01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
#872. -ick or -ic ([2011-09-16-1]) εǡ<public> <publick> ֻʬ̻ۤŪѲˤĤơGoogle Books Ngram Viewer Google Books: American English ѤƴʰĴ-ic -ick ˾ѰۤˤĤƤϡJohnson A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) ǤԤޤƤWebster The American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) ǤϸԤؤɤڤäƤȰҤ٤ΰϾɬפΤ褦
#1637. CLMET3.0 between betwixt ʬۤĴ ([2013-10-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 CLMET3.0 ѤơѸμ礿 -ic(k) ֻĴƤߤ1710--1920ǯδ֤3ʬơ줾ֻ٤Ȥä̤ʲ˷Ǥ褦
| Spelling pair | Period 1 (1710--1780) | Period 2 (1780--1850) | Period 3 (1850--1920) |
|---|---|---|---|
| angelick / angelic | 6 / 50 | 0 / 68 | 0 / 50 |
| antick / antic | 4 / 10 | 1 / 6 | 0 / 3 |
| apoplectick / apoplectic | 0 / 10 | 1 / 19 | 0 / 14 |
| aquatick / aquatic | 1 / 2 | 0 / 35 | 0 / 56 |
| arabick / arabic | 2 / 101 | 0 / 45 | 0 / 115 |
| archbishoprick / archbishopric | 4 / 7 | 2 / 2 | 0 / 8 |
| arctick / arctic | 1 / 5 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 93 |
| arithmetick / arithmetic | 9 / 32 | 0 / 77 | 0 / 98 |
| aromatick / aromatic | 4 / 14 | 0 / 29 | 0 / 36 |
| asiatick / asiatic | 1 / 101 | 0 / 48 | 0 / 76 |
| attick / attic | 1 / 32 | 0 / 34 | 0 / 71 |
| authentick / authentic | 4 / 160 | 0 / 79 | 0 / 68 |
| balsamick / balsamic | 1 / 1 | 0 / 5 | 0 / 1 |
| baltick / baltic | 4 / 50 | 0 / 33 | 0 / 43 |
| bishoprick / bishopric | 3 / 28 | 2 / 9 | 0 / 19 |
| bombastick / bombastic | 1 / 2 | 0 / 3 | 0 / 4 |
| cathartick / cathartic | 0 / 1 | 1 / 0 | 0 / 0 |
| catholick / catholic | 7 / 291 | 0 / 342 | 0 / 296 |
| caustick / caustic | 1 / 2 | 0 / 11 | 0 / 20 |
| characteristick / characteristic | 8 / 92 | 0 / 354 | 0 / 687 |
| cholick / cholic | 1 / 13 | 0 / 2 | 0 / 1 |
| comick / comic | 1 / 68 | 0 / 67 | 0 / 165 |
| coptick / coptic | 1 / 11 | 0 / 3 | 0 / 35 |
| critick / critic | 12 / 153 | 0 / 168 | 0 / 155 |
| despotick / despotic | 9 / 66 | 0 / 51 | 0 / 65 |
| dialectick / dialectic | 1 / 0 | 0 / 0 | 0 / 6 |
| didactick / didactic | 0 / 10 | 1 / 20 | 0 / 23 |
| domestick / domestic | 46 / 733 | 0 / 736 | 0 / 488 |
| dominick / dominic | 4 / 11 | 0 / 14 | 1 / 3 |
| dramatick / dramatic | 8 / 214 | 0 / 206 | 0 / 216 |
| elliptick / elliptic | 1 / 1 | 0 / 8 | 0 / 2 |
| emetick / emetic | 4 / 5 | 0 / 7 | 0 / 5 |
| epick / epic | 1 / 68 | 0 / 83 | 1 / 38 |
| ethick / ethic | 1 / 6 | 0 / 0 | 0 / 3 |
| exotick / exotic | 2 / 7 | 0 / 20 | 0 / 38 |
| fabrick / fabric | 15 / 116 | 1 / 84 | 0 / 111 |
| fantastick / fantastic | 9 / 45 | 0 / 157 | 0 / 198 |
| frantick / frantic | 5 / 88 | 2 / 163 | 0 / 124 |
| frolick / frolic | 19 / 44 | 0 / 46 | 0 / 32 |
| gaelick / gaelic | 1 / 1 | 0 / 30 | 0 / 64 |
| gallick / gallic | 1 / 75 | 0 / 11 | 0 / 10 |
| gothick / gothic | 2 / 498 | 0 / 131 | 0 / 66 |
| heretick / heretic | 2 / 31 | 0 / 37 | 0 / 24 |
| heroick / heroic | 17 / 201 | 2 / 224 | 0 / 211 |
| hieroglyphick / hieroglyphic | 2 / 4 | 0 / 7 | 0 / 8 |
| hysterick / hysteric | 1 / 9 | 0 / 10 | 0 / 6 |
| laconick / laconic | 2 / 13 | 0 / 14 | 0 / 7 |
| lethargick / lethargic | 1 / 12 | 0 / 8 | 0 / 14 |
| logick / logic | 4 / 62 | 0 / 361 | 0 / 367 |
| lunatick / lunatic | 2 / 32 | 0 / 34 | 0 / 77 |
| lyrick / lyric | 3 / 15 | 0 / 26 | 0 / 37 |
| magick / magic | 9 / 110 | 0 / 296 | 0 / 292 |
| majestick / majestic | 4 / 73 | 0 / 149 | 1 / 115 |
| mechanick / mechanic | 6 / 79 | 0 / 47 | 0 / 58 |
| metallick / metallic | 1 / 9 | 0 / 79 | 0 / 137 |
| metaphysick / metaphysic | 1 / 2 | 0 / 11 | 0 / 9 |
| mimick / mimic | 2 / 25 | 1 / 46 | 0 / 23 |
| musick / music | 87 / 549 | 3 / 1220 | 3 / 1684 |
| mystick / mystic | 1 / 39 | 0 / 92 | 0 / 167 |
| obstetrick / obstetric | 1 / 2 | 0 / 1 | 0 / 0 |
| panegyrick / panegyric | 19 / 121 | 0 / 43 | 0 / 16 |
| panick / panic | 14 / 58 | 1 / 90 | 0 / 314 |
| paralytick / paralytic | 1 / 15 | 0 / 41 | 0 / 14 |
| pedantick / pedantic | 3 / 31 | 0 / 28 | 0 / 29 |
| philippick / philippic | 2 / 2 | 0 / 3 | 0 / 2 |
| philosophick / philosophic | 1 / 140 | 0 / 80 | 0 / 155 |
| physick / physic | 35 / 157 | 4 / 51 | 3 / 38 |
| plastick / plastic | 1 / 4 | 0 / 19 | 0 / 32 |
| platonick / platonic | 5 / 48 | 0 / 30 | 0 / 22 |
| politick / politic | 8 / 40 | 2 / 37 | 0 / 51 |
| prognostick / prognostic | 2 / 18 | 0 / 5 | 0 / 1 |
| publick / public | 767 / 3350 | 1 / 3171 | 2 / 2606 |
| relick / relic | 1 / 26 | 4 / 56 | 0 / 65 |
| republick / republic | 12 / 515 | 0 / 185 | 0 / 171 |
| rhetorick / rhetoric | 26 / 109 | 2 / 40 | 0 / 65 |
| rheumatick / rheumatic | 1 / 7 | 0 / 33 | 0 / 30 |
| romantick / romantic | 32 / 191 | 0 / 346 | 0 / 322 |
| rustick / rustic | 3 / 102 | 0 / 157 | 0 / 80 |
| sarcastick / sarcastic | 1 / 37 | 0 / 66 | 0 / 60 |
| sceptick / sceptic | 3 / 26 | 0 / 19 | 0 / 26 |
| scholastick / scholastic | 2 / 24 | 0 / 42 | 0 / 46 |
| sciatick / sciatic | 1 / 1 | 0 / 1 | 0 / 3 |
| scientifick / scientific | 2 / 16 | 0 / 451 | 0 / 814 |
| stoick / stoic | 5 / 34 | 1 / 15 | 0 / 26 |
| sympathetick / sympathetic | 3 / 26 | 0 / 70 | 0 / 248 |
| systematick / systematic | 1 / 13 | 0 / 64 | 0 / 104 |
| topick / topic | 12 / 128 | 0 / 177 | 0 / 176 |
| traffick / traffic | 80 / 67 | 1 / 164 | 0 / 203 |
| tragick / tragic | 4 / 65 | 0 / 65 | 0 / 209 |
| tropick / tropic | 12 / 37 | 0 / 7 | 0 / 23 |
ϡε#1980. Ѳ ([2014-09-28-1]) ȯŸȤּѲ (intersubjectification) ˤĤƼ夲롥Traugott ϡ"nonsubjective > subjective" Ȥ̣ѲαĹ "subjective > intersubjective" Ȥ⤦1Ĥʳ뤳ȤƤƤ롥ޤּѲ (intersubjectification) ιԤ夯Ǥּ (intersubjectivity) ˤĤơTraugott (128) ߤƤߤ褦
[I]ntersubjectivity is the explicit expression of the SP/W's attention to the 'self' of addressee/reader in both an epistemic sense (paying attention to their presumed attitudes to the content of what is said), and in a more social sense (paying attention to their 'face' or 'image needs' associated with social stance and identity). (128)
ơּѲ (intersubjectification) Ȥϡ"the development of meanings that encode speaker/writers' attention to the cognitive stances and social identities of addressees" (124) 롥
