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2020-07-31 Fri

#4113. ܸΥʴϢϿ [japanese][neologism][waseieigo][katakana][borrowing][shortening][false_friend][semantic_change][lexicology][word_formation][sociolinguistics]

衤¤ʤɶλˤϡȤޤƤܲΥʲҤǤϸβѤΤǤˤĤ䤬󤲤褦ˤפ
ȤСѸǤС#4105. Ƽ˲űPCʪۡ ([2020-07-23-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡBLMưȤδϢǿͼﺹ̤򴭵θɽ̤ˤ줿ꡤŪִȤ֤Ƥ롥ϸ̩ˤХʲҤľŪʱƶˤΤǤϤʤ¸μҲ꤬ʲ԰¤ʰΤʤȯ̤ȤߤʤʤСŪˤϴͿƤȤ롥
ܸǤϡ͡ʥʴϢɽû֤Τޤ夷ƤȤϡȩȤ˴725ڡˤ俷ʹī̡11̡ˤˡ֥ʻθդפꤹýǺܤƤи˵󤲤Ȥ⤷֤ϰռ˰ǤƤߤ롥

3̩8︺10ߵաGo To ȥ٥롤PCRSkypeWHOZoomĿġӥ󡤥٥ΥޥޥӥޥӥСġʡܡ⡤å󥷥С塼ȡ饤ȡ饹롼 (COVID-18)ƥۡࡤڥ١㡼ءƥɥ饤֥롼˥塼Ρޥ롤ѥǥߥåեɡ饤֥ϥ⡼ȥޥåå󡤰ٹⴶϩˤߡٶ۵޻ޤưθươƤ롤ͷٻҲŪΥʥ롦ǥ󥹡ˡޥؾǡ«©иάͼͺݡǰ졤ܿǧץꡤܿȲġ㤴ꡤǥ롤2ȡ֤ۡ륫饪ž䡼顼ȡǻܿ㤤ᡤԵޤγм͡ʬй̵ѵҡγ׻ٹ


ʶˤηˡȤƤϡѸ줢ꡤѤꡤϸ줢ꡤάȡʤʤ˿ˡ򤸤ä䤫褷Ƥ롥ʶˤȤϡ¸θʶˤ˿ʸդä줿ꡤ˥奢󥹤ѲȤ̣Ѳλ¿ΰѤƸ̣δܤֵǤΤǤϤʤȤ鴶

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2020-07-30 Thu

#4112. ʤ careless ȿФ *caremore ǤϤʤ careful ʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][suffix][comparison]

hellog 饸11󡥺ϡǯαѸˤμȤӽФƤäۤɥ󥹤Τ褤ѤʵǤ󥹤ߤޤʤۤɤ䡥ˤĤƴñ˲Dz⤷Ƥߤޤ



Ĥޤꡤ츻ҤȤСƻʤӵ less -less ȤϤޤäʪȤȤˤʤΤǤ϶äǤ͡Ȥơηƻ able -able ʤʪǤޤˤҤä֤ꤽʶسλ¡
դʸϤǤäɤߤϡ##3699,4071εåɤ

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2020-07-29 Wed

#4111. He dares do . . . ϸѤ뤤ϵƤ뺮 [auxiliary_verb][verb][preterite-present_verb][conjugation][infinitive][3sp][contamination][shakespeare]

ε#4110. dare --- ưʤΤưʤΤϥåꤷʤ ([2020-07-28-1]) ˰³ˡưȤưȤ⤤ʤȾüʿ񤤤򼨤 dare ˤĤơShakespeare MacbethI dare do all that may become a man, Who dares do more, is none. Ȥʸ򻲾ȤθˡϸǤǧ롥Partridge (87) ϡ餫˸ѤȤߤƤ롥

dare is used in two ways: as a full verb (dares to, dared to, didn't dare to) and as an auxiliary like can or must. The latter occurs correctly only in negatives ('I daren't go'), in questions, and in subordinate clauses ('whether I dared go'). The two patterns are not to be mixed. Write either 'whether she dares to go' or 'whether she dare go' but not 'whether she dares go'.


(363) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ưˡǸ³ to Ͼά뤳ȤǤ: Nobody dares (to) criticize his decision.---OALD5 ʤҤȤȤηˤȤ䤫ȤʤˡϽưˡȺ򤷤ʤΤǡ㤨 Partridge-Whitcut (1994) ʤɤϸѤȸʤƤ뤬ǤɸŪʸˡ [Benson et al. (1997); Quirk et al. (1985: 138)]: I wouldn't dare have a party in my flat in case the neighbours complain.---CIDE ٶ꤫𤬤ȤʤΤǡͤΥѡȤǥѡƥȤϻפʤˡʤ Eastwood (1994: 128) ϡƹͤϳ to ȼηѤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥


ĤޤꡤԤˤȤϤŪˤ2Ĥιʸκ (contamination) ǤȤơä stigma դƤ櫓ǤϤʤ褦BNCweb "dares _V?I" ʤɤȸƤߤ17㤬ҥåȤΤˤ٤ƤեޥȤʸ̮Ǥʤ
̻Ūʴ餤Сˡư줫ưؤžȤĤĤȾüʾȤȤˤʤܲѲƤȤϤ٤Ȥ16˻ϤޤäѲǤ뤳ȤͤȡǤˤ줳500ǯۤɤλ֤ήƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʸѲ⡤ʤʤ©Ĺ
ľ3ñʤɤǤä;ζޤĸ򽾤ʽưȤΤϡѸǤϤĤΥǥ̤ˤСdare(s) Τۤˤ do(es) help(s) 餤ˤ쥢Ǥ롥

Partridge, Eric. Usage and Abusage. 3rd ed. Rev. Janet Whitcut. London: Penguin Books, 1999.
ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ

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2020-07-28 Tue

#4110. dare --- ưʤΤưʤΤϥåꤷʤ [auxiliary_verb][verb][preterite-present_verb][conjugation][infinitive][3sp][contamination][shakespeare]

ˡư dare ϡˡưΤʤǤ need used to ¤DZƤ¸ߤǤ롥Ūˤߤ˸Ťư (preterite-present_verb) ǤꡤǤ can, may, shall ʤɤ֤Ȥ⤤ΤӤȰŪ˺줬ԤǤ롥
ȤȤϲưǤ뤫顤űѸǤľˡ3ñǤϸߤ -s 褦ʻҲ򤤤äʤäºݡ durran Фơľ3ñǤ dear(r) ʤɤη֤򼨤ޤľ̤ưŪ줬³ˤϡưʤ븽Ѹθˤä (ex. c1000 Ælfric Genesis xliv. 34 Ne dear ic ham faran. (= "I dare not go home.")) Ĥޤꡤcan, may, shall ʤɤȤޤäƱ񤤤򼨤ƤΤǤꡤ̩ˤϥʥʸ⤷ʤѸŪʴнˡưäΤǤ롥
16ʹߡľ3ñ daryth dares Τ褦ʡˡư餷̡3ñ -sפ򼨤֤졤ưؤʬŪžȤƤȤСOED ˤ Shakespeare Macbeth (1623) i. vii. 46--7 ˡI dare do all that may become a man, Who dares do more, is none. Τ褦ʻ㤬ǧ롥ʬŪžȡפȤäΤϡǤ dare ϰưǤ⤢뤷äʸ䵿ʸǤˡưȤƤˡݤäƤ뤫
Shakespeare ʸǤ⤷Τϡ3ñ -sפ¸ߤ褦ˡư줫ưؤžȤ뤲ƤΤ褦ˤߤΤΡ³ŪȤƤưη֤ϤޤǸ do Ǥꡤto to do ǤϤʤȤĤޤꡤdare ϷŪˤϰư첽Ƥ뤬ŪˤϤޤˡưݤäƤȤȤǤ롥
ơäȤˤξϸǤ礭ۤʤʤѸǤϰưȤƤ He dares to do . . . ̤Ǥ뤳ȤϤȤꡤˡưȤƤ He dare do . . . ⵩롥˲ä Shakespeare ĥȾü He dares do . . . ǽʤΤǤ롥
إ˥缭ŵ٤ dare ιफѤޤ򻲾Ȥ줿ŪˤʸˡŪ contamination Ȥ٤ʤΤϤԻ׵ĤʡʽưǤ롥

The Conjugation of the Verb

Referrer (Inside): [2020-07-29-1]

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2020-07-27 Mon

#4109. boil, loin, point --- Ѹ ui ֻȯ [diphthong][vowel][centralisation][phoneme][french][anglo-norman][spelling_pronunciation]

ε#4108. boy, join, loiter --- 2첻μŪʡ ([2020-07-26-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ2첻 /ɔɪ/ Ūܤ٤طʤͭƤ롥ˤĤơ⤦겼Ƥߤ
Ѹ /ɔɪ/ ϢʤѸǤμ¸ϡ [oi] 뤤 [ui] ä餬Ū˸ /ɔɪ/ ذܲƤä櫓äѸ [ui] ˤĤƤϥڥ󥰤ȤδطǤⶽ̣Ūطʤ롥Minkova (269--70) Ѥ褦

The original [ui] has an unusual history in that, like the more recent history of /h-/ . . . , it is one of the rare well-documented instances of a sound change in progress inhibited and partially reversed by the influence of spelling. Many of the words with PDE <oi> --- loin, boil, coy, oil, join, point, choice, poison --- had variant pronunciations with [oi] and [ui], the latter commonly from Anglo-Norman. The 'normal' development of [ui], involving lowering and centralisation of the first element of the diphthong . . . , was towards [əi], which in the seventeenth and into the eighteenth century was also a possible realisation of historical [iː]. That the two etymologically distinct entities were treated as identical is shown by rhymes like loin: line, boil: bile, point: pint as late as the second half of the eighteenth century. In spelling the [ui] > [əi] words alternated between <ui> and <oi>. Eventually the centralised pronunciation [əi] for historical [ui] was abandoned in favour of [ɔi], no doubt supported by the spelling and pronunciation of the majority of the loanwords in that group.


