) ˼ƤѸμҲŪϰ̤ɸɸȤ2ĤμȤ߹碌2ǥҲ𤷤褦ʲϡ"A two-dimensional model of English showing status variation (ENL, ESL, EFL, Pidgin and Creole English) as well as GenE and traditional dialects" ȥ٥Ž줿ƸΤǤ롥

οޤοʿˤϡKachru ƱߤեåȤŸƤ롥ENL ˰֤ľȤθˤ뤳ȤϡѼΰҿξħǤ롥κ٤ˤ ESL EFL ۤ졤˳¦ˤ Pidgin English Creole English ֤Ƥ롥PE CE դ֤ƤΤϡŪˤϱѸ줫ΩƤΤΡŪҲŪˤϱѸȴϢŤ뤫Ǥ롥
ľɽ魯ΤˤĤƤϵ;Ϥ뤬ǤɸŪٹ礤ɽ魯ΤȹͤƤ롥üäȤɸŪǡüäȤɸŪȤȤˤʤ롥岼ȤüʣʬƤꡤɸѸˤɸѸˤ¿Ѽ郎뤳ȤƤ롥äɸѼϡGeneral English ϰϳˤȹͤƤŪ (traditional dialects) ȤǤ뤳ȤƤ롥
ΤȤơ˹ԤйԤۤŪ (overt prestige) ȷӤĤ줿ѼǤȤˤʤ롥դˡ˹ԤйԤۤɡŪ (covert_prestige) ǸߤѰۤ礭
ԥ䥯쥪ΰ֤ŤɸѼŪδطʤɤĤǤϤ褯ͤƤ뤬ΤȤƤľŪˤȤ館ˤǥΤ褦˻פ롥㤨СKachru Ʊߥǥ뤬եåȤ˿ʿŸƤ뤳Ȥΰ̣褯狼ʤľˤɸࡦɸȤ٥Ž뤳ȤǤ뤬οʿˤϤɤΤ褦ʥ٥ŽФ褤ΤޤΥǥŪǤ롥ѸѼμ«ȯƱʹԤƤ븽ѸҤΤˤϡ#414. language shift θ줿Ѹüԥǥ ([2010-06-15-1]) #1106. Modiano Ʊߥǥ (2) ([2012-05-07-1]) Τ褦ưŪʥǥ뤬դ路褦˻פ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
Ѹʹߡʻž (conversion) ϤƤаޤˤĤƤϡ#190. ʻž ([2009-11-03-1]) #1414. ʻžϥͥϤθ줫 ([2013-03-11-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤʻžΤʤǤ⡤ä˸ѸˤʤäƤϤФΤư̾ؤžǤ롥#420. 20ȾˤϤäĤθ ([2010-06-21-1]) Ǥϡsell-out, write-off, call-up, take-over, breakdown ʤɤʣˤȤ餳 headless compounds 뤤 exocentric compounds ȸƤư줫žȤȤ館ۤ狼䤹⤷ʤбư줬ʤ love-in, think-in ʤɤ̾⤢ΤǡξˤžȤϹͤ줺ľܤʣˤȤȤˤʤ롥
ۤȤɤξ硤ưǤѤΤǡޥϷ٤ȡľŪ˿˶϶ŪǡʤȤФ褤Potter (171) ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Among the commonest of recent shifts are those of Germanic-derived phrasal verbs into nouns. These new forms are felt to be more forceful and vigorous than those Latin-derived synonyms which they so often supplant.
Potter (172--73) Ƥȡbreakaway, breakdown, breakout, breakthrough, breakup, buildup, dropout, followup, frameup, getaway, getby, getout, gettogether, getup, hideout, holdup, hookup, layout, leadin, leftover, letup, makeup, payoff, rakeoff, sellout, setback, setup, shakeup, shareout, showdown, stepup, takeoff, takeover, throwaway, walkout, walkover Ȥʤ뤬ŻҼǸ¾ˤǤФƤ롥㤨СOALD8 -away ȡ+breakaway, castaway, +cutaway, getaway, +giveaway, hideaway, layaway, +runaway, stowaway, takeaway, tearaway ʤɤҥåȤ롥+ դΤϸƻȤƤѤ졤¾ˤƻȤƤΤѤ flyaway, foldaway, soaraway, throwaway ʤɤ⸫Ĥ롥ư좪ƻž⾯ʤʤ褦ǡष̾ؤžŪԤƤΤ⤢롥
away ˤȤɤޤ餺˼פֻƱ褦˸ƴϢΰȻפäϾ֤ꤽʤΤǡϸäƤǯåɬפ뤬Ѹ줫鸽ѸˤƤλ˽иΤ¿Ǥ롥
ư줫žϤΤΤоݤˤʤۤ̾ư (diatone) ζѥδ⡤ưͳ̾졦ƻܤǤ롥
Potter, Simon. Changing English. London: Deutsch, 1969.