Ѹ줫ּŪɽ褦Actually, I will drive you to the dentist. "Actually" ּṲ̄ƤȤ "Actually" ϡ֤ʤϤƤǤ뤫⤷ʤȤΤǤƸޤפۤɤΰ̣ޤǤꡤʹ face ФƤθɽ魯ä٤ɽ路Ƥ롥ޤĤƤαѸˤ2;̾ you thou λȤʬ (cf. t/v_distinction) ⡤ŵŪʴּŪɽǤ롥
ּѲȡLet's take our pills now, Roger. ˤ let's 롥 let's ϡlet us (allow us) Ȥ̿ʸȯãǤꡤlet's ṳ̂ʤ "I propose" ۤɤξ塦ΰդɽ魯褦ˤʤä줬˿ƤҤˤʤ褦ư¥ "care-giver register" ǤˡؤȯŸΤǤ롥塦ȯãϼѲȤߤƤ褤μȯŸʳϡäʿơˤʹʻҡˤؤΡ֤ʤ¥פ٤ɲƤȤǴּѲȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥̿ʸԤ please pray ʤɤˡȯã⡤Ʊͤ˴ּѲȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ˡ֤ޤȤǤƱդޤפۤɤ̣ɸ well ȯã⤦1ĤȤߤƤ褤
ʹ face Ťä٤Τּ뤤ϴּѲȤСѸȤϤषܸν֤ºݡּּѲθǤϡܸϰĥǤ롥Ƽηɾɽ˻Ϥޤꡤ졤ɸȤƤΡ֤ơפʤɡ¿ɽ˴ּߤ롥Traugott "nonsubjective > subjective > intersubjective" ȤѲꤹΤǤСܸϡΤɤͤޤˤޤǹԤڤäɽ¿¸ߤ롤ŪȤȤˤʤ롥ǤϡɤͤޤˤޤǹԤڤäɽΤθϤɤʤΤȯŸʳʤȤȤˤʤСɤͤޤˤϼɽѤ뤳ȤˤʤꤽѤȤʤäƤɽ¿Traugott (136) ϡΤ褦Ƥ롥
. . . by hypothesis, intersubjectification is a semasiological end-point for a particular form-meaning pair; onomasiologically, however, an intersubjective category will over time come to have more or fewer members, depending on cultural preference, register, etc.
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "From Subjectification to Intersubjectification." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 124--39.
(pragmatics) ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) θǤϡѲ (subjectification) ȤȤФˤ롥ǤСֻؼŪ̿Ụ̄ƥŪɽŪ뤤ϡпŪ (interpersonal) ؤΰ̣Ѳסʽp. 11ˤǤ롥̿ΰ̣üԤμŪ٤˽Ṭ̌ؤѲǤꡤʸˡˤŵŪˤߤǤȤ롥ŪˤС"propositional > textual > expressive/interpersonal" Ȥ
(11--13) ˽äƱѸˤȡư̤ΰջ֡ɽ魯 be going to ȯãˡư must, may ʤɤε̳Ūˡ (deontic) ǧŪˡ (epistemic) ؤȯãɸȯãĴȯãʤɤ롥Ūˡư promise ηФѲߤƤߤ褦Ѹ˥ե줫Ѥ줿 ư promise ϡͭμȤꡤ«Ȥȯ٤ԤȤ̣16ˤ̾Ūơͽ𤹤롤ͽפΰ̵̣μƤ褦ˤʤ롥18ˤϡʸȤäŪ夲ˡȯãջŪǧŪʰ̣˻롥̡The conflict may promise to escalate into war. Τ褦ʸǽˤʤäư promise ФƤѲΥץϡ"full thematic predicates > raising predicates > quasi-modals > modal operator" ȿǤ
⤦1ġƻ lovely μѲˤĤƤƤ褳ηƻϿʹ֤°̣18Τɽ魯褦ˤʤꡤDzͤɽ魯褦ˤʤä19溢϶ո (intensifier) ȤƤѤ褦ˤʤꡤĤˤϤˡ餷פۤɤ̣ȿ (response particle) ȤƤˡȯã "descriptive adjective > affective adjective > intensifier/pragmatic particle" ȤäȤϢơƻ줬ɾŪʰ̣ˤĤƤϡ#1099. Ҥηƻɾηƻ ([2012-04-30-1])#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤 ([2012-05-01-1])#1400. relational adjective qualitative adjective ؤΰ̣Ѳθưϡ ([2013-02-25-1]) Ǽ夲ΤǡȤ줿ոȯãˤĤƤϡ#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1])#1220. Ѹˤ붯γ ([2012-08-29-1]) ȡ
ۤˤ⡤Traugott (126--27) ˤСafter all, in fact, however ʤɤɸȤƤȯãeven μٻȤƤȯãonly ξȤƤȯãʤɤ뤷ܸ줫ȤơʸƬΡ֤ǤפɸȤƤȯã䡤ʸΡ֤櫓פμŪ٤ޤͳˡȯãʤɤŦ롥
μΰ̣ѲȤˤʤȡɬȿ餷ΤŦ롥ºݤˡȿѲ (de-subjectification) ܤ⤢롥㤨Сcriminal law criminal ϵҴŪǵŪʰ̣äƤ뤬ŪˤϤηƻǤ a criminal tyrant ˤ褦ʼŪɾŪʰ̣ԤƤȤޤѸǤŪ˼ư֤ȯãƤư֤ŵŪưʤȿŪɽȤ롥
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "From Subjectification to Intersubjectification." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 124--39.
εǰѤ Luraghi ƱʸǸѲŪ (teleology) ˤĤƤ롥teleology ˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤˤƤäƴϢǰˤĤƤɬפ롥
ޤѲ therapy ʼšˤ prophylaxis ͽɡˤȤ롥#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1]) ָѲˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1]) Ǽ夲ˤƤȤƵǽŪʸѲ (functionalism) 롥Kiparsky "language practices therapy rather than prophylaxis" (Luraghi 364) Ȥΰ⤤ĤƤ뤬Lass ʤɤϤɤǤʤȤƤ롥
Ǥϡfunctionalism teleology ƱΤʤΤۤʤΤʤΤˤĤƤ⡤Ȥδ֤ǰոϰפƤʤLass Ʊ뤷Ƥ褦Croft ʤɤҤԤ "functional proper"Ԥ "systemic functional" Ȥƶ̤Ƥ롥"systemic functional" ϸ teleology "functional proper" üԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ؤޤüԤΰտޤˤᥫ˥ȤƤ "functional" ȤɽѰۤѲˤĤƤѤ¤ˤơüԤΤǤϤʤ˸ "functionalism" äƤ褤⤷ʤ줬°ؤΤüԤ°ؤΤ̤ƤȤפ
Teleological explanations of language change are sometimes considered the same as functional explanations . . . . Croft . . . distinguishes between 'systemic functional,' that is teleological, explanations, and 'functional proper,' which refer to intentional mechanisms. Keller . . . argues that 'functional' must not be confused with 'teleological,' and should be used in reference to speakers, rather than to language: '[t]he claim that speakers have goals is correct, while the claim that language has a goal is wrong' . . . . Thus, to the extent that individual variants may be said to be functional to the achievement of certain goals, they are more likely to generate language change through invisible hand processes: in this sense, explanations of language change may also be said to be functional. (Luraghi 365--66)
ΰѤˤ⤢褦ˡפʤȤϡָ줬ѲפȡüԤפȤǰ̤ƤȤǤ롥#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡζ̼Τˤ⤢꤬ޤޤƤ뤬ޤüԡʽġˤäƤθǤꡤѲǤ롥üԼΤθѲˤƤ teleology ֤ϤʤȤLuraghi (365) ۩
Croft . . . warns against the 'reification or hypostatization of languages . . . Languages don't change; people change language through their actions.' Indeed, it seems better to avoid assuming any immanent principles inherent in language, which seem to imply that language has an existence outside the speech community. This does not necessarily mean that language change does not proceed in a certain direction. Croft rejects the idea that 'drift,' as defined by Sapir . . ., may exist at all. Similarly, Lass . . . wonders how one can positively demonstrate that the unconscious selection assumed by Sapir on the side of speakers actually exists. From an opposite angle, Andersen . . . writes: 'One of the most remarkable facts about linguistic change is its determinate direction. Changes that we can observe in real time---for instance, as they are attested in the textual record---typically progress consistently in a single direction, sometimes over long periods of time.' Keller . . . suggests that, while no drift in the Sapirian sense can be assumed as 'the reason why a certain event happens,' i.e., it cannot be considered innate in language, invisible hand processes may result in a drift. In other words, the perspective is reversed in Keller's understanding of drift: a drift is not the pre-existing reason which leads the directionality of change, but rather the a posteriori observation of a change brought about by the unconsciously converging activity of speakers who conform to certain principles, such as the principle of economy and so on . . . .