Ѹ [ui] ̾βѲΥ롼Ȥ˾äƤСǤ [əi] ȤʤäƤϤǤꡤºݤˤʤäƤΤʹߡֻ <oi> ȤݤƤȡ <oi> [ɔi] ¿ñˤƳΩƤȤ顤οͰŪ [əi] > [ɔi] ȤѲ߽Ф줿Ȥפˡֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) Ǥ롥

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2020-07-26 Sun

#4108. boy, join, loiter --- 2첻μŪ [diphthong][vowel][phoneme][phonology][loan_word]

ɸñ˴ޤޤ2첻 /ɔɪ/ ϡѸǤϤʤޥʡ첻Ǥ롥#1022. ѸγƲǤ١ ([2012-02-13-1]) dzǧ뤫ꡤ첻ǤȤƤ /ʊə/ ˤĤ٤βǤǤ롥boy, choice, enjoy, join, poison ʤɤ˸뤿ᡤޤ´Ϥʤ⤷ʤ׾ϥޥʡǤ롥
ΥޥʡŪطʤȤƤϡβǤ⤽⳰ΤΤǤŦǤ롥choice, employ, loin, moist, turmoil, soil, join, poison Τ褦˥ե󥹸̤ΤŪ¿ۤ˥줫 buoy, foist, loiter ʤɤ⤢롥ꥷ hoi polloi٥󥬥 poisha hoisin줫鵼 ahoy, boink, oink ⤢롥εˤޤĤ̤ȤơŪˤϥ롼Ĥ򤿤ɤ뤳ȤΤǤʤǤʤΤǤ롥
ŪˤߤƤ⡤βǤϥޥʡäƤ롥Minkova (270) ϡVachek Lass ˸ڤĤġμ򼡤Τ褦˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥

The incorporation of the new diphthong in boy, join, coin into the English phonological system is commonly described as incomplete. Vachek (1976: 162--7, 265--8) argued that lack of parallelism with the other diphthongs ([eɪ-oʊ], [aɪ-aʊ], but not *[ɛɪ-ɔɪ]) and lack of morphophonemic alternations involving [ɔɪ] in the PDE system, makes [ɔɪ] a 'peripheral' phoneme in SSBE. He hypothesised that the survival of [ɔɪ] is associated with its pragmatic function of differentiating synchronically foreign words from native words, especially polysyllabic words. Lass (1992a: 53) also emphasises the 'foreignness' of [ɔɪ] and its structural isolation, and concludes that it . . . 'has just sat there for its whole history as a kind of non-integrated "excrescence" on the English vowel system'.


Τ˼ŪϤΤΡѸηϤ˼ޤƤ뤳ȤϳΤȤ⤢롥(1) ¾2첻Ʊͤ˲¸Ѱۤ򼨤 (ex. [ɔɪ], [oi], [ui])(2) -oid Ϥ2δ֡⤤ؤ롤(3) 20äƤ¤Ȥ oik (1917), oink (1935), boing (1952), boink (1963); droid (1952), roid (1978) ʤɤƤƤ롤ʤɤλ¤
ʴ鶽̣򤽤2첻ǤȤ

Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
Vachek, Joseph. Selected Writings in English and General Linguistics. Prague: Academia and the Hague: Mouton, 1976.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 23--154.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-09-10-1] [2020-07-27-1]

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2020-07-25 Sat

#4107. ʤ hour h ȯʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][silent_letter][consonant][h]

hellog 饸10ܤǤɸϡѤʵɬȤäƤ褤ۤɴ󤻤Ƥ䤤Ǥhour, honour, honest, heir ¾ h ȯʤȤǤȤäƤѸǽ hour ɽʤǤꡤʤʥͥƥ֤ޤ˱ѸؤֳԻ׵Ĥ˻פǤ͡
ȤϱѸˤΤʤǤ졤褦ȤäƤ褤餤ʥȥԥåʤΤǤؽŪˤ̤ȤäƤ褤Ǥ礦طʤϤ֤뤪⤷Τ⤷Υå󥹤Ǥ褦ȡƤߤޤ



ơѸ˸ˤƤ̵ hפǤʣʤ̥ŪΰüȤˤϡ##3941,461,462,1292,1675,1899,1677εåᤷޤ⤽ѸˤŪ h ¸ߤƤΤȤh ͩפޤо줷ɴġϹԲɥϹԲʤΤǤ

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2020-07-24 Fri

#4106. gaunt, aunt, lamp, danger --- Ū /a(u)NC/ ɤä4ĤΥ롼 [sound_change][vowel][diphthong][gvs][phonology][phonetics][anglo-norman][french][loan_word]

Ū /a(u)NC/ βϢäƤѸϡɸ㼨̤ꡤѸˤ4ȯʤɤˤ򼨤롥[ɔː ? ɑː], [ɑː ? æ(ː)], [æ(ː)], [eɪ] Ǥ롥4֤ζ̤ϡĶˤꡤƤ٤ޤǤϼѤΥˤ롥Ū /a(u)NC/ 줬ɤäƤ4ĤΥ롼ȤޤȤ᤿ Minkova (241) ˤɽ¿Ѥǰʲ˵󤲤褦

SourceOutputExamples
/aNC/ (AN <-aunC>)[ɔː ? ɑː]gaunt, haunt, laundry, saunter
/aNC/ (OFr <-anC>)[ɑː ? æ(ː)]aunt, grant, slander, sample, dance
/aNC#/[æ(ː)]lamp, champ, blank, flank, bland
/aNC (palat. obstr.)/[eɪ]danger, change, range, chamber


gaunt פϤ褽󥰥Υޥͳ褷aunt פϸš˥ե󥹸ͳ褹롥lamp פϡβϢ˴ѻ롥danger פϡŵŪˤ [ʤ] λҲؤˤߤ졤첻Ѳ (gvs) ФĹ첻2첻Ѳ̤򼨤ƤˤƤѸ [aː] ١Ȥʤä褦ˡ
ΥפˤĤƤ⡤ѸΥڥ󥰤ȤƤ첻ʬ <a> Τߤʤ餺 <au> 򼨤Ȥ¿첻շβˤƲ¸ɤ줬͡ˤäȤ롥

Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.

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2020-07-23 Thu

#4105. Ƽ˲űPCʪ [political_correctness][hel_education][oed][taboo]