ʳظ (ISV = International Scientific Vocabulary) ˤϡꥷǤʣ礵Τ¿Ф neo-Hellenic compounds ȸƤФ뤬θäϼȤƶλʪǤʥƥξˤ neo-Latin compounds ȤƤФ졤碌 neo-classical compounds ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢ˡ̾ˤƤ⡤#511. Myrmecophaga tridactyla ([2010-09-20-1]) #512. ̾ ([2010-09-21-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡꥷǤøŪѤƤ뤷#552. combining form ([2010-10-31-1]) ζ븻ȤƤƱ礭ޤeco-, micro-, tele-, -ology ʤɤΥꥷͳ褹ܼϤ⤯ISV ȤϤ߽Фơ̸äηˤڤǤ롥
ISV ˤƥꥷ줬˱ɤطʤˤϡʳؤȯŸΤˤơƥ¤ǥꥷ줬ĹָҤȤߤʤƤ롥衼åѤˤơꥷΰҿɤĶۤƹäƤȤΤϡʳؤȯŸˤȤäƤϹʤȤäѸեɥĸ⡤ISV ΤˤꥷѤȤΩ䤹äͥʹߡº֤٤μθϥꥷʵڤӥƥˤˤꡤȶ̤ƹͤ褦ˤʤäȤǡθβʳءʸáˤȯŸȳˤȤäơ郎äΤǤ롥
Potter (86) ϡμθȤƤΥꥷȤͤޥޥΤߤʤ餺ϤΥˤƤϤޤäȤϡȤ櫓ʤȤǤäȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
In the ever expanding world of science and invention most of these new words are either taken direct from Greek or compounded of Greek elements. This applies not only to English but also to the other three widely disseminated languages --- French, Spanish and Portuguese. Moreover, and in some ways more important still, this also applies to Russian. The modified Cyrillic 33-letter alphabet of modern Russian is based upon the 22-letter alphabet of Greek which is the same today as it was in the time of Plato and Aristotle. Ties between Kiev, Byzantium and Athens have been close throughout the ages. / It is indeed most fortunate that the scientists of the two leading powers --- the United States and the Soviet Union --- both go to Greek for their technical terms. Scientists now have at their disposal a copious store of neo-Hellenic components. They have come to regard the Greek language as a kind of quarry from which they can mine blocks to be shaped at need to make new words or to adapt forms already in use. (86)
ϡʸηϤޤʸˤ̤ơꥷȤ̩ܿݤäƤ衼åѽʸȥʸȤδ֤ˤŪľܤ¿ʤäơȤ⤹ ISV 2ġʰʾˤηʬƤޤäƤ⤷ʤ⤷ʤäƤ顤ʳؤȯŸ®٤Ϥä٤ʤäƤ衼åѤǶ̤ưҿǧƤꥷ줬ʳظ÷δäȤ줿Ȥǡˤ ISV 1˼ޤäƤΤǤ롥
ܸüԤˤȤäơISV δפ˥ꥷ줬뤫Ȥäơؤ־ä˥åȤ櫓ǤϤʤISV 1ǤޤȤޤäƤ뤳ȤˤäƲʳؤȯŸ¤¥졤βä̱Ȥƺ¤˵ƤȹͤСϤꥮꥷƯ礭ɾǤ
Potter, Simon. Changing English. London: Deutsch, 1969.
ǰʤ顤ɤʸɤϼǰֲѲϵ§Ū뤬Ե§⤿餷ѲԵ§뤬˵§⤿餹פȤ⤤롥ѲȷѲŵŪˤѡˤħޤɽΤǤ롥#838. ηϤȥȥԡ ([2011-08-13-1]) εǤϡƱȤַˤơ§ŪʲѲϥȥԡ礵Ե§ŪѤϥȥԡפȴʴϢơ#1674. ѲȶοʿˤĤƤŪͻ ([2013-11-26-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
1ĵ褦#157. foot ʣϤʤ feet ([2009-10-01-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡfoot (sg.) vs feet (pl.) ϸѸǤϷŪԵ§ȤȤ館Ƥ롥ʬ̾줬 {s} ղäȤ§ʣ뤳Ȥ˾Ȥ餻СΤԵ§Ȥä٤Ǥ롥Ե§ͳõȡi-mutation ȸƤФ뵬§ŪʲѲ˹Ԥ夯§ŪʲǤСη̤§ŪˤʤϤǤϤʤȵ뤫⤷ʤѲǤ§Ȥ¿ξĤ§ǤȤΤߥǤ롥foot -- feet ξˤϡ³첻 /i/ ޤޤ뤳ȤǤ롥⡤ /i/ ˾üƤޤȤʤ벻ѲѤ̡ʣͽԲǽʷ֤Ĥ˻äƤޤäʾޤȤСѲε§ȤϤޤǾĤε§Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿ˤΤ褦ʲѲʣŤʤ뤳Ȥˤꡤºݾͽ¬Բǽʷ֤˻äƤޤΤʤΤǤ롥ǡ嵭ΰ⤤ȾʬֲѲϵ§Ū뤬Ե§⤿餹פ롥