Ϣ drift, functionalism, invisible_hand, unidirectionality γƵ⻲ͤˤ줿
Luraghi, Silvia. "Causes of Language Change." Chapter 20 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 358--70.
ε#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1]) ˰³ƤꡥѤ Drinka Ʊ Companion ˼ϿƤ Luraghi ʸ˴Ť롥
ʸˡˤѲϡ֤Դʸã (imperfect language transmission from one generation to the next) ˿Ԥ롥Ҷθ콬κݤ˥ѥͤȤϰۤʤͤꤵ뤳ȤˤꡤʸˡȤͤLuraghi (359) ϡΤ褦ʡֻҶײפ2κŪʵꤲ롥
In spite of various implementations, the 'child-based theory' . . . leaves some basic questions unanswered, i.e., in the first place: how do children independently come up with the same reanalysis at exactly the same time . . . ? and, second, why does this happen in certain precise moments, while preceding generations of children have apparently done quite well setting parameters the same way as their parents did? In other words, the second question shows that the child-based theory does not account for the fact that not only languages may change, but also that they may exhibit no changes over remarkably long periods of time.
ҶײԤϡ2ܤεФƼΤ褦ĤޤꡤƤȻҤȤǤϤȤʤ PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) ۤʤäƤꡤѥͤΰȤʤΤۤʤΤȡʤ֤ϤۤʤΤ̤ΤޤޤǤ롥֤ϤۤʤäΤˤʤ뤿ˤϡ콬ʳηѰۤѲƤʤФʤʤϤĤޤꡤͤüԤѰۤѲƤȤͤʤ
ҶײΤ⤦1ĤȤơ"the serious problem that there is no positive evidence, in terms of real data from field research, for language change to happen between generations" (360) 롥ҲؤǤ Labov ĴʤɤˤѲθ줬ͤߤƤꡤиŪդ롥ѲγȻϿƤ롥⡤ѲγȻ˱ƶϤäƤΤϡۤȤɤ٤ƤΥˤơҶǤϤʤͤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äƤ롥
ʾȿäǡLuraghi ϸѲʤ켫ȤϺȳȻʤˤθϡŪˤϤ٤ƸܿˤǤ롥ξ硤ܿȤϤäƤ2Ĥθ֤ȤϤܿǤϤʤ2ĤѼ֡뤤2ĤθĿ (idiolect) ֤ȤϤܿޤࡥǾϤȤƤäʹΤߤδ֤Ÿ accommodation κѤ٤ƤθѲθǤ롤Ȥĥ
. . . in spite of varying social factors and different relations between social groups in case of language contact and in case of internal variation, mutual accommodation of speakers and hearers is the ultimate cause of change. The fact that an innovation is accepted within a community depends on the prestige of innovators and early adopters, and may be seen as a function of the willingness of a speaker/hearer to accommodate another speaker/hearer in interaction, and thus to behave as she/he thinks the other person would behave . . . . (369)
Luraghi ϡѲʤθˤäơŪ (innovation) ͤͤؤȳȻ (diffusion) Ƥ椯Ȥ櫓Ż뤷Ƥ롥ѲȤϲȤ˱ơʤ餽θѤäƤ뤬⸶§Ȥ Luraghi Drinka Τ褦˸ѲˤüԵڤüԶƱΤȤδطˤªȹͤƤ롥
Luraghi, Silvia. "Causes of Language Change." Chapter 20 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 358--70.
˸ؤΥϥɥ֥åꡤDrinka ˤܿɤܿؤҲ𤷤ΰյĥȤŪǽ줿ʸϤǤꡤͽ̤Ѳˤ볰ŪװνĴƤΡ褯ͤƤȤݤ
Drinka ϡܿؤʬǿʱƶϤ Thomason and Kaufman μĥˤ褽褤ʤ顤ܿξ̤ͻˤäƺǽפΥѥϡɤθŪǤϤʤܿμ̤Ǥ롥ޤMilroy Mufwene μĥ˱äơѲüԸĿʹ֤ܿüȯ줬ƱΤعޤäƤ椯ΤǤȤΩȤ롥ˡ̾θѲ⡤ (linguistic_area) ⡤ԥ䥯쥪ˤߤ㤷Ѳ⡤ᥫ˥ƱǤȸƤꡤѲˤܿϰ̤˿Ƥ礭Ĥդ줿ΤǤȼĥ롥Τ褦Ωϡ¾ Normalfall "[contact . . . viewed as] potentially present in some way in virtually every given case of language change" ȰѤƤ뤳Ȥʬ롥
Drinka ͤηѤ褦
In conclusion, contact has emerged in recent studies as a more essential element in triggering linguistic innovation than had previously been assumed. Contact provides the context for change, in making features of one variety accessible to speakers of another. Bilingual or bidialectal speakers with access to the social values of features in both systems serve as a link between the two, a conduit of innovation from one variety to another. When close cultural contact among speakers of different varieties persists over long periods, linguistic areas can result, reflecting the ebb and flow of influence of one culture upon another. When speakers of mutually unintelligible languages encounter one another in the context of social symmetry, such as for purposes of trade, contact varieties such as pidgins may result; in contexts of social asymmetry, such as slavery, on the other hand, creoles are a more frequent result, reflecting the adjustments which are made as the contact variety becomes the native language of its users. As Mufwene points out, however, the same principles of change appear to be in operation in contact varieties as in other varieties---it is in the transmission of language and linguistic features from one individual to another, through the impetus of sociolinguistic pressure, where change occurs, and these principles will operate whether the transmission is occurring within or across the boundaries of a variety, as long as sufficient social motivation exists. (342--43)
ºݤΤȤ伫ȤѲˤäƸܿνФмĥƤΤǡڤˤ Drinka ΰոˤϻǤ롥ä Drinka Keller (invisible_hand) ؤθڤʤɡȤ¿
. . . self-interested individuals incorporate new features into their repertoire in order to align themselves with other individuals and groups, with the unforeseen result that the innovation moves across the population, speaker by speaker. (341)
ϢơѲˤŪŪװʲε⻲ͤˤ줿
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
ƶϤ礭 Thomason and Kaufman θܿˤĤƤϡʲȡ
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
Drinka, Bridget. "Language Contact." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 325--45.