BLM ư򤦤ä褦˳ȤäƤ롥ƤʤɤǤϡͺ̤ؤιĤΥ㡼Ȥơ˴ؤŪʱͺŪ˿ʪƼ˲űư깭Ƥ롥ʿŪˡդؤȵڤ⸫ƨʤ713Υ־εITѸѻߤưslave٤ϡإե٤إץꥫ٤ɤǡäȻפämaster, slave, whitelist, blacklist ʤɤɽŬڤǤȤơITȳˤ leader, follower, allowlist, denylist ̤ɽִưäƤƤȤ
Ƽ˲űȡΡֿPC (political_correctness) Ȥ٤2ĤθݤϡȤƤ褯Ƥ롥ޤҲĬήˤꡤ¸ŪɽʬŪ˼Ū˼겼ƤȤ̤Ƥ롥
⤦1ĤζϡȤɽ겼줿ȤˤꡤΤ˰츫Ϥʤʤä褦ˤߤ뤬褷꤬褵줿櫓ǤϤʤȤȤͥƥ֤ˤСΥΤʤʤ뤳ȤǤäƲäΤפФʤʤ櫓Ǥꡤ֤򤫤ưռŪ褬ߤʤäˡĤưפ˺dzǽ⤢Ȥ
Ƽ˲űȡֿPCפˤϴñӤǤʤ⤢롥ƼϤä겼СΤ˿͡ܤˤ뵡Ϥʤʤ롥master slave ȤɽϡITѸȤƤϹ褦ˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ̤ΡΡ˸ȤƤϸǤꡤޤ̤͡θˤΤܤ뤷ˤäƤ롥СƼϻ볦äФΰյŪͺˤƱͤ˸ʤʤʤ褦˻פˤդϤ˴˾ä뤳ȤϤʤ̤θȤƤǤϤ졤Ѥ餺Ѥ³ȤȤषռΤϺĤ뤳Ȥ¿cf. #1338. ֡ε ([2012-12-25-1]
ܲƼ˲ű˴ؤơƼʪۤݴɡŸ뤳ȤǶ顦ǺȤƳ褫٤Ƥ뼱Ԥ⤤롥ɰƤȻפ
ǤϡդˤĤƤϤɤITѸˤ master slave ִˤĤƤϡ̤ɽִơ֥ϥפǤϡϤ­ǤʤƼʪۤݴɡŸΤƱͤˡդʪۤߤϡѸξǤ OED Τ褦Ū§˴ŤˡֺŪ׸ϿƤȤ OED ŪˤϴŪʥ٥μȻפäƤ뤬ǤϤʪŪ¸ߴΤʪۤȤϰۤʤꡤŪˤ¸ߴѸ˸¤餺äʪŪ¸ߴΤָդʪۡפˤȤ褤ʤȾפäƤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2022-05-17-1] [2020-07-31-1]

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2020-07-22 Wed

#4104. ʤ He is to blame. He is to be blamed. ȤʤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][voice][infinitive]

hellog 饸9ܤǤbe to blame ϼѸǤϡդ餦٤Ǥ롤Ǥ롤פΰդǽϸȤưŵ뤳ȤˤʤäƤΤǡ̤ϿͤʤȻפޤ褯ͤѤǤ He ï񤵤ͤǤäơï񤹤ͤǤϤʤǤѸ interesting interested Τ褦ʬƻˤƤ⤽Ǥưΰ̣ˤĤǽưȼư򸷤̤ȤΤǤϤʤäΤǤ礦
ϢƤ䤳ΤϡϤѸǰŵ뤳ȤˤʤäƤ be to do ȤϸȤδطǤͽסֱ̿סֵ̳̿סֲǽסְջ֡פʤɤѸǼˡޤνϸǤϡˡˤƤ⡤Τʸμ줬 do Ȥ֡ (voice) δطʤΤǤ

ͽˡ The concert is to be held this evening.
ֱ̿ˡ He was never to see his family again.
ֵ̳̿ˡ You are not to smoke in this room.
ֲǽˡ The camera was not to be found.
ְջ֡ˡ If we are to get there by noon, we had better hurry.

ȤȤϡդ餦٤פϡϤ He is to be blamed. ΤۤŬڤǡHe is to blame. ϤȤȤˤʤꤽǤ
ŪˤߤСԤΤǤѸǽư֤ư֤ʤɡ֡פˤ뤵ȽҤ٤ޤŤѸǤϡä˺Τ褦ʤư̾ˤ˴ؤ뤫ꡤ֤ΰռϤäȴˤäΤǤǤϡβɤ



ϸȤΤϤƤŤ경Ƥ귿Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿Τǡ be to blame ⡤֡פ˴ˤäŤɤ̾Ĥä櫓ǤҴϢʲε⤴##3611,3604,3605εåˡ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-05-26-1] [2024-05-24-1]

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2020-07-21 Tue

#4103. ƬΤʬϤϤ1066ǯ [alliteration][prosody][meter][norman_conquest]

ޥαΧȤƤƬ (alliteration) ϡѸˤˤƤűѸ줫鸽ѸޤϢʤ³Ƥ롥ʸεȤߤȡΧŪˤʸŪˤ⡤űѸѸδ֤Τ䤬ȤƤ롥βϴˤϡɽŪˤƱƬԤʤ³Ƥ褦ˤߤƤ⡤ƬʤŪʱΧε§ܤС¤ˤݻƤ餺줿׷ǷѾƤˤʤѾ䤫ȤϸŤ餢뤬ʤȤ֤ΤޤޤηѾפǤʤȤ
ǤϡȤߤȤʬϤĺʤΤޤ«Τ褦ˡ1066ǯǤϤʤȻפäƤȤ֤¤1066ǯʤΤפȤ Minkova (339) εҤ˽в̿ä

The 1065 poem The Death of Edward is the last composition that can be described reasonably as belonging to the Classical metrical tradition of Anglo-Saxon versification. Very revealing in this respect are the statistics and the comments presented in Cable (1991: 54--5). He notes one single metrically dubious verse (soþfæste sawle 'soothfast soul' (28a)) in the sixty-eight verses of The Death of Edward, while on the other side of the 1066 chronological divide the next extant poem with prominent alliteration, Durham, composed c. 1100, shows a very high level of unmetricality. In Durham 38.1 per cent of the forty-two verses fail to conform to the classical rules. Thus, while the cataclysmic effect of the Norman Conquest with respect to changes affecting phonology and morphosyntax can be questioned, the demarcation line in terms of versification modes is clearer, at least within the inevitable limitations imposed by the surviving texts.


˥ԥݥȤ1066ǯȤȤĴƤ櫓ǤϤʤħŪˤϤϤꤳǯΤ褦ѤǤҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤѸ⼫Ǥʾ塤ǯ˥ѤȤȤϹͤˤǤϱΧƱΧȴطϿΧΤΤǤϤʤʸεȤƬ§į硤ǯ򶭤1Ĥε§̤ε§˥ѲȤȤϤ뤫⤷ʤξε§ȤϼҲ٤˶ᤤΤǡҲ٤ȤϤ򶭤ˤƿ͡¾˰ռŪ˾괹뤳ȤǤʪ
űѸ The Battle of Maldon ʤɤǤŪʥꥺफϰæƤȸƤꡤʬȤƤ1066ǯ̤˼뤳ȤϤǤʤˤ衤ħŪʰյǧƤ褤

Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
Cable, Thomas. The English Alliterative Tradition. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1991.

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2020-07-20 Mon

#4102. ȿդȶ [semantics][antonymy][markedness]

ȿ (antonym) ϡΰ̣ (semantics) ˤ1ĤνפʥȥԥåǤ롥ȿոȤäƤ͡ʥפꡤ#1800. ͡ȿи ([2014-04-01-1]) ǤߤȤǤ롥ޤѸκǤŵŪȿոڥ1Ǥ old young ȤäƤߤƤ⡤How old are you? ̡ʡ̵ɸˤ How young are you? ϤѡʡͭɸˤȤǡХ󥹤μ줿ñȿդǤϤʤǤ뤳Ȥ롥ȿդȤΤϻפä
ŵŪȿդäƤħ1Ĥ polarity ʶˤ롥Ụ̄Ūˤϡ3 polarity ̤롥̡ɾ polarity Allan (130--31)

polarity This is displayed when one term of a binary opposition is described as 'positive' and the other as 'negative'. The most obvious cases are where one term carries a negative affix which the other lacks: possible: impossible, happy: unhappy, obey: disobey, dress: undress, and so on. But other types of opposition are said to have positive and negative terms. The main ones are as follows:

   1. Logical polarity is based on the principle that 'two negatives make a positive'. For instance, It's true that it's true is equivalent to It's true, but It's false that it's false changes polarity and is equivalent to It's true. From this we can conclude that false is the negative term and true is positive.
   2. Quantity polarity applies particularly to antonym pairs, where the positive term indicates 'more of' some property and the negative term 'less of', as with long (positive) and short (negative).
   3. Evaluation polarity is where the positive term expresses approval and the negative term disapproval, as with good: bad, polite: rude.