ˡȾʬַѲԵ§뤬˵§⤿餹פ˰ܤfoot -- feet ƱͤˡűѸǤϡܡפɽ魯 bōc ʣʼʡгʡ˷ i-mutation θ̤ bēc Ȥ֤äΤޤѸäƤС*beech ʤɤȤʤäƤϤθ˴ؤƤ (analogy) κѤˤꡤ¿ -s ʣݤ߹ޤ졤Ѹʹߤ books ȡֵ§פǤȤŵŪʷѲβ̤ȤƵ§⤿餷Ȥˤʤ뤬bōc ˤƯfōt ˤƯʤäȤ̣ǡñȯŪǤ롥ɤθƯΤͽ¬ԲǽʤΤǤ뤫顤ǤԵ§Ǥ롥
§ŪʲѲԵ§⤿餷Ե§ʬŪ˽뤫Τ褦ˡѲԵ§˺Ѥ롥ѲϤʤ鼫ŪŪ̵ռŪǤꡤѲϤʤͰŪŪռŪǤ롤Ǥ褦Τ褦ȿ뵡Τ褦˷֤ưѲưƤΤ
ѲȷѲˤĤơ (56) 褦ʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȻŪĹȤˤƤ⡤2ĤѲδ֤Τ椬ȤŦϽפ
Ǥϡ§Ūʲˡ§ˤäѲ뤬ˡ§ϤΤŬѤΤǤ롥ǤԵ§ѲѲϻŪĹˤäƸꤵʤ
졼̡ ءοǡϰ̣١ҡʸ˥ӡ2013ǯ
ˤĤƤϡarbitrariness ε濴ˡȤ櫓#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1]) ǵǤϡ̵̤ͭɬפ뤳Ȥ˿줿signifié signifiant Ȥδطʿа̣ȷ֤ȤδطˤĤƤ˹ͻΤ塼Ρä˥ե˸ؤȤ뤬̣ؼԤǤФʤΤȡ¡ʤ̴ؿ
Ф2ϤϡۤȤɰ̣ȷ֤δطιͻ䤵Ƥ롥ФϡʬˤĤơ#767. ʬ ([2011-06-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Martinet Ѹ礤˽Фʤ顤ˤ signifié signifiant δطäƤФμŪɾĤѤ褦
̣ϰǤϡ֤ʬΥǤʤΰ̣ȷ֤ʬΥη11бʤƤ餺֤ϰ̣ꤹΤ˽ʬǤϤʤΥѥɥåˤäơΰ̣ȷ֤δط餫ˤɬפ롥(54)
Ƥϡˤȡ1ʬñ̤Ǥ뤫顤Ǥˤʤäƺ줿̣Υʤɤ̣θǤ2ʬͭ¤ǤˤϴԸǤʤ(56)
Ū̻ŪȤ2ŤδϡɽΥ٥ƤΥ٥ǤȤȤ餫ˤʤ롥Τˡθ֤Ǹΰ̣뤳ȤȡŪʲ椹뤳ȤȤ餫˰ۤʤ2ĤΥץǤ롥άͤޤޤʻ˸줿Ĥΰ̣⡤¿Ȥ˹ͤСƱΤΤȤȤˤʤʤơΤϡФд¸ΥѥѤΤǡ塼ϡָ϶ǤĤϤǤפȤΤ٤Ƥ롥סʡعֵ١235ǡˡΰ̣ط1Ĥζ֤¾ζ֤ؤ³1̵ռŪФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥̵ռŪϡĶŪˤʤä1Ĥθΰ̣֤ΤǤ롥(61)
̣ΩϡĤ줿ηϤΤǤϤʤ줿ηϤΤǤ롥ΤˡŪˤʤäựİ뤳ȤϤǤʤ(62)
ŪŪʴؿϡȤ櫓3ܤΰѤǿƤ롤Ū¿̻Ūʰ̣ѲȤδطˤĤƤιͻܤ̣Ѳϻ֤ȤȤ˽˿ʹԤ̣ɬṬ֤̌षξΰ̣ѤƤȤ¿Ѥ̤ϡŪˤ¿Ȥʤ롥ζŪ¿ϡ1ͤüԤФΤǤϤʤŪ˿ФƺФ줿ΤǤȤǡ̵ռŪȸƤӤ뤷֤̻֤ȤĶۤĶŪȤƤӤ
嵭Τ褦˰̣Ѥ뤬֤ˤѤȤǰϤۤɤޤƤϤޤʤ褦˻פ롥ȡ֤ˤ̵ռŪĶŪʼȤΤϡͤˤȤȤˤʤդˡ̣ȷ֤ħ礭ʺΤǤϤʤ
졼̡ ءοǡϰ̣١ҡʸ˥ӡ2013ǯ
than ϷƻӵθѤΤ̾Ǥ롥 as [so] . . . as ΤΤ褦ˡas äоݤӵ as åȤ¤롥ʸˡ˾Ȥ餻иѤȤʤ뤬Ūʸڤ뤷ߤǤǸ롥OED as, adv. and conj. B. 5 ǤϡΤ褦ˤ롥
5. After the comparative degree: than. Now Eng. regional (Yorks.), Sc. regional, Irish English (north.) and U.S. regional.
[Compare German besser als better than, classical Latin tam...quam as..as, plus quam more than.]
ʸ⡤c1300ǯν㤫顤Ѹ˻ޤ15㤬夲Ƥ롥MED as (conj.) θ 3(b) ΤȤˡ3ĤʸƤ롥Ĥ˵褦
c1300 St. Edward Elder (Laud) l. 38 in C. Horstmann Early S.-Eng. Legendary (1887) 48 (MED), Fellere þing nis non ase wumman ȝware heo wole to vuele wende.
?a1425(1373) * Lelamour Macer (Sln 5) 67b: Also this erbe haviþ mo vertues as endyue haþe.
(1460) Paston 3.241: I hadde never more neede for to have help of my goode, as I have at this tyme.
a1475(?a1430) Lydg. Pilgr.(Vit C.13) 2914: Hys lordshepe was nat mor at al, As ben thys lordys temporal.
?a1600 Marriage Wit & Wisdom (1846) iii. 27, I had rather haue your rome as your componie.
1893 H. A. Shands Some Peculiarities of Speech in Mississippi 17 Illiterate whites..say: 'This is better as that', 'I'd rather have this as that', etc.
ʤthan ѤȤƤ as ˤĤƤϡٹ (447) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ϺˤƤϤޤѸǤϤ뤬ˤϤʤ¿Ѥ줿Τǡθνˤ롥
ȤС
Darkness itself is no more opposite to light as their actions were diametrical to their words.---James Howell.
I rather like him as otherwise.---Scott.