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Ȥް (implicature) ˤ͡ʤΤ롥Ǥ褯ΤƤΤ Grice ήŪް (conversational implicature) ΰ֤Ťϡ¾μδްդȤδطˤɬפ롥͡ʼδްդϡLevinson ˵ä (45) ʲΤ褦Ƥ롥

ޤȯ (utterance) ϡ̣Ū˲ᤵʸ̤ΰ̣ (what is said) ȡŪ˲ᤵް (implicature) Ȥʬ롥ްդϡ礭Ūް (conventional implicature) Ȥʳʬ롥Grice ʹߡŪްդ̵ͭˤĤƤϵ뤬but Τܤΰ̣ʤɤŪްդŵȤ롥John is rich but he is modest. Ȥʸˤ but and ֤Ƥ⡤̿οϱƶʤbut and ȤǤʸΰ̣ľŪ餫˰ۤʤ롥Grice ϡbut λѤˤäܤΰ̣ϡbut ȤƤäƤʵ沽Ƥ˴ŪްդˤΤȹͤĴθ§ (cooperative principle) äθ (maxims of conversation) ͳʤޤ줿ްդǤ
ˡŪްդβˡͭ̾ʲŪް (conversational implicature) ֤Ť뤬¤ǤޤΤƤʤŪް (non-conversational implicature) ʤΤ롥ϡGrice ζĴθ§Ȳäθफϳ뤬¾ǧθ ("Be polite" ǤȤ"aesthetic, social, or moral in character" ʤɤħĤΡˤˤްդΤȤǤ롥
ơŪްդβˤϡβñȯü첽줿Ūް (particularlized conversational implicature) ȡ깭ˤ˴ѻ̲줿Ūް (generalized conversational implicature) ̤롥㤨СطޤǺʤ I'm very happy to have married you. ȸȤʤ뤬ʷ뺧10ǯΤˤǤȤʤʤϡˤäδްդޤȤ̣ǡ̲줿ΤǤϤʤü첽줿ŪްդǤ롥I ate some of the apples on the table. ʤɤοɽޤʸˤŵŪˡ̲줿Ūްդѻ롥ʸϡŪˤϥơ֥ˤ뤹٤ƤΥ٤ˤȯ뤳ȤǤ롥ξ硤ȤϤ鷺Ȥ̯ʴΤϡ"some" Ȥˤ "all" ǤϤʤϤȤ̲줿Ūްդ뤫Ǥ롥Τ褦ʿɽ˴ؤ̲줿Ūްդϡä˼ٴް (scalar implicature) ȸƤФ롥
嵭Τ褦˰֤ŤŪްդˤϡ7Ĥζ̣Ȥ롥
(1) äǽ (cancellability) 㤨СI ate some of the apples on the table. ľˡIn fact, I ate all of them. դäơҤμٴްդǤäȤǤ롥
(2) ȯƤʬΥԲǽ (non-detachability) ƥȤ0ä Jack ФơYou are a genius. Ȥʤ뤬Ʊʸ̮Ǥ¤ˤ You must win a Nobel prize. ʤɤʸǤϤȤʤ롥
(3) ǽ (calculability) ŪްդϿǤ뤫顤֤֤ۤŬѤ롥ƱǤСβƱϤǤ롥
(4) (non-conventionality) Ūްդϡ˴Ū˥ɤƤΤǤϤʤޤǿˤäƳΤǤ롥
(5) ãǽ (reinforceability) The soup is warm. ϼٴްդˤ "not hot" ްդ뤬θդä The soup is warm, not hot. ȤƤĹϴʤްդƤ夫ºݤȯäˤäƼȤƤΤǤ롥
(6) (universality) ۤơ餯ŪǤ롥
(7) 경Բǽ (not fully determinable) ˤޤްդʤΤǡդꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤžɽʤɡİԤǤʤüԤǤްդꤹ뤳ȤǤʤ⤢ꤦ롥
йֲäˤסظ١翮סԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ33--52ǡ
ε#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1]) ơʸˡ (grammaticalisation) μϰϤιˤĤ롥Bussmann (196--97) ˤȡʸˡȤ櫓ؿĵˤϼΤ褦ʤΤ롥
(a) Is the change of meaning that is inherent to grammaticalization a process of desemanticization, or is it rather a case (at least in the early stages of grammaticalization) of a semantic and pragmatic concentration?
(b) What productive parts do metaphors and metonyms play in grammaticalization?
(c) What role does pragmatics play in grammaticalization?
(d) Are there any universal principles for the direction of grammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such 'directed' principles include: (i) increasing schematicization; (ii) increasing generalization; (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning; and (iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity.
ϰϤȹ碌ơʸˡŪʥХåιȵڸ̤礭뤳ȤǤ롥ޤ (vii) ܼʸˡ˴ϢѸФǤ⡤ʬ츦κ˴ؤޤܤǤ뤳Ȥ狼
1 ʸˡ
1.1
1.2 ʸˡȤΥᥫ˥
1.2.1 Ū (Pragmatic inferencing)
1.2.2 ɺ (Bleaching)
1.3 (Unidirectionality)
1.3.1 ̲ (Generalization)
1.3.2 æƲ (Decategorialization)
1.3.3 ز (Layering)
1.3.4 ݻ (Persistence)
1.3.5 ʬ (Divergence)
1.3.6 ü첽 (Specialization)
1.3.7 ƿ (Renewal)
1.4 Ѳ (Subjectification)
1.5 ʬ (Reanalysis)
1.6 饤ʸˡϢ (Grammaticalization chains)
1.7 ʸˡȥ (Iconicity)
1.8 ʸˡȳŬ (Exaptation)
1.9 ʸˡȡָ (Invisible hand)
1.10 ʸˡȡή (Drift)
ʸˡϡȤƸ̻֤˾ƤƤ뤬ǼȤƶŪǧʸˡ (cognitive grammar) 䵡ǽʸˡ (functional grammar) Ȥꡤ̻֤ȶ֤θΩäƤ롥̥ϤǤ롥
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ
#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) κǸDzʤĤäˡʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤפȤΤäĴ٤ƤߤȡʸˡӸݤʤΤ뤤Ϥ켫ȤưϸʤΤȤϡºݡʸˡθԤδ֤Ǥ褯ƤǤ뤳Ȥ狼äϴϢʸˡθưäˤΰΰȯŸȳˤĤơTraugott εҤ˰͵Ƴ⤷
ʸˡϡ30;ǯۤɤƸؤ礭ʥɤȤĹƤ礭ͤ2Ĥ롥1Ĥ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥߤ븫Ǥꡤ⤦1ĤϤष "the expansion of various kinds" Ȥߤ븫Ǥ롥ξԤȤˡ̣ȲѲʸˡѲΩĤĤⲿ餫ηǴؤäƤȤߤƤ롤ä˷ŪѲȤδطɤȤ館뤫ˤäΩ줬ʬƤ롥
Ūˤϡʸˡ "reduction and increased dependency" ȤߤƤ̣ɺ (semantic bleaching) Ȳθ (reduction) åȤˤʤäȤǡ"unidirectionality from more to less complex structure, from more to less lexical, contentful status" (Traugott 273) Ȥθĥ롥θ Givón "Today's morphology is yesterday's syntax." ΰ⤤ŵŪ˽Ƥ뤬˰̲ǡΤ褦ʰΥǥƤƤ롥ǤϡΧ (autonomy) ¾Ǥؤν° (dependency) ٹ礤ʤ顤ĤˤϾäƤޤȤʸˡΥ饤ե뤬ɽƤ롥
discourse > syntax > morphology > morphphonemics > zero
θϡ1990ǯȾаʹߡ¿Ƚˤ餵뤳ȤˤʤäǤϤʤޤӸݤȤߤ븫ΨŪʷˤʤȤ븫Ф졤ȤȤˡæʸˡ (degrammaticalisation) ָò (lexicalisation) ʤɤΩǰŦ褦ˤʤäȿΰĤȤæʸˡȤϲòȤϲȤɵ椵褦ˤʤꡤʸˡȤޤΥեɤϳ礷Ƥä
ʸˡΤ⤦1Ĥθϡreduction ǤϤʤष expansion ǤȤΤʸˡܤ줿ϡƤޤˤäɽ줿ꡤˡʡʤɤ˴ؤΤäܤܤ³ɸʤɤܤȡʸˡȤϤष¤ŪʳĥǤŬϰϤγǤϤʤȤפƤ롥㤨Сؼ줬괧ؤʸˡ뤳Ȥˤꡤͭ̾ˤ³褦ˤʤꡤŬϰϤ̤Ȥʤäʸˡ̣ΰ̲ݲǤ뤳ȤͤСŬϰϤȤϼǤ롥 (productivity) γȸƤ褤ܸΡ֤Ȥǡפξɽɸؤȯãʤɤ "reduction and increased dependency" Ȥª줺ष autonomy ͭƤȤͤ롥ˤơʸˡϸѲ (pragmaticalisation) βȤӤĤ褦ˤʤä
ʸˡ2ĤθҲ𤷤ǯǤʸˡϿäơʤȯŸȳ뤲Ƥ롥㤨С1990ǯιʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) оˤꡤʸˡθǤ̣ȷ֤ΥڥռʬϤܤ褦ˤʤä㤨Сñפ A lot of fans is for sale. ʣפ A lot of fans are for sale. ؤѲ A lot of our problems are psychological. Τ褦ɽƤΤߤȡʸˡȤȤΰʬϤȤ狼롥ۤˡgive an answer make a promise ʤɤΡַڤư괧ܹ̾פʣ⡤ʸʸˡʸˡδ뤳ȤǤ
ʸˡΰˤĤƤˤʤäƤ̤ϡȤͶƳ (invited inference) ŦƤ롥ޤ (analogy) ʬ (reanalysis) Τ褦ʸŤǰФƤ⡤ʸˡΰ⡤ưŤᥫ˥Ȥ顤ƲλߤʤƤƤ롥ȤΤϡʸˡȤϰʬϤǤȤͤ졤ʬϤȤϴ¸ι¤ȤȤ٤ʤƤʤΤȹͤ뤫ǡΥǥȤʸˡꤹȡŬ (Optimality Theory) ˤʬϤȤƤ롥ܿʬϡʸˡμѤȤⰷ褦ˤʤäƤ
ʸˡΰϸ¤ʤȤäƤƤ롥
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Grammaticalization." Chapter 15 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 271--85.