硦 polarity ȤȤȿաʸˤ˸礦ݤˤϡ3ռȺ𤻤˺Ѥࡥ

Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-06-04-1]

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2020-07-19 Sun

#4101. Ѹޤפεå [hellog_entry_set][waseieigo][word_formation][neologism][compounding]

ؤαѸؤμȤǵ夬äɸˤĤơhellog åȤƤ

Ѹޤפεå

ФȤƼ夲븽ܸΡѸפϡŪˤ̸ŪˤޤäݤǤϤʤ˭ʸüѤˤܸѸʤɤˤƤϡष̤βʤΤǤϤʤܸˤˡפäѸˤ򿶤֤äƤ⡤Ѹˤϡֱסֱסֱʩפʤɤä
Τ褦˻ۤʤɻ褦ʲäƤꡤ⤽βμդˤӤǤǧ롥1Ĥϡ줬˰ҿǧƤꡤĽʬǤ뤳ȡʵդˡǤʤС֡פ¤ϵʤˡ⤦1Ĥϡ֡פ˥˵͢Ƥ륱뤳ȡ
ܸΡѸפͭȤܤ⤢롥ȤС¾Ρ֡פϺФΤϥ̤ƱμͤȤäƤ褤ѸפˤĤƤϺФΤɬѸȤμͤǤϤʤѸˤϽƤʤ̤ο͡Τ褦˻פ롥षѸμͤϡΤ褦¤줵줿ѸפŪ˸Ƥ륱⾯ʤʤ¤ϡϼȤǤε̤ƳŦǤ롥ܸˤĤƤαԤɾˤʤäƤȻפȤȤΤٶˤʤ롥
ҤȤդäƤ٤ϡ⤽ѸˤϡֱפΤ褦ŪΤɽʤȤֿŵŪʣ (neo-classical compounds) Τ褦ˡŪŪɽ٤Ǥ롥٤ܸΡѸפȤˤ褯Ǥϸȴ롥ʤܸˤϡѸפΤ褦ʽϸ줬Ф¸ߤ͸դƤΤȤ̤ζ̣䤬ͯƤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2021-07-16-1]

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2020-07-18 Sat

#4100. ¸ǸŤαʸϲ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][runic][alphabet][writing][direction_of_writing]

hellog 饸8ܤȤơѸʻˡˤȤˤճΤƤʤ¤Ҳ𤷤ޤ7 ([2020-07-15-1]) Ǥ¤Ͼ줿ΤǤϾܤ夲ޤ
ߡ20ͤˤääȤ⤤ lingua franca Ѹ졥ˤҿܤ뤢ޤꡤκǸŤλѤʤΤäˤĤƤϴؿ⤿ޤ󡥤Ĵ٤Ƥߤȥ㥯㤪⤷ΤǤѸθ¸ǸŤξڵ1Ĥ "Undley bracteate" ޤ1982ǯ Suffolk Undley ȯ줿ľ2.3cmζΥդ줿̾ǡǯϵ450--80ǯΤΤȤޤα߼˱äơ롼ʸȿײˡĤޤֱ麸ˡ׽񤫤Ƥޤޤ˥ޥߤƤǤ



¤ˤ⤷Ǥ礦"gægogæ mægæ medu" ȤϲʤΤʸ̵̣ʻʸ᤯ѸȤ줬о̱²θäǽλξڵǤ
Ϣ뵭󤲤Ƥޤ礦##572,1435,1453εå򤸤äꤴ

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2020-07-17 Fri

#4099. sore ΰ̣Ѳ [cognitive_linguistics][semantic_change][metaphor][metonymy][loan_word][french][prototype][polysemy]

Geeraerts ˤ롤Ѹˤǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) Υܤ⤯ͤꡥ sore Ūʰ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ˤơmetaphor, metonymy, prototype ʤɤǧθŪѸ졦ǰȶ㤬ʷƳƤ롥
Ѹ sore θűѸǤ sār ϡꤹǤ¿äűѸˤƱ prototypical ʸϡ٤ξ夫餫 "bodily suffering" Ū줷ߡˤäθ濴Ȥơ⤿餹ȤƤγŪ "bodily injury, wound" ʽˤŪ "illness" µˤθȥ˥ߡˤȯãƤ"emotional suffering" Ū줷ߡˤθ⡤ΤؤΥ᥿ե̤ȯãƤΥ᥿եطʤˤϡ츻Ūˤ̵طǤ뤬Ū sorrow ʸűѸ sorgˤȤϢۤѤƤ
űѸ sār 嵭¿ϡʲγơθǤʸˤ꼨 (Geeraerts 622)

(1) "bodily suffering"
   þisse sylfan wyrte syde to þa sar geliðigað (ca. 1000: Sax.Leechd. I.280)
   'With this same herb, the sore [of the teeth] calms widely'

(2) "bodily injury, wound"
   Wið wunda & wið cancor genim þas ilcan wyrte, lege to þam sare. Ne geþafað heo þæt sar furður wexe (ca. 1000: Sax.Leechd. I.134)
   'For wounds and cancer take the same herb, put it on to the sore. Do not allow the sore to increaase'

(3) "illness"
   þa þe on sare seoce lagun (ca. 900: Cynewulf Crist 1356)
   'Those who lay sick in sore'

(4) "emotional suffering"
   Mið ðæm mæstam sare his modes (ca. 888: K. Ælfred Boeth. vii. §2)
   'With the greatest sore of his spirit

Τ褦ˡűѸ
sār'' ϡޤ (1) "bodily suffering" θ prototype ȤĤġȥ˥ߡ᥿եˤä (2) -- (4) θŪѤƤȤäȤ³Ѹ1297ǯˡޤ "bodily suffering" ̣ pain Ȥեñ줬ѤƤ롥Ĺ餯ƱôƤ sore ϡο pain ˤäƼϰϤå뤳Ȥˤʤäɤ줿櫓ǤϤʤprototypical ʸ (1) "bodily suffering" (2) "bodily injury, would" ؤȥեȤ뤳Ȥˤ̿ΤǤ롥ơԤθѸ sore prototype Ȥʤä¾θषθŪʾΤ˳ΩΤ϶Ѹˡ

Geeraerts, Dirk. "Cognitive Linguistics." Chapter 59 of A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 618--29.

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2020-07-16 Thu

#4098. û첻б <ou> ˤĤ --- country, double, touch [spelling][spelling_pronunciation_gap][digraph][french][loan_word][etymological_respelling]

<ou> /ʌ/ ϡ󤲤ƤߤʤʤȸƤʤʤ󤬤ʤΤĴ٤ƤߤɸΤ褦˰ƳŪʸ줬ФƤ롥country, couple, courage, cousin, double, flourish, nourish, touch, trouble ä롥
ζϡե󥹼ѸǤ뤳Ȥťե󥹸줫鸽ե󥹸˻ޤǡθǤ <ou> /uː/ ȤбطΩƤѸǤѸʹߤ˥եñ줬̤˼ѤȤȤˡֻȯбط͢뤳ȤˤʤäѸ /uː/ ϡθ塤ȯŸ첻 (gvs) ˤ /aʊ/ ȤʤϤǤꡤºݤ˸ѸǤϤƤ <ou> /aʊ/ ȤʤäƤ (ex. about, house, noun, round, south) Ѹ /uː/ 餫Τäû첻 /u/ ȤʤС첻ܤˤष岽 (centralisation) /ʌ/ Ȥʤ롥κݤֻϢưѲʤäˡȤʤäƤ <ou> /ʌ/ δطޤ뤳Ȥˤʤä첻岽ˤĤƤϡ#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1]) ȡ#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1])#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1]) ε򻲾ȡˡ
<ou> /ʌ/ 򼨤嵭ñ췲ϡѸǤ <o> <u> ֤뤳Ȥ¿ <ou> ֻϾ٤ƤƳ줿褦 (Upward and Davidson 146) Υߥ󥰤طʤ꤫ǤϤʤ⤷ռŪʥե󥹸ֻؤβ󵢤ȤСθ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ȥʤ롥
ʤǤ <ou> /ʌ/ λȤ southern 롥ͭ̾ Blount դäƤѤȤƤϡꥫѸֻ mustache ФƥꥹѸֻ moustache 㤬⤷Carney (147--48) ⻲ȡ

Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-11-19-1]

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2020-07-15 Wed

#4097. ʤѸϺ鱦˽񤯤ΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education]

hellog 饸7ơơषۤȤïʤΤǤϤʤȤѤʵǤ褯̲ͤʤʤۤԻ׵ĤǤ
ܸŪ˽Ľ񤭤ʤΤǡ䤿ϡޤäƤʤѸϲ񤭤ʤΤȤƤ٤ǤɴäƲ񤭤ǧˤ衤ˤʤ麸ǤϤʤ鱦ʤΤȤ䤬⤫ǤޤȤΤϡˤ⸽ߤˤ⡤麸˽񤯽ĽηϤǤ¸ߤ뤫Ǥ
嵭ϼȤʤΤ褦˻פޤ줬¤˱ΤǤȤȤǡڤʲƥĤ򿴤ʤ顤10ʬĶϿˤʤäƤޤޤǤİƤʤȺǸŤαʸϱ麸˽񤫤ƤȤä٤¤ΤǤ顪



ǤĽ񤭤񤭤񤭤Ȥ鱦麸ʤΤ鱦ʤΤˤ⤷Ǥ
θȾǿޤܸˤˤƱ麸ؤνޤˤ϶̣ҲŪطʤäΤǤ͡
ޤơϢ뵭󤲤Ƥޤ礦ؿΤ##572,2448,2449,2482,2483,2688εå򤴰ɤѸˤؤǤϡΤȤ򷡤겼ƤΤǤ⤪⤷ȤȤʬäȻפޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-07-18-1]

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2020-07-14 Tue

#4096. 3Ÿ졤4Ÿ졤5Ÿ򤤤Ĥ [doublet][etymology][loan_word][borrowing][lexicology][synonym]