ƥ졤ɥĸǤ⸶ξӵξȤǤƱ³Ѥ뤷ե que ⤽Τ褦¾٤ȡषѸ줬 as than ̤ۤפΤǤϤʤȤפƤ롥ӵ as than ٤ŪˤŪǤϤäѸ줫ѸˤƤʬۤĴ٤Ƥߤͤꤽ
as than θ츻ˤĤƤϡ줾#693. as, so, also ([2011-03-21-1]) ڤӡ#1038. then than ([2012-02-29-1]) ȡޤӤֻ to ˤĤƤϡ#1180. ޥӵȶӴֻ to ([2012-07-20-1]) ȡ
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
#444. ԥȥ쥪ζܡ ([2010-07-15-1]) εǡpidgin creole ζ̤٤Ǥ뤳Ȥߤǡpidgin creole ⡤#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ˤ koiné ȤȤˡlingua_franca ȤƵǽ뤳Ȥ#1391. lingua franca (4) ([2013-02-16-1]) εdzǧǤϡlingua franca ϡtrade language, contact language, international language, auxiliary language, mixed language ʤʣμ˶̤ȤäGramley ϤѸλؼоݤδ֤˰ۤʤطꤷƤ褦Gramley (219) ϥԥȤδϢѸȤζ̤contact, marginal, mixed, non-native, reduced Ȥ5ĤΥѥѤưʲΤ褦˼Ƥ롥
| contact | marginal | mixed | non-native | reduced | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| trade jargon | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes |
| pidgin | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes/no |
| lingua franca | yes | yes | no | yes/no | yes |
| koiné | yes | no | yes | no | yes/no |
| dialect | no | yes/no | no | no | no |
| creole | no | no | no | no | no |
ε#1688. Tok Pisin ([2013-12-10-1]) ơʿϰΥԥȥ쥪ꡥϢʬۿޤGramley (220) Ͽޤͤ˼Ƥߤ

˵Ƥԥ䥯쥪Ū˴ϢŪˤᤤѸظ (superstrate language) ڤӸö (lexifier) Ȥ뺮ǡºݤˤä8ϱѸ١Ǥ롥Mühlhäusler Ȥ Gramley (220) ɽˤȡ̥Ĥ Bislama ʡ#1536. ǤʤعǤλѤػߤƤ Bislama ([2013-07-11-1]) ȡ, ѥץ˥塼˥ Tok Pisin, Solomon Pijin 3ԥǤߤȡʬۤϰʲ̤Ǥ롥
| English | Indigenous | Others | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bislama | 90% | 5 | 3 (French) |
| Tok Pisin | 77 | 16 | 7 (German etc.) |
| Solomon Pijin | 89 | 6 | 5 |
Ѹ١Υԥ (pidgin) ȤƤ餯ǤΤƤΤ Tok Pisin ¿ Papua New Guinea λ¾ιȸȤѤƤꡤlingua_franca ȤƵǽƤ롥ʹ饸ƥӡʸˡʤɤθȤƺѤƤꡤüԤˤѶŪʼҲŪɾդƤ롥2Ȥ400ͤˤäƤꡤ1ȤƤ5ͤüԤ롥ԤüԤ¸ߤϡTok Pisin 쥪첽 (creolisation) ϤƤ뤳ȤθǤ⤢롥
New Guinea ϡGreenland ˼2ܤ礭Ǥ롥ŪˤȾʬΥɥͥ Irian Jaya Ⱦʬ Papua New Guinea (PNG) ʬ롥ΤȤƤߤлѤƤ1,000˵ڤӡPNG ˸¤äƤ⡤#401. ¿κǤ⤤ϰ ([2010-06-02-1]) ǸȤꡤ830롥¿ؿȤƤϡǹͤǤ롥Ķ¿ϰ褬 lingua franca ϤȤʤäΤϡ19˥衼åѤο̱ϼȤǤ롥Samoa, Vanuatu, Queensland ʤɡ˥ϰΥץơϫƯԤϤ褷ȡΩƤ춦ƱΤΩݻǤʤʤäȤlingua franca ȯ¥̤ȤơPNG 줫ȯԥ Hiri Motu 䡤Ѹ١Υԥ Tok Pisin äƤä
˥ϰΥԥȯãˤĤƤ¿Australia ͳǹä (ex. Australian Pidgin English, Roper river Creole, Cape York Creole) ȡVanuatu (the New Hebrides), the Solomon Islands, Queensland, Fiji Ф Papua New Guinea عä̤롥19ϰǤϡNew England ߡͥΥӥ㥯סοȤƤΥʥޥμ衤Queensland Fiji Ǥʲ֤䥵ȥӤΥץơSamoa ǤΥץΥץơȥ쥹 (the Torres Strait) ǤομʤɤкѤϫƯοϤȤʤäƤ Tok Pisin ϡηкѳư̤ Bislama ʡ#1536. ǤʤعǤλѤػߤƤ Bislama ([2013-07-11-1]) ȡ, Solomon Islands Pidgin, Torres Straits Creole ʤɤܤϫƯԤˤä PNG ˹ޤäƤäȤ롥
ҤΤ褦ˡTok Pisin ϱѸ١ΡʤʤѸ lexifier Ȥ˥ԥǤ롥ɸѸ٤СʸˡäʤɤˤƳΤ˴άƤ뤬äʵ§ġηϤȤƤϡѸȤϰۤʤȤäƺ٤ʤGramley (239--40) ˷ǺܤƤ Tok Pisin ǽ줿ʸϤΥץˤĤơɸѸĤǸ䤹ľΤPDFѰդ¾Tok Pisin ˤĤƤϰʲΥȤ⻲ȡ
#463. Ѹ١Υԥȥ쥪ΰ ([2010-08-03-1])
Ethnologue: Tok Pisin
Tok Pisin -- Pidgin / English Dictionary
Tok Pisin Translation, Resources, and Discussion
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
#1413. Ѹ3ʣ -s ([2013-03-10-1])#1423. Ѹ3ʣ -s (2) ([2013-03-20-1])#1576. Ѹ3ʣ -s (3) ([2013-08-20-1]) ˰³ƤꡥWyld (340) ϡѸˤ3ʣ -s αƶȤƤǤϤʤ3ñ -s ȼĥƤ롥
Present Plurals in -s.
This form of the Pres. Indic. Pl., which survives to the present time as a vulgarism, is by no means very rare in the second half of the sixteenth century among writers of all classes, and was evidently in good colloquial usage well into the eighteenth century. I do not think that many students of English would be inclined to put down the present-day vulgarism to North country or Scotch influence, since it occurs very commonly among uneducated speakers in London and the South, whose speech, whatever may be its merits or defects, is at least untouched by Northern dialect. The explanation of this peculiarity is surely analogy with the Singular. The tendency is to reduce Sing. and Pl. to a common form, so that certain sections of the people inflect all Persons of both Sing. and Pl. with -s after the pattern of the 3rd Pres. Sing., while others drop the suffix even in the 3rd Sing., after the model of the uninflected 1st Pers. Sing. and the Pl. of all Persons.