ε#1972. Meillet ʸˡ([2014-09-20-1]) ǰѤ Meillet ϡʸˡΤߤʤ餺ΰ̣ѲˤĤƤפʹͻäƤ롥#1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1]) ʬŪ˿줿褦ˡä˰̣ѲθˤĤơޤȤޤäҤĤƤ롥
Meillet ˤС̣ѲΰŪˤϡŪŪҲŪ3郎̤롥ϸߤˤۤȤɴϢȤʤᡤΤ˶̤٤Ƥ롥ޤϡŬϰϤζȤŪ顥
Quelques changements, en nombre assez restreint du reste, procèdent de conditions proprement linguistiques : ils proviennent de la structure de certaines phrases, où tel mot paraît jouer un rôle spécial. (239)
°ΤϡʸˡλʤɤǤ롥ե homme, chose, pas, rien, personne ʤɤˤơŪʰ̣ŪʸˡŪʰ̣ؤѲ㤬Ƥ롥2ĤϡŪǤ롥
Un second type de changements de sens est celui où les choses exprimées par les mots viennent à changer. (241)
ϻؼоݤ뤤ϥΤŪѲ˰¸ΰ̣ѲǤ롥#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) ǤСǽ˵Ƥ (substitution) 롥ե plume ʥڥˤϡĤƤŴɮؼڥؼ褦ˤʤäȤ㤬Ƥ롥̾ѤʤѤȯŸʤɤˤꤽ줬ؤΤѤäŵŪˤߤ̣ѲǤ롥3ĤϼҲŪǤ롥
... la répartition des hommes de même langue en groupes distincts: c'est de cette hétérogénéité des hommes de même langue que procèdent le plus grand nombre des changements de sens, et sans doute tous ceux qui ne s'expliquent pas par les causes précitées. (243--44)
Meillet ϤμҲŪʸǤפװǤȹͤƤꡤ䤤Ƥ롥1ĤθΰۤʤѼˤƤϡ줾üԽĤͭ register ˺̤줿Ѥȯã롥ŪѼˤƤ̣äѤƤ줬ü첽Ѽˤ̤ΰ̣äѤ뤳Ȥϡ̤˸롥ȺԽĤα졤ȽĤ¯졤罸ĤνѸʤɤǤ롥ѼȯѼ֤ζۤƱ褹С̤ȤƤθΰ̣Ѳʤ뤤¿ˤȤˤʤ롥
̣Ѳ3θ¿ǡMeillet ϼΤ褦äƤ롥
Ces exemples, où l'on a remarqué seulement les plus gros faits et les plus généraux, permettent de se faire une idée de la manière dont les faits linguistiques, les faits historiques et les faits sociaux s'unissent, agissent et réagissent pour transformer le sens des mots; on voit que, partout, le moment essentiel est le passage d'un mot de la langue générale à une langue particulière, ou le fait inverse, ou tous les deux, et que, par suite, les changements de sens doivent être considérés comme ayant pour condition principale la différenciation des éléments qui constituent les sociétés. (271)
ٳؤΤƼҲŪΩ줬ɽƤȤ
Meillet, Antoine. "Comment les mots changent de sens." Année sociologique 9 (1906). Rpt. in Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1958. 230--71.
ε#1971. ʸˡˤӸݤ ([2014-09-19-1]) ڤ grammaticalisation γƵǰäƤʸˡϡ1980ǯʹߡˤưܤӤ褦ˤʤäơޤǤ롥ʸˡιͤΤ19뤤Ϥ긫뤬#417. ʸˡȤϡ ([2010-06-18-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡǽʸˡȤѸѤƸ椷Τ Antoine Meillet (1866--1936) Ȥ롥ʲMeillet ʸˡΰˤĤ3Ƥ
ޤMeillet ˤСʸˡȤ "le passage d'un mot autonome au rôle d'élément grammatical" (131) Ǥ롥ƤϺȤʤäƤŵŪʤΤФǡե pas 꼭ȤƤȯãѸǤ have be Ѥλʤʣȯãջ֤̳ɽ魯ư줫̤ɽ魯ưȯãʤɤǤ롥
ʤMeillet ϡƥǤŪͳä礬ե SVO ʤɤθؤȸ경ʸˡȤȤ館Ƥ롥ѸˤǤСűѸ줫ѸʹߤˤƤθθ경⡤ƱͤʸˡȤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥θǤϡŤʳǤϴ˼ͳä櫓ǤϤʤŪʸŪװˤѰۤ˶ޤοĴ碌ơ礬ŪʸˡŪʵǽӤӤ褦ˤʤäȤMeillet ϤʸˡäƤȤߤΤǤ롥ʣȯãʤ˵ȸθ경Ȥ㤬ƱʸˡפȤѸΤȤǰΤϤ´뤫⤷ʤʣθȤ߹碌ʬŪʰ̣ȤδطæʸˡŪʵǽؤȺƲᤵƤäǡ̤Ȥ롥
ˡMeillet ʸˡˤĤƵƤΤϡʸˡȯŸȤʸ̮ˤƤǤ롥Meillet ϡʸˡȯãˤ2ढꡤ1Ĥ (analogy) 1ĤʸˡǤȤƤ롥ԤˤĤƤϡvous dites ǤϤʤ *vous disez ȸѤƤޤ褦ʲˤäư̲Ƥޤ褦ʥǰƬˤƤ롥Τ褦ϸηΤˤ礭ʱƶͿʤȯã¾ʸˡϿƥ¤ηΤ˱ƶͿΤȤƶ̤Ƥ롥
Tandis que l'analogie peut renouveler le détail des formes, mais laisse le plus souvent intact le plan d'ensemble du système existant, la «grammaticalisation» de certains mots crée des formes neuves, introduit des catégories qui n'avaient pas d'expression linguistique, transforme l'ensemble du système. (133)
ǸˡʸˡˤĤƤФиڤˤĤơŪˤʬϤؤˤĤơMeillet ϼΤ褦ȯĤƤ롥
Analyse et synthèse sont des termes logiques qui trompent entièrement sur les procès réels. La «synthèse» est une conséquence nécessaire et naturelle de l'usage qui est fait de groupes de mots. (147)
Meillet Ϥͣ (unidirectionality) ˤĤƸڤƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤդpas 꼭ȤƤȯãʤɤϡषne Ǥϼ夯줿Ĵ뤿̾ pas äȤȯȤʤäƤΤǤꡤդäΤʬϲλǤ롥Meillet ⤷äȻŦƤ뤳ȤõƤ
Meillet, Antoine. "L'évolution des formes grammaticales." Scientia 12 (1912). Rpt. in Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris: Champion, 1958. 130--48.
Lightfoot ϡˤˤ ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ϸѲθ뤤Ǥʤ̤εҤˤʤȤߤƤ롥"Grammaticalisation, challenging as a phenomenon, is not an explanatory force" (106) ȡˤ٤ʤ콳ʸˡΰ"mystical" drift ʶήˤˤʤ館ơŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤȽƤ롥
Lightfoot ϡ츫ȤʸˡȤߤѲ⡤Ū "local cause" ˤäǤȤȤपդˡư첽 (auxiliary_verb) 夲Ƥ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1]) #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤLightfoot ʸˡȤߤǡҶθ콬UG (Universal Grammar)PLD (Primary Linguistic Data) δؿȤơcan may ʤŪưˡư첽롥ΡʸˡפȤߤѲΤ줾ʳˤѲư local cause ¸ߤ뤳ȤŦѲΤȤ mystical Ǥʤ teleological ǤʤȤȤŪΩ줫 local cause 褦Ȥ Lightfoot ζŪ٤ϡθȯĥʹСSaussure Chomsky ʤΤΤ褦˻פ롥ˤ϶ֻζפ롥
Time plays no role. St Augustine held that time comes from the future, which doesn't exist; the present has no duration and moves on to the past which no longer exists. Therefore there is no time, only eternity. Physicists take time to be 'quantum foam' and the orderly flow of events may really be as illusory as the flickering frames of a movie. Julian Barbour (2000) has argued that even the apparent sequence of the flickers is an illusion and that time is nothing more than a sort of cosmic parlor trick. So perhaps linguists are better off without time. (107)
So we take a synchronic approach to history. Historical change is a kind of finite-state Markov process: changes have only local causes and, if there is no local cause, there is no change, regardless of the state of the grammar or the language some time previously. . . . Under this synchronic approach to change, there are no principles of history; history is an epiphenomenon and time is immaterial. (121)
Lightfoot ˡȤƤζֻΩϤ狼롥ޤlocal cause εɬפȤĥˤƱդ롥drift ʶήˤƱͤˡʸˡ "mystical" ʸݤˤȤɤޤ餻Ƥ櫓ˤϤʤʾ塤ŪȤɬפǤ롥Lightfoot ŪƤϡ㳰Ϥˤʸˡ¿θˤˤƤߤȤ¡ƤͳˤĤƤϲäƤʤ Lightfoot ʸˡˤӸݤˤʤȤΩǤ뤫顤ɬפʤȹͤƤΤʸˡŪή졤drift ΰȤƤǤϤʤѲư붦ŪϤȤƤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤΤ
Lightfoot, David. "Grammaticalisation: Cause or Effect." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 99--123.