ε#4094. 2Ÿʬ ([2020-07-13-1]) Ǽ夲2Ÿ (doublet) ξԤ3Ÿ졤4Ÿ졤5ŸʤɤΡ¿Ÿפ򡤡ؿѸؼŵ (344) ꤤĤ󤲤ܥ֥δϢ뵭ؤΥ󥯤ĥäƤ

(a) 3Ÿ (triplet)

hale (< ME hal, hale, hail < OE hāl), whole (< ME hol, hool, hole < OE hāl), hail ( ON heill) (cf. #3817. hale θ캬ͥåȥ ([2019-10-09-1]))
place ( OF place < L platēa), plaza ( Sp. plaza < L platēa), piazza ( It. piazza < L platēa)
hotel ( F hôtel < OF hostel < ML hospitāle), hostel ( OF hostel < ML hospitāle), hospital ( ML hospitāle) (cf. #171. guest host (2) ([2009-10-15-1]))
a, an, one (cf. #86. one ȯ ([2009-07-22-1]))

(b) 4Ÿ (quadruplet)

corpse ( MF corps < OF cors < L corpus), corps ( MF corps < OF cors < L corpus), corpus ( L corpus), corse ( OF cors < L corpus)

(c) 5Ÿ (quintuplet)

palaver ( Port palavra < L parabola), parable ( OF parabole < L parabola), parabola ( L parabola), parley ( OF parlée < L parabola), parole ( F parole < L parabola)
discus, disk, dish, desk, dais (cf. #569. discus --- 6Ÿ߽Фðۤθ캬 ([2010-11-17-1]))
senior, sire, sir, seigneur, signor

ʤܸ줫4ŸȤơɡ륿ơ㡼Ȥ󤲤Ƥ (cf. #1027. åפȥåס ([2012-02-18-1]))

⿮ ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-03-17-1]

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2020-07-13 Mon

#4095. 2Ÿʬ [doublet][etymology][loan_word][borrowing][lexicology][synonym]

Ʊ츻ˤΤܤ뤬餫ͳǷ֤Ọ̇̄ۤʤ˻ä1Ȥθ2Ÿ (doublet) ȸƤ֡ܥ֥Ǥ͡ʼ2Ÿ󤲤Ƥä˾ܺ٤ʰϡ#1723. åץ꡼ˤ2Ÿ ([2014-01-14-1]) ȡ#1724. Skeat ˤ2Ÿ ([2014-01-15-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ2ŸˤϤĤΥפ뤬ؿѸؼŵ (343--44) ˽äơ˸ŪʴʬषƼ

(1) ѷϩΰۤʤΡ

sure ( OF sur < L sēcūrus), secure ( L sēcūrus)
poorʢ OF povre, poure < L pauper), pauper ( L pauper)
filibuster ( Sp. filibustero Du. vrijbuiter), freebooter ( Du. vrijbuiter)
caste ( Port. casta < L castus), chaste ( OF chaste < L castus)
madam(e) ( OF ma dame < L mea domina), Madonna ( It. ma donna < L mea domina)

(2) ȳˤΡ

shirt (< OE scyrte < *skurtjōn-), skirt ( ON skyrta < *skurtjōn-)
naked (< OE nacod, næcad), nude ( L nūdus)
brother (< OE brōðor), friar ( OF frere < L frāter)
name (< OE nama), noun ( AN noun < L nōmen)
kin (< OE cynn), genus ( L genus)

(3) Ʊ줫ۤʤ˰ۤʤ֤뤤ϰ̣ǼѤ줿Ρ

cipher ( OF cyfre Arab. ṣifr), zero ( F zéro It. zero Arab. ṣifr)
count ( OF conter < L computāre), compute ( MF compoter < L computāre)
annoy ( OF anuier, anoier < L in odio), ennui ( F ennui < OF enui < L in odio)

(4) ƱΰۤʤμѤˤΡ(cf. #76. Norman French vs Central French ([2009-07-13-1])#95. ޤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2009-07-31-1])#388. äȤ롪 Norman French Central French Ÿ ([2010-05-20-1]))

catch ( ONF cachier), chase ( OF chacier)
wage ( ONF wagier), gage ( OF guage)
warden ( ONF wardein), guardian ( OF guardien)
warrant ( ONF warantir), guarantee ( OF guarantie)
treason ( AN treyson < OF traison < L traditionis), traditiion ( OF tradicion < L traditionis) (cf. #944. ration reason ([2011-11-27-1]))

(5) ѸˤƱ줬ƼηѲˤʬ (split) ĤΰۤʤˤʤäΤ롥ˤѸˤǧ롥

outermost, uttermost
thresh, thrash
of, off
than, then (cf. #1038. then than ([2012-02-29-1]))
through, thorough (cf. #55. through θ츻 ([2009-06-22-1]))
wight, whit
worked, wrought (cf. #2117. playwright ([2015-02-12-1]))
later, latter (cf. #3616. 촴첻ûפӵͳ褹 latter, last, utter ([2019-03-22-1])#3622. latter η֤űѸ졦Ѹ "Pre-Cluster Shortening" ([2019-03-28-1]))
to, too
mead, meadow
shade, shadow (cf. #194. shadow shade ([2009-11-07-1]))
twain, two (cf. #1916. ˡȽˡǰۤʤ֤ķƻ ([2014-07-26-1]))
fox, vixen

acute, cute
example, sample (cf. #548. example, ensample, sample 3Ÿ ([2010-10-27-1]))
history, story
mode, mood (cf. #3984. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (2) ([2020-03-24-1]))
parson, person (cf. #179. person parson ([2009-10-23-1]))
fancy, fantasy
van, caravan
varsity, university
flour, flower (cf. #183. flower flour ([2009-10-27-1]))
travail, travel

嵭2ŸΤĤˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ⵭Ǽ夲Τꡤ󥯤ĥäƤ¾2ŸˤĤƤξ򸡺ХҥåȤ뤫⤷ʤ

⿮ ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-03-25-1] [2020-07-14-1]

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2020-07-12 Sun

#4094. ʤ go β went ˤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][verb][conjugation][suppletion]

hellog 饸6ơˤ褯ҤͤѤʵǤΤ go went ǤϽŤʤȤޤäʤ櫓ǡƬξ˥ϥƥʤ֤Τ̵ʤȤǤޤϡİƤ



Ǥ⿨Ƥ褦ˡgo Τ褦ʡĶפΤĤٸˤϡ佼ˡ (suppletion) ϤᡤȤԵ§ʤȤäƤޤΤǤϸźθŪˤߤ븽ݤȤޤ
ȤȤϡǰʤɤʸؤؤӻϤλȤ櫓ĤȤȤˤʤޤʳǤgo -- went Τ褦ԿԤʰŵܤ䤿ȽФƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫Ǥ
ǤϡΤ褦ʤȤɤθˤŪˤߤȤΤϡʤʤΤǤ礦εޤϢ뵭򽸤ƤߤޤؿΤ##43,1482,764,67,2600,2090,765,3254,694εåʼҲ˸Ūطʤ뤳Ȥ狼뤫Ȼפޤ

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2020-07-11 Sat

#4093. ɸѸλϤޤϥͥ󥹴 [standardisation][renaissance][emode][sociolinguistics][chaucer][chancery_standard][spenser][ethnic_group]

ѸˤˤơɸѸ (Standard English) ľܤεϤɤˤ뤫֤ɤˤ뤫פȤ⡤षԤ֤ɤ֤ΤפȤǤ뤫顤ʸ򤬤롥񤭸դɸಽ Chaucer 14˲"Chancery Standard" 15Ⱦȯã˸ڤơդλɸಽȤ븫򤬡ŪˤϤ롥ɸѸľϢʤΤϡ֤ɤפǡ֤ġפʤΤȤϡɸಽ (standardisation) ȤϲʤΤȤܼŪȷӤĤʤʤ
Crowley (303--04) ϡɸѸη˴ؤͤνȤ "Renaissance Origins" ꤹ񤤤Ƥ롥ɸಽΥߥ󥰤˴ؤ1ĤθȤơƶ٤󶡤ƤΤǡޤޤѤThomas Wilson, George Puttenham, Edmund Spenser Ȥ16̾ͤθդڤơϤΤɸѸ쵯ŸƤ롥