But if this simple explanation of the present-day Pl. in -s be accepted, why should we reject it to explain the same form at an earlier date?
It would seem that the present-day vulgarism is the lineal traditional descendant of what was formerly an accepted form. The -s Plurals do not appear until the -s forms of the 3rd Sing. are already in use. They become more frequent in proportion as these become more and more firmly established in colloquial usage, though, in the written records which we possess they are never anything like so widespread as the Singular -s forms. Those who persist in regarding the sixteenth-century Plurals in -s as evidence of Northern influence on the English of the South must explain how and by what means that influence was exerted. The view would have had more to recommend it, had the forms first appeared after James VI of Scotland became King of England. In that case they might have been set down as a fashionable Court trick. But these Plurals are far older than the advent of James to the throne of this country.
ٻ礿ϡ(1) 3ʣ -s ϡ3ñ -s Ѥ褦ˤʤޤǤϸƤʤȡ(2) ɤΤ褦˱ƶͿΤǤʤȡ2Ǥ롥öŪǤꡤŪȤϤʤꤨʤΤΡΤ褦˻פ롥
1ĵˤʤ뤳Ȥ롥Wyld Ĥϡ1515ǯʸǡ"the noble folk of the land shotes at hym." ȤʸڤȤΥƥȤˤ3ñ -s ϸ줺3ʣˤ -ith 褯ȤȤ顤Wyld ȤεƤ (1) Ȥ礷ʤ褦˻פ뤬ɤʤΤˤ衤ΩѸ3ñ3ʣζӸƤ뤳Ȥɬפ
Wyld, Henry Cecil. A History of Modern Colloquial English. 2nd ed. London: Fisher Unwin, 1921.
졼̡Фˤءοǡϰ̣٤ɤԤȤˤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡƳŪʸ˥ˤƤϤǤϤʤȻפĤɤΤ2ɤǤߤ顤˱ԤƶФƤ뤳Ȥ狼äȤ櫓1ϡ̣ˤγάͭפäʲˤγάγά
(1) Ūð̣ŪǤäӸؤοʲ#1666. semantics ΰ̣ˡ ([2013-11-18-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡMichel Bréal (1832--1915) 1883ǯ sémantique ϻϤ1897ǯäựȤ븫⤢ˡBréal ΰ̣ϿʲȯۤƤꡤ̣οʲʲΰˡ§ˡ§ηиŪѻƳФȤƤ롥ˤꡤ̣ϼʳؤ˲ʳؤؤȯŸȤ뤳ȤˤʤäԤϸͭȤ Arsène Darmesteter (1846--88) August Schleicher (1821--68) ʤɤˤꡤԤ Antoine Meillet (1866-1936) ʤɤˤȤʤäΤ褦ˡỤ̄Ͽʲαƶʤ顤ůءءؤ̤ΤȤƼΩ˼Ҳؤߴ뤳ȤˤäơǤʤΰФ˻ä
(2) Ūð̣ħι¤Ū塥塼оˤؤϹ¤λạ̈⡤1931ǯJost Trier (1894--1970) ˤ̣ˤꡤ¤ạ̈Ȥϡ1θäΤϹ¤ʤʬʡˤʤäƤꡤͭ¸Ĥθˤä줿ǰ줬ꤵȤǤ롥αĹȤơפˤΥʬϤʤɤФ
̣¤֤⤦1Ĥμϰ̣ʬϤǤ롥ΰ̣ϡħͭ¸Ĥδ̣ܰʸʬǤȤǤ롥̣ηϤγΩȤײϺޤ褦Ǥ롥
(3) ʸäΰ̣иʸˡλ塥1963ǯ Jerrold J. Katz (1932--2002) and Jerry A. Fodor (1935--) 1965ǯ Noam Chomsky (1928--) ʸ칽¤Ọ̇̄¤Ȥδطܤ̣ϤChomsky ʸˡ˰̣Ƴ줬Ȥ1968--72ǯδ֤̣Ȥδ֤ˡָפȯʸˡˤ̣ϹԤͤޤä뤬1970--73ǯδ֤ Richard Merett Montague (1930--71) ˤŪʤƳʸˡŸ
äΰ̣ŸǤϡؼƯŪꥹůؤɤˤ٤ꡤäθȯäΰ̣ʤɤͻ롥
(4) ΰ̣֤ǤϤʤưǧŪ¦̤Ȥδطǰ̣Ȥ館복ǰ̣ǧβʳؤλ塥(3) Ǽ줿ήϡءʪءؤܶᤵ1978ǯʹߤǧε˴פ̣Ȥ櫓ϡ1987ǯ G. Lakoff (1941--) Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things ڤ R. Langacker (1942--) Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Vol. 1 Ǥ뤳ȤˤŤ줿ǧΰ̣ϡ̣ǾΰŪƯȷӤĤ뤳Ȥǰ̣˿ŪפͿ褦Ȥ롥ǤϡȤƶɽƥ경ȥץȥסեʤɤ꤬롥ޤǽ (artificial intelligence) (connectionism) Ȥο⤤
ʾΤ褦ˡ1883ǯ1931ǯ1963ǯ1978ǯˡۤʤΰ̣ƤԤΤ³Τľܤִ줿櫓ǤϤʤष³Τؤդạ̈ߤƤȤ٤ߤʬŪ˱ƶͿʤ⡤줾ŪΩ⤤Τ¤Ǥꡤλ¤Ż뤷ơԤΥФϽ̾Ԥñ la sémantique ǤϤʤʣ les sémantiques ɽäȤΤܲΤ褦ºݤˡ1980ǯʹߤ̣οŸ³ƤꡤɸطáʸˡʤɤμΥץޤƤ롥Ụ̄غŪˤʤäƤƤꡤȼΰˤȤɤޤäƤ뤳ȤϤǤʤʤäƤΤ
졼̡ ءοǡϰ̣١ҡʸ˥ӡ2013ǯ
ε#1684. ʸˡȵʸˡ ([2013-12-06-1]) Ǹˤ뵬ϤˤĤƼ夲ΤǡϢ#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1]) εǾ줿褦ˡεϤϸѲ˻ߤꡤ®٤٤ȤȤ롥̾Τ褦ʵϤϽդ¸ߡȤ櫓ҿΤѼ¸ߤȤƤ롥εϤˤΤˡɬ⤽Τ褦ɬפʤȤŦ롥Bradley (13) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
[C]ulture is one of the influences which retard the process of simplification. But it should be remembered that culture may exist without books: there have been peoples in which there was little or no reading and writing, but in which nevertheless the arts of poetry and oratory were highly developed, and traditional correctness of speech was sedulously cultivated.