ܸäȸƤФΤ¿ŪˤĤơ#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1]) ǿ줿ܸäȤϡŪ٤⤯˽졤Ѳˤ̣ˡ¿ˤ錄ʤɤħġϢϡ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1])#1089. ȸ; ([2012-04-20-1])#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])#1874. ٸθݼ ([2014-06-14-1])#1961. ܥ٥ ([2014-09-09-1])#1965. Ūʸǡ ([2014-09-13-1]) ¾εǤȰäƤ
ϡȴϢơٸ¿ŪǤȤ̿ˤĤƹͤƤߤ٤ι⤤ۤɸ¿٤㤤ϸ¿⤿ʤȤȤϸѤλ¤˾Ȥ餷Ƽ¾ڤޤŪˤZipf's law Τ Zipf ϡΩ줫餳βĩ
Zipf ϡE. L. Thorndike αѸ20,000 Thorndike-Century Senior Dictionary ˴Ť٤ȸشطõäμϡŸѸʤɤü register ĸϷǺܤƤ餺ŪѤΤߤǺܤƤ롥ðǰĴٰ̡ȡ°줬ʿѸȤδ֤ˡ餫شط줿ʲϡZipf (253) ˼Ƥ륰դƸΤǤ롥ξȤпǤꡤXٽ̤YٰʿѸɽ魯

Ϥۤ0.5üԤȯäİԤİˤѤ˴ؤͽ¬礹ȤοŪդϻĶΤDzǤʤZipf ϷȤƸθ١ʽ̡ˤδطˤĤƼΤ褦꼰 (Zipf 255)
. . . different meanings of a word will tend to be equal to the square root of its relative frequencies (with the possible exception of the few dozen most frequent words)
طʤˤϡ¿䤢θ˶ʬ뤫Ȥạ̈¦䤦٤⤪ˤ뤬٤Ǥ롥Ϣơ#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1]) zipfs_law γƵ⻲Ȥ줿
Zipf, G. K. "The Meaning-Frequency Relationship of Words." Journal of General Psychology 33 (1945): 251--66.
ε#1968. ΰ̣ʬʬϡ ([2014-09-16-1]) Ƴ componential_analysis ˤϡŪطŪŪ¤ޡȤķкŪ˵ҤǤȤ뤬Ūˤ¿ʲȽäƤ Bolinger ˼Ȥư͵ʤ顤롥
(1) ŪʬʬϤǽʰ̣ϸ¤ƤꡤʬθäˤϤޤŬѤǤʤΤǤϤʤȤ䤬롥 bachelor, spinster, woman, wife ʤɤ˴ؤ̣ˤߤγǰŪطɽˤϡ[MALE], [FEMALE], [UNMARRIED], [MARRIED] ʤкŪˤ [MALE], [MARRIED]ˤʤŪʬѤкѤࡥƱͤˡ²̾ (kinship terms) ʤĤ줿̣Ǥϡ̤˸ϤȯƤΰ̣ϤäȳƤ뤷Τʤθôطʬǡݡºݤˤ¿ʬäƤƤŪΤʬϤΤ϶ˤƺǤ롥㤨Сbird ΰ̣ˤơsparrow, penguin, ostrich ϡ줾ɤΤ褦ʬʬϤиߤδطޡȤ˼̸ bird [+CAN FLY] ǧʤС̸ penguin Ϥʬ뤷 [-CAN FLY] ȤʤФʤʤޤ̤β̸ ostrich Τ [CAN RUN FAST] ʤɤȤʬǧ٤ʤɤȤ뤫⤷ʤ
(2) 1Ĥθ¿ɤΤ褦ɽ뤫Ȥ꤬롥bachelor ˤϡȿ˻ҡפΤۤˤ⡤ּ㤤ΡסֳػΡסΤʤåȥפθ⤢롥Ū˵ҤˡϤBolinger (557) ϡKatz and Fodor ʬϤƼƤ롥

Katz and Fodor ϡ(Human), (Animal) ʤɤΤäդǼ̣ʬ "marker" ȸƤӡ[who has never married] ʤɤγѤäդǼ롤θ˸ͭΰ̣ʬ "distinguisher" ȸƤǶ̤distinguisher ϡͭðۤǤȤƤʾʬϤ뤳ȤΤǤʤǤȤƤΤǡɤΤȤʬʬϤDzڤ뤳ȤϤǤʤȤǧƤޤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롪ˡɤΥ٥ޤǤ marker ǡɤΥ٥뤫餬 distinguisher ˤĤƵҴŪ뤳Ȥ㤨Сּ㤤ΡפȡΤʤåȥפϡȤˡּ㤤פȤ̣ʬͭƤȹͤΤǡ(Young) Ȥ marker ФȤǽǤ롥ºݡKatz and Fodor ϼΤ褦ʬʬϤƤȤƽФƤ (Bolinger 559)

ʤȡɤޤǤ marker 䤷Ƥdistinguisher زؤɤ뤳ȤǽȤʤäƤ롥㤨Сּ㤤ΡפȡֳػΡפϤ줾쵳٤ȳذ٤Τʤǡ㤤̡פΰ̣ʬͭƤΤǡ(Hierarchic), (Inferior) ʤɤ marker ꤹ뤳ȤǤȤ⤤롥Ⱦж marker 䤷Ƥȡ㤨 Bolinger (563) Ƚ˼Ƥ褦ˡΤ褦ʤФʬϤǽȤʤäƤ롥

distinguisher ʬʬʬϤμˡΤΤβͤ뤷marker 䤷ƤСΤ褦ˤФ̤ˤʤäƤޤ
(3) "Henry became a bachelor in 1965." Ȥʸ bachelor θϡֳػΡװʳˤϤꤨʤȤüԤΤäƤ롥֡ʰ٤뺧ȤΤʤȿ˻ҡפˤʤʥơѤˤȤϤǤʤ1965ǯˤϵ٤ϤʤäHenry Ͽʹ֤顤¾θϼưŪӽ롥Ȥ櫓1965ǯ˵٤ϤʤäȤɴʻŵŪμϡ̣ʬȤळȤŬΤ褦˻פ롥semantics pragmatics ζܡŪμɴʻŵŪμζܤȤˤʤäƤ뤬Katz and Fodor ʤʬʬϤٻ̣ԤϤ̤ȤǤʤ
(4) ʬʬϤǤϡʬ̵ͭץ饹ޥʥȤΩפˤƤꡤ١Ϣ³Ρ濴ȼաץȥ (prototype) ȤäǰळȤǤʤޤʬʬϤϤޤŪʬϤʤΤǡȤʤɰ̣ưŪʲȤǤʤʤʤΤˡKatz and Fodor ϡװ̣ɸ֤뤳ȤǤΤ
嵭ϡо줷ǧΰ̣ˤäƲλͿƤ椯ȤϤʬʬϤΤĵҤΥޡȤȷкϡ礭̥ϤǤ³Ƥ롥ΰ̣Τ٤Ƥʬ«Ȥɽ뤳ȤϺȤƤ⡤ΰ̣ˤƴϢäȤΰƱطȤŪˤƤϡϤȯʬϤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
Bolinger, D. "The Atomization of Meaning." Language 41 (1965): 555--73.