The emergence of the English vernacular as a culturally valorized and legitimate form took place in the Renaissance period. It is possible to trace in the comments of three major writers of the time the origins of a persistent set of problems which later became attached to the term "standard English." Following the introduction of Thomas Wilson's phrase "the king's English" in 1553, the principal statement of the idea of a centralized form of the language in the Renaissance was George Puttenham's determination in 1589 of the "natural, pure and most usual" type of English to be used by poets: "that usual speech of the court, and that of London and the shires lying about London, within lx miles and not much above" (Puttenham 1936: 144--5). In the following decade the poet and colonial servant Edmund Spenser composed A View of the State of Ireland (1596) during the height of the decisive Nine Years War between the English colonists in Ireland and the natives. In the course of his wide-ranging analysis of the difficulties facing English rule, Spenser offers a diagnosis of one of the most serious causes of English "degeneration" (a term often used in Tudor debates on Ireland to refer to the Gaelicization of the colonists): "first, I have to finde fault with the abuse of language, that is, for the speaking of Irish among the English, which, as it is unnaturall that any people should love anothers language more than their owne, so it is very inconvenient, and the cause of many other evils" (Spenser 1633: 47). Given Spenser's belief that language and identity were linked ("the speech being Irish, the heart must needes bee Irish), his answer was the Anglicization of Ireland. He therefore recommended the adoption of Roman imperial practice, since "it hath ever been the use of the Conquerour, to despise the language of the conquered, and to force him by all means to use his" (Spencer 1633: 47).
   There are several notable features to be drawn from these Renaissance observations on English, a language which, it should be recalled, was being studied seriously and codified in its own right for the first time in this period. The first point is the social and geographic basis of Wilson and Puttenham's accounts. Wilson's phrase "the king's English" was formed by analogy with "the king's peace" and "the king's highway," both of which had an original sense of being restricted to the legal and geographic areas which were guaranteed by the crown; only with the successful centralization of power in the figure of the monarch did such phrases come to have general rather than specific reference. Puttenham's version of the "best English" is likewise demarcated in terms of space and class: his account reduces it to the speech of the court and the area in and around London up to a boundary of 60 miles. A second point to note is that Puttenham's definition conflates speech and writing: its model of the written language, to be used by poets, is the speech of courtiers. And the final detail is the implicit link between the English language and English ethnicity which is evoked by Spenser's comments on the degeneration of the colonist in Ireland. These characteristics of Renaissance thinking on English (its delimitation with regard to class and region, the failure to distinguish between speech and writing, and the connection between language and ethnicity) were characteristics which would be closely associated with the language throughout its modern history.


ѹͥ󥹤16ˡ(1) ŪŪ˸ꤵ줿ҿѼȤơ(2) äա񤭸աפȡ(3) ָ̱²פΤȤ߽Ф줿Ѹ졥줬ޤϢʤ "Standard English" ľܤεǤ뤳Ȥ¤ΤʤʸϤФƤ롥ȤɶȤƻȤۤɡɤ߱ΤʸϤƱΥȤȤץ쥼ơȵӤǡƤ⤹äȼƤޤ褦ʰᡥΤ褦ʸϤ񤱤褦ˤʤꤿΤ
嵭 Puttenham ͭ̾ʰˤĤƤϡ#2030. ꥹ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-17-1]) Ǹʸ󤲤ƤΤǡ⻲ȡ

Crowley, Tony. "Class, Ethnicity, and the Formation of 'Standard English'." Chapter 30 of A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 303--12.

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2020-07-10 Fri

#4092. shit, ordure, excrement --- ä3ع¤κǶ [lexicology][synonym][loan_word][borrowing][french][latin][lexical_stratification][swearing][taboo][slang][euphemism]

Ǥ礦ǤѸ3ع¤ͭͺۤʪǶ1ĤǤϤʤȻפäƤޤܸθ촶ȤƤϡ֥סʵǢסʪפۤɤǤ礦
Ѹä3ع¤ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#3885. رѸ춵٤Ϣ10֤ʤѸˤ줬¿Τס ([2019-12-16-1]) 䤽ĥäεޤ (lexical_stratification) ʤɤǡ֤ƤޤŪ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ǵ󤲤Ƥޤ
äȵ󤲤ƤߤȸƤʤʤ񤷤ŵŪ ask, question, interrogate help, aid, assistance ʤɤ󤲤ƺѤޤƤޤΤǤ褷­ϤƤ餺äȸ碌̥ŪõᤤޤǡĤɸ˽Ф路ΤǤWalker swearing ˴ؤ뵭ҤɤǤȤǤ (32)

A few taboo words describing body parts started out as the 'normal' forms in Old English; one of the markers of the status difference between Anglo-Norman and Old English is the way the 'English' version became unacceptable, while the 'French' version became the polite or scientific term. The Old English 'scitte' gave way to the Anglo-Norman 'ordure' and later the Latin-via-French 'excrement'.


˽вäȤϡɡĤޤǡˤϤä©ݤߡܤ򵱤Ƥޤޤ
shit ϸűѸ scitte ˤΤܤǤűѸǤΰ̣ϡ֡ʲܤΡ˲ΡפǤ ưȤƤƬĤ bescītan ʱˤΤ褦Ĺ첻򼨤Ƥޤ̾줫αƶ⤢äûѸ s(c)hite(n) ʵ򤹤ˤƤޤ̾ΡʵפθȤƤϰճȿѸνФǤ
ordure ϡťե󥹸 ordure ѸäΤǡֱʪסФʸաסʵפ̣ޤ캬 horrid ʶˤȤⶦ̤ޤ
excrement ϽѸ˥ƥ excrēmentum ʤ뤤бե󥹸 excrémentˤѤޤ
ߤǤ shit ¯졦֡ŪʡפնɽȤƤϡפ¤줿ե󥹸 ordure Ѥޤƥ excrement ϡ˷ĥäؽŪʶޤۤȤɡפޤ
ʾ塤餷ޤ

Walker, Julian. Evolving English Explored. London: The British Library, 2010.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-30-1]

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2020-07-09 Thu

#4091. DOST SND --- åȥɱѸǤ OED [scottish_english][scots][oed][dictionary][lexicography][lexicology][world_englishes][laos]

νѸ (world_englishes) μϿɡåȥɱѸ (scottish_english) ϱѸˤˤ̤ʰ֤Ťˤ롥ȤΤϡ󥰥ɱѸСåȥɱѸϡľŪ˸űѸͳ褹ͣαѸѼǤ롥ŪˤϥꥹäѸΡ¤ä1ѼˤʤȤ̤ŪˤߤХ󥰥ɱѸ¤ǺĹϢ³ؤͳѼʤΤǤ롥άˤˤĤƤϡ#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
ͳ Scots English ˤĤƤϡOED ɤŨƲŪʼԻƤ롥2ľҲ𤷤褦1ĤϡDOST Craigie et al. Ԥ A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue Ǥ롥СϡåȥɱѸ줬󥰥ɱѸȤϰۤʤΩѼȤȯŸ顤Ω򼺤äƤä1700ǯޤǤǤ롥ˤϻˤäưۤʤäƤꡤ1600ǯޤǤŪ˼ϿƤȤäƤ褤17ʬˤĤƤϥåȥɤòϰѼμȤʤäƤ롥
ޤԻˤˤĤŤͤƤȤ⤢롥ԻȾˤϡƱθ츻̤ΤǤۤʤˤϡۤʤ븫ФΩƤȤˤΤƤR ι˺ݤäƤϿԽĹ Dareau ΤȤ to till ƱФΤʤǰʤɰۤʤˤΤ뤳ȤˤʤäطʤˤϡԻȤ˴ؤ֤꥽ɯä褦
1700ǯʹߤΥåȥɱѸôƤΤ⤦1ĤμSND Scottish National Dictionary Ǥ롥Ū§ΩäԻƤ뤬åȥɱѸ줬ǤΩܼۤäƤоݤȤƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤ1ϰѼMȤ٤֤ŤȤʤäƤ롥
DOST SND 碌ơåȥɱѸǤ OED ȤߤʤƤ褤ºݡξԤ Dictionary of the Scots Language ̾ΤȤ礵졤饤ǥǤ褦ˤʤäƤ롥
ʤߤˡLALME LAEME б롤ŤåȥɱѸˤĤƤϿޤƤ A Linguistic Atlas of Older Scots (LAOS) Ȥ饢Ǥ롥
ʾ塤Durkin (1152--53) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Craigie, William A., Adam Jack Aitken, James A. C. Stevenson, and Marace Dareau, eds. A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue. Oxford: OUP, 1931--2002. Available online as part of Dictionary of the Scots Language at https://dsl.ac.uk/ .
Grant, William and David D. Murison, eds. The Scottish national Dictionary: Designed Partly on Regional lines and Partly on Historical Principles, and Containing All the Scottish Words Known to be in Use or to have been in Use Since c. 1700. Edinburgh: Scottish National Dictionary Association, 1931--76. Supplement 2005. Available online as part of Dictionary of the Scots Language at https://dsl.ac.uk/ .
Williamson, Keith. A Linguistic Atlas of Older Scots, Phase 1: 1380--1500 (LAOS). 2007. Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/laos1/laos1.html .
Durkin, Philip. "Resources: Lexicographic Resources." Chapter 73 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1149--63.