Ϥθϡ˴ؤʸ (culture) (tradition) ¸ߤǤȤŦʤۤɡϤϽդˤäθΤ̤ǤϤ뤬ʰҿΤäդˤäθ⤢ȤΤǼʸء÷ݡͺ۽ѡȥåʤɤϡƬǤʤ⡤ҿȤҲŪǽͭƤ褦˻פ롥
#748. ä ([2011-05-15-1])#849. ä (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) #1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])#1665. äȤФȽȤ (4) ([2013-11-17-1]) ʤɤεǼ夲ƤդäդȤͤȡƬΰҿȤ嵭ϡդŵŪǤ뵡ǽʽԺߤΤȤǡäդդƤ륱ȤƲǤ
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
ɸϡ#747. ([2011-05-14-1]) Ǥ夲ƽפʶ̤ʤΤDzˤʸˡ (prescriptive grammar) ʸˡ (descriptive grammar) ϡCrystal (230--31) ˤСΤ褦롥
A prescriptive grammar is essentially a manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided, and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language. These grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries. Their influence lives on in the handbooks of usage widely found today, such as A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926) by Henry Watson Fowler (1858--1933), though such books include recommendations about the use of pronunciation, spelling, and vocabulary, as well as grammar.
A descriptive grammar describes the form, meaning, and use of grammatical units and constructions in a language, without making any evaluative judgements about their standing in society. These grammars became commonplace in 20th-century linguistics, where it was standard practice to investigate a corpus of spoken or written material, and to describe in detail the patterns it contains.
ˡʸˡŪˤʤȡֻʸˡפȤƥ˰ܹԤȤŦ롥ϵϼŪŪǻȤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤿ᡤΤ褦ʾˤϡϤȵҤˤȤ⤤롥
When a descriptive grammar acts as a reference guide to all patterns of usage in a language, it is often called a reference grammar. An example is A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920--) and his associates. Such grammars are not primarily pedagogical in intent, as their aim --- like that of a 'reference lexicon', or unabridged dictionary --- is to be as comprehensive as possible. They provide a sourcebook of data from which writers of pedagogical grammars can draw their material.
ʸˡפˤϡΰ̣ʸˡ˶̤Ƥɬפ롥ϤȵҤϡǰϽ̤٤ĿͤΤʤƱ路뤳Ȥˤդ
ؼԤϵҤϤͥ褵Τ§Ǥꡤθ§˰¸ϤʤϤˤդȤϼҲؤκǽץơޤ1ĤǤꡤϤ켫ΤоݤˤʤꤦȤȤ˺ƤϤʤʤֱѸˡפȤʬϡ̣ǤϵұѸʸˡˤ˸ꤵ뤬̣ǤϵϱѸʸˡˤޤࡥԤϡֱѸػˡפȤʬ뤳Ȥ¿ϤȵҤ߾ƤΤǤȤʤСᤫ鹭̣ǤΡֱѸˡפȤָΤŬڤΤ褦˻פ롥
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ɤιҳΡõȤ William Bligh (1754--1817) ϡJames Cook (1728--79) ΤκǽҳˤդääɽΥץơбļԤꡤѤοȤƤΥѥΥݤˡõ褦졤1787ǯ12Bligh ϳβʳĴХƥ (HMS Bounty) ĹȤ Tahiti ؤιҳ˽Фλشŷδ¿κ1788ǯ10 Tahiti 夷ںߤθ塤1789ǯ44˥ɤؤεϩˤĤ̵ǽʢΩƤ뤳Ȥ¿ä Bligh ФơĹǯαӤǤäҳ Fletcher Christian (1764--c1790) 4289֤ͤȤȤȿΤ "Mutiny on the Bounty" Ǥ롥Bligh 18ͤϥܡȤdzή줿Bligh ԶǯɤˤɤĤХƥ˻Ĥä Christian ԤϡTahiti 뤬θ帽Ϥ˽̾ϢơTahiti 2000ʾΥ줿 Pitcairn Island ؤɤ夭Ƥʧäƾʿ̱ϤΩθ20ǯξܺ٤1808ǯꥫˤäλ¹ӤƤ뤳Ȥȯ줿
Pitcairn ϤλΩ1767ǯ˱ѹˤäȯƤ̵ͤäͤϤΤϤλ郎äǤꡤߡ̱ΤۤȤɤȿԤפǤ롥Pitcairn ϡ19ˤϥꥫȥȥꥢδ֤ߴϤȤƵǽ1856ǯ˿ä٤̱ΰߤΥȥꥢ Norfolk Island ذܽ
ߤ⡤ Pitcairn ȹ Norfolk Island ǤϡȿȤθηаޤ creole Ǥ Pitkern äƤ롥Ѹȥҥ줬äǤ롥ɤθ줬פǤ뤫ʬʤۤɤκ֤Ǥꡤ"dual-source creole" ȸ롥Norfolk Island ˤ creole ϡѸαƶ post-creole Ƥ롥Trudgill (183) εҤѤ褦
Pitcairnese, the language of the remote Pacific Ocean island Pitcairn, is a dual-source creole which is the sole native language of the small community there. The Pitcairnese are for the most part descendants of the British sailors who carried out the famous mutiny on the Bounty and Tahitian men and women who went with them to hide on Pitcairn from the British Royal Navy. Their language is a mixed and simplified form of English and Tahitian (a Polynesian language) . . . . Pitcairnese also has speakers on Norfolk Island, in the Western Pacific, who are descended from people who resettled there from Pitcairn. On Norfolk Island, the language is in close contact with Australian English, and is consequently decreolizing (in the direction of English, not Tahitian). We can therefore describe it as a dual-source post-creole.
ξϰξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡCIA: The World Factbook Pitcairn Islands Norfolk Island ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ɸʸϡѸʤɤǤ褯 as ѤʸǤ롥Though he is young, he is rich. ʤɤȸȤ롥ޤYoung though he is, he is rich. ȤȤǤΤǡˡȤƤ as = though ȹͤ褦ˤפ롥ȤȡȤʤƻ줬³˰ưȹͤ줽Ǥ롥
Ūˤߤȡas though ιʸεϰۤʤ롥ʸˡʤɤ˲⤵Ƥ̤ꡤas ξʸϡAs young as he is, he is rich. κǽ As äΤǤꡤФӾɽ魯°ޤʸȤȤˤʤ롥ºݡä˥ꥫѸǤϺǽ As ⸫롥ޤǼФӾΤǤ뤫顤ΰ̣Ͼ˸ꤵʤʸ̮ˤäƤϡYoung as he is, he is reckless. Τ褦ˡͳɽ魯ȤȤʤꤦ롥OED as, adv. and conj. B. 4 ȤȡŪʵȯã褯狼롥
ιʸνФ1200ǯǡso young as . . . ηǸ롥϶ѸؤĤʤä
c1225 (?c1200) St. Katherine l. 173 (MED), Þohte þah..se ȝung þing as ha wes, hwet hit mahte ȝeinen þa heo hire ane were aȝein se kene keisere.
ˡ1300ǯ as young as . . . ηФߤޤ³
c1300 St. Michael (Laud) l. 656 in C. Horstmann Early S.-Eng. Legendary (1887) 318 (MED), And ȝeot, ase gret ase þe eorþe þinchez and ase luyte ase heo is, þare nis bote þat seouenþe del.
Ǹˡ17ˡƬ as ä young as . . . η롥
a1627 H. Shirley Martyr'd Souldier (1638) ii. sig. D2v, Darke as it is, by the twilight of my Lanthorne, Methinks I see a company of Woodcocks.
Young as he is . . . ιʸŪˤϾ嵭Τ褦ȯŸƤ櫓̣ŪŪ though ȴϢŤ褦ˤʤäΤ̵̤ȤǤ롥Young though he is . . . Ϥޤ֤ǤꡤƻǤϤʤưʶˤƬ뤳ȤǤ (ex. Go to Kyoto every week though he does, Jim likes Tokyo better.) 顤ƱȤ as ǤǤ褦ˤʤä (ex. Try as she may, she never seems to be able to do the work satisfactorily.) as though δ֤ˡŪ (analogy) Ѥ̤
as ΤιʸˤĤơٹ (p. 215fn) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤΤǡѤƤ
褳η as...as ǤäΤǡas ʸ˴פΤǤϤʤ as ʤæΤǤ롥Eliot The Mill of the Floss, I. iii Big a puzzle as it was, it hadn't got the better of Riley. Ȥʸ뤬Big μ a ΤΤʸƬˤ As ФλѤΤǤ롥
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1])#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) ([2012-09-28-1])#1251. Ѹ쥪طʡ ([2012-09-29-1]) ơ⤦κľܤȤϡ2κȤȥԥ (pidginisation) ȤȤɤΤ褦˶̤뤫Ȥͻ
Ϣ³줺"the drastic break" (Görlach 341) ȽǤˤϥԥȤäƤ褤ȹͤ뤬Trudgill (181--82) Afrikaans 夲ƱݤεŸƤ롥
Interestingly, there are some languages in the world which look like post-creoles, but which are not. These are varieties which, compared to some source, show a certain degree of simplification and admixture. We do not, however, call these languages creoles, because the extent of the simplification and admixture is not very great. And we do not call them post-creoles because they have never been creoles --- which is in turn because they have never been pidgins! Afrikaans, the other major language of the white community in South Africa alongside English, used to be considered a dialect of Dutch . . . . During the course of the twentieth century, however, it achieved autonomy . . . and now has its own literature, dictionaries, grammar books, and so on. Compared to Dutch, Afrikaans shows significant amounts of regularization in the grammar, and a significant amount of admixture from Malay, Portuguese and other languages. It still remains mutually intelligible with Dutch, however. The crucial feature of Afrikaans is that, although it is now spoken by some South Africans who are the descendants of people who spoke it as a non-native language --- hence the influence from Portuguese, Malay and so on --- and who undoubtedly therefore spoke a pidginized form of Dutch/Afrikaans, the language was at no time a pidgin. In the transition from Dutch to Afrikaans, the native-speaker tradition was maintained throughout. The language was passed down from one generation of native speakers to another; it was used for all social functions and was therefore never subjected to reduction. Such a language, which demonstrates a certain amount of simplification and admixture, relative to some source language, but which has never been a pidgin or a creole in the sense that it has always had speakers who spoke a variety which was not subject to reduction, we can call a creoloid.