Ūʰ̣Ǥϡΰ̣̣ʬ뤤ϰ̣θ (semantic components or primitives) ؤʬʬʬ (componential_analysis) μˡΤƤϡˤֲǤ«ǤפȤͤΰ̣ˤѤΤǤ롥
̣ʬϡǤˤƱͤˡѳ̤ˤäɽʤФ + - դΩȤɽ蘆뤬ʲǤϤĤƤʤˡȤơȿ˻Ҥɽ魯 bachelor ʬʬϤ
bachelor [MALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED]
Ǥϡbachelor γǰỤ̄4ĤʬȤ߹碌ȤƼƤ롥Ȥ߹碌ʤ bachelor ΤΤǤȲ᤹ΤפǤ롥षȤ߹碌ˤäƴϢ¾θȤθỤ̄ŪطΤˤʤȤǡʬʬϤͭѤʤΤǤ롥㤨СȿȽɽ魯 spinster ϡΤ褦ʬʬϤ
spinster [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED]
4ĤʬȤ߹碌 spinster ΤΤǤȤϡbachelor ʬʬϤӤȤߴطΤˤʤȤ礭ʤbachelor spinster ϤȤ [ADULT] [HUMAN] [UNMARRIED] ȤǤ϶̤뤬[MALE] [FEMALE] 1ˤ㤤ˤäơΤȤеطȤʤ뤳ȤƤ롥spinster ȴϢơwoman wife ʬʬϤ⼨
woman [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN]
wife [FEMALE] [ADULT] [HUMAN] [MARRIED]
spinster woman ϡԤ [UNMARRIED] ȤʬͿʤȤ1ˤưۤʤäƤꡤΤȤԤԤξ̸ (hypernym) Ǥ뤳ȤȽ롥ޤspinster wife δطˤĤƤϡ[UNMARRIED] [MARRIED] Ȥ1ˤΩеȤȤˤʤ롥ˡ*The man is a wife. ΰ̣Ū̷⡤줬 [MALE] ʬޤǤΤˡҸƤʤ [FEMALE] ʬޤǤ뤳ȤˤǤ롥ʬʬϤκŦȡäˤȿдط (antonymy)ݴط (hyponymy)̷طʤɳƼδطŪɽǤ褦ˤʤäȤǤ롥ۤˤ⡤ʬʬϤϡŪŪ (selection restriction) εҤˤϤȯʤɡͭǧƤ롥
Katz Fodor ʤɤ̣ԤϡʬʬϤιͤȯŸơ㤨С#1801. homonymy polysemy ζ ([2014-04-02-1]) 褦ʬϤʤɤޤǤ⥢ꥹȥƥ쥹Ūʬˡǰ̣ȤʬʬϤμˡˤϡǰȽƤŪ꤬ŦƤ⤤뤬̣ʬϤͭϤˡ1ĤȤơޤ˱ƶϤäƤʤ
ʾ塤Saeed (259--66) ȤƼɮ
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
ε#1966. ʡʤäƤѸΰʪ˥塼 ([2014-09-14-1]) ǡѸʪ˴ؤäˤϡŪ˥եѸ줬ƤȤǧطʤˤΤϡʤ1066ǯΥΥޥȤǤ롥ʹߡ#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) ŵŪΤƤ褦ˡϤ¿ν̱ϲܤäɤ졤եϤξήϥեݤǤäɤˤƥեϡñˤǤʤҤξħȤƼҲŪʴްդäƤ
ưʪȤ˴ؤ sheep / mutton; ox / beef; pig / pork, bacon, gammon; calf / veal; boar / brawn; fowl / poultry αʩäΩϤ褯ΤƤ뤬ۤˤեѸ줬˴ؤ̣ƤڵϤ롥εǰѤ Hughes ϡ"The sociology of food" (117--20) ꤹạ̇̄Ƥ롥
ޤưʪβĿ̤Ǿ̤Ȳ̤ȤǸƤ̾ۤʤȤ¤롥haunch, joint, cutlet ϥեbrains, tongue, shank ϱѸٹڤʿɽ魯 dinner, supper, banquet ϥեǤ breakfast ϱѸʤʤlunch 16˽Ф뿩ΰդǤ19ˡФ̤Ĵˡϡ#1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1]) COOK ۲˵ boil, broil, roast, grill, fry ʤ¿ư줬եסǥȡĴ̣ʤ̣Ǻ (ex. soup, potage, sauce, dessert, mustard, cream, ginger, liquorice, flan, pasty, claret, biscuit) οʸΤҤ⤸ᤷۤɤ
ΤѰդ뷸̾ˤե줬Ωġsteward ʵĹˤѸsty + ward ǡھÿ͡פȤΤˡmarshal Էˡsewer ˡpantler ʿ¢͡ˡbutler ʼˤϥեǤ롥Ư scullion ʻˡˡblackguard ʾȤˡpot-boy ʥܡˤϤѸǤ롥
Ǹˡ15Υ쥷ԤαʸƤߤ褦Hughes (118) κưѤåΤθ줬եѸǤ롥ΰ̣줬ե줫֤줷Ƥ뤫ʬ
Oystres in grauey
Take almondes, and blanche hem, and grinde hem and drawe þorgh a streynour with wyne, and with goode fressh broth into gode mylke, and sette hit on þe fire and lete boyle; and cast therto Maces, clowes, Sugur, pouder of Ginger, and faire parboyled oynons mynced; And þen take faire oystres, and parboile hem togidre in faire water; And then caste hem ther-to, And let hem boyle togidre til þey ben ynowe; and serve hem forth for gode potage.
ˤե줫֤줷Ƥ롥֤Ƥʤä顤Ǥɾ뤳ȤξʤɤοϡϤΤȤʤä˰㤤ʤͤΡʬˤ purism εϤʤ
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Hughes (119) ˡįƤǤʤäƤѸ "A historical menu" ǺܤƤ롥űѸ鸽ѸޤǤ˼ȱѸäƤʪɽ魯Ѹ줬¤Ǥ롥Hughes ϸ夫űѸؤ̤褦˰ƤꡤΤοʪѤäʤȤˤϤ褤ΤɤۤŪ˿ߤΤǡΤ褦ɤळȤᤷ
| Food | Drink | |
|---|---|---|
| pesto, salsa, sushi | ||
| tacos, quiche, schwarma | ||
| pizza, osso bucco | Chardonnay | |
| 1900 | paella, tuna, goulash | |
| hamburger, mousse, borscht | Coca Cola | |
| grapefruit, éclair, chips | soda water | |
| bouillabaisse, mayonnaise | ||
| ravioli, crêpes, consommé | riesling | |
| 1800 | spaghetti, soufflé, bechamel | tequila |
| ice cream | ||
| kipper, chowder | ||
| sandwich, jam | seltzer | |
| meringue, hors d'oeuvre, welsh rabbit | whisky | |
| 1700 | avocado, pâté | gin |
| muffin | port | |
| vanilla, mincemeat, pasta | champagne | |
| salmagundi | brandy | |
| yoghurt, kedgeree | sherbet | |
| 1600 | omelette, litchi, tomato, curry, chocolate | tea, sherry |
| banana, macaroni, caviar, pilav | coffee | |
| anchovy, maize | ||
| potato, turkey | ||
| artichoke, scone | sillabub | |
| 1500 | marchpane (marzipan) | |
| whiting, offal, melon | ||
| pineapple, mushroom | ||
| salmon, partridge | ||
| Middle English | venison, pheasant | muscatel |
| crisp, cream, bacon | rhenish (rhine wine) | |
| biscuit, oyster | claret | |
| toast, pastry, jelly | ||
| ham, veal, mustard | ||
| beef, mutton, brawn | ||
| sauce, potage | ||
| broth, herring | ||
| meat, cheese | ale | |
| Old English | cucumber, mussel | beer |
| butter, fish | wine | |
| bread | water |
Ρ#1961. ܥ٥ ([2014-09-09-1]) εǡܸä뤤ϴøä夲ȤˡSwadesh Ƥøä˸ڤϡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) ǵ100줫ʤ basic vocabulary ΤȤǤꡤ̸ŪŪʴøäǤȾƤ롥Ƚ¿Ӹؤ˸ؤǤ core vocabulary ˴ؤƶϤΤƤ1ĤǧƤ롥
core vocabulary Ʊꤹ⤦1ĤλߤȤơWierzbicka Goddard Ƥ롥Swadesh ƤӸؤפȤƤΤФWierzbicka Ƥϰ̣פȤƤ롥̣ˤϡ礦ɲˤŪꤵΤƱͤˡŪʰ̣θ (semantic primes) ϤȹͤƱꤷ褦Ȥ롥ϡ̣ʬʬ (componential_analysis) αĹˤ롥褷ƤȤϤʤ̣Υץߥƥɵ᤹Ȥ̥ŪʷײˤϡޤǤ¿θԤäƤGoddard ⤳ηײ̥줿1ͤǤꡤ̿äƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤCliff Goddard ("Lexico-Semantic Universals: A Critical overview." Linguistic Typology 5.1 (2001): 1--65. p. 3) Ѥ Saeed (78) ˡ
Natural Semantic Metalanguage
. . . a 'meaning' of an expression will be regarded as a paraphrase, framed in semantically simpler terms than the original expression, which is substitutable without change of meaning into all contexts in which the original expression can be used . . . The postulate implies the existence, in all languages, of a finite set of indefinable expressions (words, bound morphemes, phrasemes). The meanings of these indefinable expressions, which represent the terminal elements of language-internal semantic analysis, are known as 'semantic primes'.