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2020-07-08 Wed

#4090. ʤ put put--put--put ̵ѲѤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][verb][conjugation]

hellog 饸5ơԵ§ư˴ؤѤʵ¿󤻤ޤΤʤǤɸ put Τ褦̵ѲưϡȤ櫓üʷϵäƤޤѸˤϲʬʤɤȤ뤵ѲäơΥݥȤϡʸ߷ˤȰۤʤäƤˤäϤʤΤˡʤѲʤΤŤʰäͤùߤʤ뵤Ϥ狼ޤ
ߤʤ put ϤᡤΤ褦ʰüư򤤤ĤŵƤϤǤput, cut, hit, hurt, let, set, shut, etc. ζˤĤƹͤͤϾʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦Ūư줬¿ȤˤϵŤȻפޤŪʶˤĤƤɤǤ礦ȤʤʬäƤޤǤϡɤ



äʸϤɤ򿼤᤿ϡ##1854,1858,3777,3339εå

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2020-07-07 Tue

#4089. Ϸǯ winterǯ summer [analogy][semantic_change][metonymy][metaphor][conceptual_metaphor][antonymy]

ε#4088. űѸǡǯפ̣ winter ([2020-07-06-1]) Τ˼դĴ٤Ƥ顤ѸΤ⤷ɽ˹Ԥäa girl of eighteen summers ˧18Ф̼ˡa child of ten summers 10ФλҶˡa youth of twenty summers 20ФǯˤʤɤǤ롥
űѸ winter ʣĹǯɽ魯ΤѤΤ̾ä顤an old man of eighty winters ȬϩϷ͡ˤΤ褦ʡϷǯפɽ魯ɽޤƤ櫓Ǥ롥εǤϡǯΤʤ1ǤߡǯפȤʬΤΥȥ˥ߡѤƤ뤳Ȥ˿줿ǡֿ winter ϷǯפȤ᥿ե¸ߤ뤳Ȥְ㤤ʤȡŪˡֿ summer ǯפȤ᥿եˤޤƤ뤳Ȥ⡤ۤԲIJǤϤʤsummer ϡʬΤΥȥ˥ߡϤΤޤޤˡȤ櫓ǯ򴭵ǯФΥ᥿եȤƿΤǤ롥
ºݡOED summer, n.1 and adj. θ4ˤȡǯСפ̣νФϡűѸǤϤʤäȸθѸǤ롥ȤȤ˰Ѥ롥

4. In plural. With a numeral or other quantifier, as two summers, five summers, etc.: used to measure a duration or lapse of time containing the specified number of summers or years; esp. used to denote a person's age. Now chiefly literary and rhetorical.
   Frequently applied particularly to younger people, perhaps with intended contrast with WINTER n.1 2, although cf. e.g. quots. 1821, 2002 for application to older people.

c1400 (?c1380) Cleanness (1920) l. 1686 Þus he countes hym a kow þat watz a kyng ryche, Quyle seven syþez were overseyed someres, I trawe.
1573 T. Bedingfield tr. G. Cardano Comforte ii. sig. E.ii Wee maruaile at flees for theyr long life, if they liue two Sommers.
. . . .
a1616 W. Shakespeare Comedy of Errors (1623) i. i. 132 Fiue Sommers haue I spent in farthest Greece.


ǯ򴭵 summer ˡϡäƸűѸ winter ˡ򻲾ȤĤġ᥿եȥȥ˥ߡŪ (correlative analogy) ̤Ѹ˺Ф줿ˡȤȤˤʤŪѤˤĤƤϡ#1918. sharp flat ([2014-07-28-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ¿Ūʳǰ᥿ե (conceptual metaphor) Ǥ⤢롥
Ȥǡ summer winter ȤǤȤСȤƤϡֲơפȲᤷƤ褤ΤΤ褦ˤߤ뤬¤ϡֽաפǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ȤΤϡּǯνաפΤۤᤷ䤹#1221. ˡ ([2012-08-30-1])#1438. Sumer is icumen in ([2013-04-04-1]) Ǹ褦ˡŪˤ summer ϲƤФǤʤդؤߤȿ (antonymy) ϲƤʤΤդʤΤʤȤͤǤ롥

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2020-07-06 Mon

#4088. űѸǡǯפ̣ winter [oe][anglo-saxon_chronicle][popular_passage][metonymy][semantic_change]

űѸμȤǡ winter ߡפ˲äơǯפ̣뤳ȤФФäȤ˿줿Ūˤϡ#3317. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ˤߤ Hengest Horsa ([2018-05-27-1]) ǰѤǯ嵭449ǯεҤ1ʸˤĤƲ⤷ƤȤǤ롥

Martiānus and Valentīnus . . . rīcsodon seofon winter. (= Martianus and Valentinus ruled seven years.)


ǯ嵭ǤϤΤ褦Ԥǯʤɤ褯ڤ뤬Τ褦ʾ硤ǯΤ winter Ȥ̾줬ФлȤ롥̾ΰʣʡгʷбñη֤ƱȤʤ뤿ᡤβսǤ7ǯ֡פΰդˤ⤫餺֤ winter ȤʤäƤʤǤϴ֤ɽ魯ŪгʡפˡѤƤ롥cf. #783. home ̾Ūгʤ ([2011-06-19-1])ˡѸ year θűѸǤ ġēar ʤ̾ñʣƱˤѤ뤳Ȥ¿winter Ʊͤˤ褯ѤΤǤ롥
ߡפäơǯפɽ魯Ȥ嵭λȤ顤¿γֻŪס𤢤ꤹפʤ¿ȿäȤȤǡʲˤ⤦ܤ⤷Ƥ
Τ winter 1ǯ (year) 뵨1ĤˤʤϤǤϡߤۤȤ1ǯ̵˲ᤴȤǤꡤߤäǯФȤȯãΤ롥ťΥɸťɸǤ⡤ƤꡤʿŪǤ롥ʸ˴Ťȥ˥ߡιȤ롥
ǯפ̣ winter ѤɽϡűѸ줫ѸФơḽѸǤŪ뤤ϸɽȤƷߤǤ롥Ĥ󤲤Ƥߤȡmany winters ago ʲǯˡˡan old man of eighty winters ȬϩϷ͡ˡpass two winters abroad ʳ2ǯᤴˤʤɤȤʤ롥
Ѹ줫ϡMED winter (n.) ǧǤ뤬the age of fifti winter, fif-tene winter of age, o fif-tene winter elde, of eighte-tene winter age, the wei of five hundred winter, fourti winter, yeres and winteres ʤˤȤޤʤ
ʤư winter ѸǤȯãֱߤפ̣롥ޤǤѤȤʤäƤʬƻ wintered 1600ǯޤǡǯϷפΰ̣ѤƤˡ󥰥䥹åȥ˸¤褦ߤǤ2ФεϡӤؤ twinter (n., adj.) ȤĤäƤ롥
ܸǤִפιߤߤ˰äзο롥ǡִսФפȤɽ⤢롥ˤäƤɤεɽ˼뤫ϰۤʤȤƤ⡤μΥȥ˥ߡ̸Ṳ̄ˤߤΤ
Ϣơɽ魯ˤĤƤϡ#1221. ˡ ([2012-08-30-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-07-07-1]

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2020-07-05 Sun

#4087. ʤߴλϲɽ魯ȶǤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][perfect][verb][aspect][tense][adverb][present_perfect_puzzle]

ʤΤǵڤ˱Ѹ˥ͥ򡥤ȤȤhellog 饸4ƤǤϳعʸˡǤɬߴλ yesterday Τ褦ʻȤΰˤĤơʤʤΤͤƤߤޤ
ѸΡʸߡ˴λȤΤϡޥ򤷤ˤʸˡɽʤǤ͡ߴλϡ?פȤ?ƤޤäפȤ¿Τǡȶ̤ĤˤΤǤξԤϻȤƤޤäۤʤΤ͡櫓Ǥ顤° yesterday Τ褦ʻϡߴλƱ路ƤϤʤΤ櫓ǤϤ褯Ǥޤ
ϡŪˤ "Present Perfect Puzzle" ȤƤФƤޤ䤿ԥʤΤ̵ϤʤȤޤβǤ⡤åȲȤȤˤϤʤޤΤǡ餺ξǡʲβɤ



Ƥޤᡤ⤽ⴰλȤϲȤˤĤƾܤΤꤿȤϡ##2633,2492,2749,534,2750,2763,2747,2490,2634,2635εå

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2020-07-04 Sat

#4086. Ѹ츦ˤ LAEME [laeme][lalme][me_dialect][dialectology][eme][manuscript][scribe]