ɸ४٤СAfrikaans ˤϳΤñ㲽䵬§ߤ롥ޤޥ졼졤ݥȥʤɤܤѤߤ롥Ȥä pidgin Ȥ creole ȤƤ֤櫓ˤϤʤȤΤϡAfrikaans ˤϴְ㤤ʤŪϢ³뤫üԤϡñ㲽ܿиʤ⡤ڤ뤳ȤʤθѼѤƤܿȹ碌¨ʤصŪʸФȤפʤ"the drastic change" ϤʤäΤǤ롥ǤϡθȸƤ֤ΤTrudgill ϡѸȤ "creoloid" ŬڤǤϤʤȼĥ롥
"creoloid" ȤѸϡѸˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤűѸȸťΥɸȤܿϡcreole ߽Ф櫓ǤϤʤޤ creoloid ߽ФˤʤäȤ롥ʤʤСťΥɸȤܿϸűѸθѲ®٤®ޤǼϩαĹǤꡤϢ³äƱݤεȤơ#1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲ȡ
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
ε#1679. The West Indies αѸ ([2013-12-01-1]) Ǽ褦ˡɽθϡŪʻʣǤ롥ˤʬˤꡤ礴Ȥ˻Ūʸ줬ۤʤȤٴ֤ϰŪϢȤȤʤäƤ롥ΩȤȱʩμΤȤߤƤ뤳Ȥ⡤ϰΰݤˤװȤʤäƤ롥ΤȤơϰǤϵ콡θ줬ŪΤۤ˼ȤƱѸե١Ȥ쥪ʡ#1531. pidgin creole ʬۡ ([2013-07-06-1])ˡ̱θԤƤꡤϹäƤ롥ʲEncylopædia Britannica 1997 εȤƤޤȤ롥
쥪ˤĤƤСJamaica ˤѸ١Υ쥪줬褯ΤƤ롥Jamaica Ǥϡ饸⡤ʤɤǥ쥪줬ѤƤꡤФɸѸԺߤǤ롥ʷϵˤꡤ쥪ɸѸȤΤϤޤڤؤ뤳Ȥ̾ǤJamaican creole ζˤĤƤϡJamaican Creole Texts Ȥ줿ˡJamaica ˸¤餺æ̱ϲФ the Commonwealth Caribbean Ǥ⡤̤˱Ѹ١Υ쥪줬Ƥ롥
ե١Υ쥪ѤˤĤƤϡHaiti ŵȤƵ롥Jamaica ξƱͤˡHaiti Ǥ⥯쥪줬Ϥ˻ѤƤꡤºݤ¿ι̱ɸեʤ#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1]) Haiti ˤ diglossia ˤĤƿ줿褦ˡ쥪ϡѼɸեФƲѼȤư֤ŤΤΡٹ礤ǤФषͥǤ롥Guadeloupe Martinique ʩΥƥǤϡեܹȤ߹ޤƤ뤿ˡɸեλѤŪǤ롥
ڥ١Υ쥪ϡCuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic ʤɤμפʥڥϰˤƤȯãʤäAruba, Curaçao, Bonaire ʤΥƥǤ Papiamento ȸƤФѸκ쥪줬äƤ롥Puerto Rico Ǥϡ̱ˤꡤꥫѸαƶڥ줬äƤ롥
̱θȤƤ Hindi, Urdu, Chinese ԤƤ롥ѻ߸ˡ̱Ȥƥɤ餳ϰˤäƤ͡θǤ롥üԤ¿ϡ줾ϰˤŪʸؤȽƱƤäƤ롥㤨СTrinidad and Tobago ǤϹ̱4䤬ɷϰ̱δ֤ Hindi Urdu λѤϾʤʤäƤƤȤؤʹȤȤ
The West Indies ɽˤϡ̥ꥫˤϤޤ졤Τ饫ֳӥᥭѤ֤Ƥ̾ؤ̾Τϥ֥ Indias ̾դȤͳ褹롥Greater Antilles, Lesser Antilles, Bahamas ν礫ʤ롥ϰӤϡå̮ȥǥ̮ĤʤлӤ٤Ǥ뤳ȡ̱ϡץơˤĤȤˤäƷӤĤƤ롥13Ωޤब¾ϱѡʩơڤǤ롥
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17--18ʩѡǥޡʤɤˤʬη̡ϰϢϼ夯ʤäϰϸŪˤʬ䡦̲ƤꡤѸեʤɤζ̤ΤǤ롥ߤɽΤȤƤΰϤʤŪŪʴ4ĤϰʬΤǤ롥ϥޤҥѥ˥åϥ롼סɽ (The British West Indies or the Commonwealth Caribbean; cf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]))ʩΥƥ (The French Antilles)Υƥ (The Dutch Antilles) 4Ĥ
Ȥ櫓Ѹܤ褦ŪʱΥɽϡBahamas, Jamaica, Caymans, British Virgin Islands, Barbados, Trinidad, Tobago, Leeward Islands, Winward Islands 鹽Ƥ1958ǯʬ Federation of West Indies ɽϢˮˤȤΩ椫 Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago ʤɤĤϰ褬¹ȤΩߡɽENLϰȸƤ٤Τϰʲ17ϰǤ롥
Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Christopher and Nevis (St. Kitts-Nevis), Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Virgin Islands (US), the Virgin Islands (British)
չޤȡƤ Guyana Ƥ Belize ѸȤƱѸѤƤ롥ڥݥȥ줬ŪƤˤäƤϡ2ǤʤBelize ǤϥڥŪˡGuyana ˤĤƤϡ#385. Guyanese Creole Ϣ³Ρ ([2010-05-17-1]) ε⻲ȡ
ŪαѸϰˤĤƤϡ#1591. Crystal ˤѸüԤο ([2013-09-04-1])#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
ޤƱϰͭΥ쥪ϰǤ⤢롥Ϣơ#1531. pidgin creole ʬۡ ([2013-07-06-1]) ⻲ȡ
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