ε#4085. Ѹ츦ˤ LALME ([2020-07-03-1]) ˰³LALME λǤǤѸϿ LAEME ˤĤƤ⡤˾νפʰ֤ŤҲ𤷤Ƥ
LAEME ϡȤƤ LALME Ť򰷤ץȤȤƤϤΤθѤȤƳϤ줿ˡָȯפ褫ΩˤäȤϤԼԤ1 Laing ϡѸ褹ü椨˿ǺߤƤѸƥȤ̤äȾʤʬۤФäƤꡤ⤽ƱκǽߤȤʤ "anchor texts" ˤȤ櫓ΥƥȤϡűѸ West-Saxon Schriftsprache ˱ƶ줿Τ¿Υڥ󥰤ƱΤѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤLaing ϥƥȻФ˹׸̻ǫʬɤμ̻δؤäɤʬΥڥ󥰤μ̻νн򼨤Ƥǽ⤤θǴ궯ѤƤä̤ȤơȤ "anchor texts" 뤳ȤȤ LALME Ƥ "fit-technique" ŬѤơ¾ΥƥȤϿ޾˥ץåȤƤä --- ϥǥϤڤ --- ΤǤ롥
LAEME οϡLALME տ魯ǯä (questionnaire) ȤˤäáʸˡŪդʤƥȤŻҥѥ¨ʤμܤбǤ褦˽ΤǤ롥äȤ⡤оݤȤƥȤʸФƴʤ륿դԤʤä櫓ǤϤʤ˼̻ˤ˴ؤä椨ԴˤȤɤޤʤɺʷаޤ⤢ä褦ץȤλ־⤢ꡤǽŪˤϽѸŪʥѥȤϤʤʤäΤΡդ줿65줫ʤ롤Ʋ븦ġ˻ž夬äȤ櫓ƱαѸˡΤˤϡʤƤϤʤʤɬܥġǤ롥
ġȤƤ LAEME κĹϡƥȤŰƬŰ "diplomatic" Ǥ뤳ȤǥǤʤܤֻ˸¤ʤ¤ǤȤ롤θʸФ "diplomatic" ٤ϡ¾ǤϤۤȤ򸫽ФȤǤʤ伫ȤʸѤäˤʤä꤬ġǤ롥ʾ塤Lowe (1126) ˰͵򤷤Ƽɮ

Lowe, Kathryn A. "Resources: Early Textual Resources." Chapter 71 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1119--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-05-18-1]

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2020-07-03 Fri

#4085. Ѹ츦ˤ LALME [lalme][me_dialect][dialectology]

30ǯʾˤ錄ꡤLALME Ѹ츦˿̤Ƥ¾θץȤ碌ơʬŤ餸ƤȤäƤ褤ľŪˤѸؤؤι׸ܻؤΤä̤ȤƤ LALME оݤȤѸƥȤΰϡˤŪѸܤΥꥹȤȤʤäθֻ̤䲻θĶƸäʸˡθؤȵڤƤ롥
LALME ϡ35ǯ֤κз򤫤ICTѤ餺ĶܤʬϤܤʪǤ롤¾ McIntosh Samuels 2ͤμˤʤΤ褦طʤͤСʤŦΤ̵̤ȤǤ롥
ȤСʤȤ櫓 Wash ˤǤϡץȤλ־Թǡ٤褯ʤȤ롥ĴʤȤȤˡ (questionnaire) Ѳ­äƤäᡤˤǺܾԶѹդ⤿餵뤳ȤˤʤäȤ⤢롥2007--10ǯ˸줿 LALME ǥ벽 eLALME Ǥϡؤθʤ줿cf. #1622. eLALME ([2013-10-05-1]
ˡ¿롥ˤ⿨줿ܤˤĤƤϡGilliéron θդΤƤ褦 "L'établissement du questionnaire [...] pour être sensiblement meilleur, aurait dû être fait après l'enquête" ȤƬˤ䤬ԤƤ롥ۤˤϡƥȤμˤäƤʸڤʤबȤϤ긽Ūˤϸᤴʤ⤢롥ȤСʪǤưθ߷¿뤳Ȥ񤷤դ˻񤫤ϲ򽦤ФȤϤǤʤǤ롥ûƥȤ̤ʥΥƥȤϡϰϤθäλѤϴԤǤʤ
Τ褦Ϥ졤Ϥ LALME αƶϤ礭äޤ礭ѸƥȤƱꤹΤˡLALME 280ΥåꥹȤϤޤ˷֤ȤƤ뤷ޤǤ롥
ܥ֥Ǥ LALME λطˤĤƤϡlalme γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿ʾ塤Lowe (1127) ˰͵򤷤Ƽɮ

LALME = McIntosh, Angus, Michael Samuels, and Michael Benskin, with Margaret Laing and Keith Williamson. A Linguistic Atlas of Late Mediaeval English (LALME). Aberdeen: Aberdeen UP, 1986. Available online as eLALME at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/elalme/elalme_frames.html .
Gilliéron, Jules. Pathologie et thérapeutique verbales. Bern: Beerstecher, 1915.
Lowe, Kathryn A. "Resources: Early Textual Resources." Chapter 71 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1119--31.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-07-04-1]

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2020-07-02 Thu

#4084. ѸˤΤɬפʥߥ˥ޥʸŪμ [historiography][hel_education][terminology]

Ѹˤ϶ŪʲܤǤꡤѸؤؤ칶Ȥˤ⹭Ƥ롥ȤϤäƤ⡤ѸˤΤ⤷򤹤뤿ˤϡ٤θؤμäۤ褤Ȥϴְ㤤ʤǤϡɤΤ餤ؤΤäƤФ褤ΤˤĤ Blockley (18) Ƥꡤ"the minimal amount of linguistics needed to convey change in English over at least the last thousand years" ˤĤƹͤɬ⤤Ƥ롥ͤƬʬ򡤾άʤѤ롥

   My approach in this overview is rather to direct attention to a few disparate linguistic objects of various sizes, from the phoneme to the sentence, and a few terms for the linguistic descriptions that are claimed to affect such objects. . . .
   These topics are therefore "essential" not so much in representing core concepts of linguistics as a science, but rather in the paramedic sense of indispensable --- whether or not these perceived units and processes turn out to be central to the history of English, you cannot describe the set of language changes that encompass English without knowledge of and reference to them. . . . The selection here is therefore relentlessly practical . . . . I hope that even those who find this cross-training teasingly minimalist may consider these and other combinations that raise questions of definition. Such questions lead us across disciplines, theoretical orientations, and sub-periods of English. (Blockley 18--19)


Blockley ȤƤȤưʲ10Υե졼ǰ򼨤Ƥ롥

Palatalization
Allophones
Regularized DO
Stress Shift
Grammaticalization
Phonemic Length
Complementation
Diphthongization
"You was" Declared Ungrammatical Though Not Plural
Raising and Fronting


Ѹˤΰۤʤΰۤʤ븽ݤݤˡ֤Ȥ虜ʤפʸ礢뤤ϳǰǤȤơBlockley ΡֱѸˡפعȤꤷ٥10Ȥ櫓
䲻Ūμ˥ȤäƤꥹȤ伫ȤѸˤΤ⤷ȾʬʾϲʤȤμաˤˤȹͤƤΤǡϤǤ롥󡤱Ѹˤ򶵤ʳؤ֡˼Ԥ10ͤ10̤Υ٥10Υե졼äƤơͤƤߤ뤳ȤפǤꡤ⤷ΤȻפѸˤ̻ˤ񤯾䡤ֵˤ⡤¿쾯ʤ줳Τ褦ʾ򤯤ФȤɤƤɬפȤʤäƤϤ

Blockley, Mary. "Essential Linguistics." Chapter 3 of A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 19--24.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-12-13-1] [2020-08-30-1]

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2020-07-01 Wed

#4083. ʤ q θˤɬ u ΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][alphabet][digraph][q][spelling]

hellog 饸3ơѸؤǤ¿伫ΤʤۤɤȻפäȤȤ󤻤줿̣ѤʵǤ䤿 <qu> Υڥ󥰤ˤɤȤˤ񤯤Ȥˤˤ˿Ƥ櫓Ǥޤ˴줹Ƥ뤿ˡ<q> θˤϤۤɬ <u> ³Ȥλ¤ˡռŪ˵ŤȤޤʤäΤȻפޤ
6ʬ֤βˤޤȤޤʲɤ



/kw/ ȤҲϢɽ魯ΤˤɤΤ褦ʥڥ󥰤äƤ뤫ȤǤ/k/ Ȥ1ĤλҲɽ魯ˤ⡤Ѹˤ <q(u)> Ǥʤ <c> ⤢ <k> ⤢ꡤճȤ䤳ȤˤʤäƤޤȯŸŪޤᡤƤʸϤǤäɤߤȤϡ##3649,1599,2249,2367,1824εå
εΤ褦ˡƸᤴƤ¤ϰճ¿ΤǤΤ褦ʵȯΤ⡤ڤŪȤǤ

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