ŪˤϡWierzbicka Goddard ˤꡤ60줬 "universal semantic primes" ȤƤƤSaeed 79ˡθäĴǤȴ줿ԤθǤȤ롥
| Substantives: | I, you, someone/person, something, body |
| Determiners: | this, the same, other |
| Quantifiers: | one, two, some, all, many/much |
| Evaluators: | good, bad |
| Descriptors: | big, small |
| Mental predicates: | think, know, want, feel, see, hear |
| Speech: | say, word, true |
| Actions, events, movement: | do, happen, move, touch |
| Existence and possession: | is, have |
| Life and death: | live, die |
| Time: | when/time, now, before, after, a long time, a short time, for some time, moment |
| Space: | where/place, here, above, below |
| 'Logical' concepts: | not, maybe, can, because, if |
| Intensifier, augmentor: | very, more |
| Taxonomy: | kind (of), part (of) |
| Similarity: | like |
ǧθؤǤϡץȥ (prototype) ιͤŻ뤵롥ꥹȥƥ쥹ŪʥǥʥƥѤ˵褷 Wittgenstein (1889--1951) եǥʥʲ²Ū (family resemblance) ˴ŤƥѤΤ1ĤθήȤơץȥפǧθؤˤƽפʥɤȤȯŸƤץȥˤȡƥ (feature) ̵ͭȤ߹碌ˤäɽΤǤϤʤ (attribute) ٤Ȥ߹碌ˤäɽΤǤ롥Ǥ뤫顤Υƥ濴˰֤Ť褦ʺǤդ路ŵŪ⤢Сդ˰֤Ť뤢ޤŵŪǤʤ⤢ȹͤ롥㤨СĻפȤƥˤơĥХ濴ŪʥץȥŪˤȤߤʤ뤬ڥ祦ϼŪץȥŪˤǤ롥ϲʳŪμˤӮưʪΤƤꡤŵŪʥƥѤˤСĻפǤϤʤȤ뤬ץȥΥƥѤˤС¤ʤŪʡĻפǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥Τ褦ˡ֡餷פ٤100%0%ޤǤϢ³ΤʤƤꡤɤ餬Ǥꡤɤ餬ǤʤΤϤǤʤȤߤ롥
ͤƤߤСʹ֤Ū˻ʪץȥפδߤƤ롥֤ǤʤǤʤܤˤƤɤ餫ǺΤϡץȥŪ֤ȲΤäƤꡤ줫Ūʿդˡ֤ΤʤȸСܸüԤǤСŵŪإݥȡȥޥȡʤɤ֤롥Ʊͤˡ#1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1]) ˤ FURNITURE, FRUIT, VEHICLE, WEAPON, VEGETABLE, TOOL, BIRD, SPORT, TOY, CLOTHING 줾ŵŪʤȤȡ¿αѸüԤ褽פ롥
Ѹ FURNITURE Ǥμ¸ߤƤߤ褦E. Rosch ϡ200ͤΥꥫͳˡ60Ĥβȶ̾Ϳ줾줬ɤΤ餤ֲȶ餷פ17ޤǤ7ʳɾ1Ǥȶ餷ˤǼפȡȶŵδФäۤɶͭƤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤʤäRosch ("Cognitive Representations of Semantic Categories." Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 104 (1975): 192--233. p. 229) Ĵ Taylor (46) ɽƸ褦
| Member | Rank | Specific score |
|---|---|---|
| chair | 1.5 | 1.04 |
| sofa | 1.5 | 1.04 |
| couch | 3.5 | 1.10 |
| table | 3.5 | 1.10 |
| easy chair | 5 | 1.33 |
| dresser | 6.5 | 1.37 |
| rocking chair | 6.5 | 1.37 |
| coffee table | 8 | 1.38 |
| rocker | 9 | 1.42 |
| love seat | 10 | 1.44 |
| chest of drawers | 11 | 1.48 |
| desk | 12 | 1.54 |
| bed | 13 | 1.58 |
| bureau | 14 | 1.59 |
| davenport | 15.5 | 1.61 |
| end table | 15.5 | 1.61 |
| divan | 17 | 1.70 |
| night table | 18 | 1.83 |
| chest | 19 | 1.98 |
| cedar chest | 20 | 2.11 |
| vanity | 21 | 2.13 |
| bookcase | 22 | 2.15 |
| lounge | 23 | 2.17 |
| chaise longue | 24 | 2.26 |
| ottoman | 25 | 2.43 |
| footstool | 26 | 2.45 |
| cabinet | 27 | 2.49 |
| china closet | 28 | 2.59 |
| bench | 29 | 2.77 |
| buffet | 30 | 2.89 |
| lamp | 31 | 2.94 |
| stool | 32 | 3.13 |
| hassock | 33 | 3.43 |
| drawers | 34 | 3.63 |
| piano | 35 | 3.64 |
| cushion | 36 | 3.70 |
| magazine rack | 37 | 4.14 |
| hi-fi | 38 | 4.25 |
| cupboard | 39 | 4.27 |
| stereo | 40 | 4.32 |
| mirror | 41 | 4.39 |
| television | 42 | 4.41 |
| bar | 43 | 4.46 |
| shelf | 44 | 4.52 |
| rug | 45 | 5.00 |
| pillow | 46 | 5.03 |
| wastebasket | 47 | 5.34 |
| radio | 48 | 5.37 |
| sewing machine | 49 | 5.39 |
| stove | 50 | 5.40 |
| counter | 51 | 5.44 |
| clock | 52 | 5.48 |
| drapes | 53 | 5.67 |
| refrigerator | 54 | 5.70 |
| picture | 55 | 5.75 |
| closet | 56 | 5.95 |
| vase | 57 | 6.23 |
| ashtray | 58 | 6.35 |
| fan | 59 | 6.49 |
| telephone | 60 | 6.68 |
ʸʸˡ (construction grammar) ϡλȾδ֤ȯŸƤǧθؤ˴ŤʸˡǤ롥Lakoff, Fillmore, Goldberg, Kay ʤɤˤäƤ
ʸȤªΤΤϡˤĹ롥¤ؤǤ뤵Ƥήʸפιͤ⡤ض̤ƹΤƤ롥ʸˡоˤꡤιʸʸв졤ŪӸݤȤư褦ˤʤä
1970ǯȾǧθؤˤꡤʸñ˷ŪʴǤϤʤǽỤ̄Ūʴ饢ץ褦ˤʤäιʸϡع¤ΤǤϤʤ켫Ȥλʤˤΰ̣ľܹñ̤ǤȤͤ㤨СMe write a novel?! Ȥ츫˳Ūʹʸϡ켫ΤȼαΧʼȽ徺ĴΥȥ͡ӤӤˤȼ֤פްդ롥ޤThere's the bell! Τ褦ʹʸϡͺؤ夲ưȤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿γФľפɽ魯ȤäʸʸˡǤϡʸΤΤ̣ѡΧʤɤꤷƤª롥
ʸ̣ʤɤꤷƤȤäƤ⡤εζѰۤ롥㤨СIs A B? ιʸŵŪ˼ȯù٤ɽ魯Is that a fact? ϡ̾ǤϤʤüԤζäɽ魯ʤŪȯù (indirect speech_act) Τ褦ˡʸʸˡϡʸȤΰ̣δطץȥŪ˹ͤɬפȼĥ롥ޤ귿ʸȤʤȡΤʤθ¾ΤΤ˸Ǥʤʤʤɡ̣ŪŪͻ̤Τʤʤ륱⤢롥㤨СThanks a lot, Thanks a million ȯŸ Thanks a billion ϲǽ*Thanks a hundred ԲǽȤʤ롥day in day out, month in month out ϲĤminute in minute out century in century out ԲĤǤ롤 (Taylor 225--28)
ʸʸˡϾ嵭Τ褦ʸˡؤΥꥢȤƤǯǤʸˡ¦ǤʸʸˡȿΤȿʬʤɤȯŸƤƤ롥ʸħˤʤäƤȤ
ʸʸˡȤߤ BNC ʸ˹ʸդǡ١http://framenet.icsi.berkeley.edu/ ǸƤꡤΥեꥢǤ롥ܤ٤Ѹ칽ʸϿƤ롥
Taylor, John R. Linguistic Categorization. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2003.
ε#1961. ܥ٥ ([2014-09-09-1]) ǡǰ (conceptual hierarchy) 뤤ݴط (hyponymy) ȤѸФԤݴطϸŪʴطǰƬˤǤꡤֲȶפȡ֤פǹͤСֲȶפϡ֤פξ̸ (hypernym) ǤȤ졤֤פϡֲȶפβ̸ (hyponym) ǤȤ롥Ԥǰϳǰ֤δطǰƬˤǤꡤ̤Ȳ̤δطŤˤꡤʥͥåȥŸƤȤȤ館롥
ǰؤϡŪˤ̣ (semantic_field) 夲طƤߤΤ褤ʪؤˤ볦 (kingdom) (phylum or division) (class) (order) (family)° (genus) (species) ʬޤϤ褯Τ줿ǰؤǤ뤷Ӹؤη (family_tree) ⤽ΰǤ롥ʲǤ (17) ˵Ƥֲܸȶפΰ̣ˤ복ǰؤȡѸ COOKưˤΰ̣ˤ복ǰؤ


ֲȶפˤĤơӡϤȡη¤ϤȤΡɤ뤬Ϥʲʬब˴ŤΤǤ뤳Ȥ̣˱ƤѤĿͤˤäƤۤʤǽΤǡοޤ1ĤΥǥȹͤ
˵Ť褦ˡǰؤϸóؽˤΩġ嵭 COOK ưFURNITURE, FRUIT, VEHICLE, WEAPON, VEGETABLE, TOOL, BIRD, SPORT, TOY, CLOTHING ʤɤ̾γǰؤƤߤٶˤʤꤽ
ԡˡذ̣١īҽŹ2012ǯ
ε#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1]) κǸǡָóؤϡʸŪҿ㤵١̣ˡιȤäشطˤפȽҤ٤ؤǤϡФСִŪʸáפˤʤ뤬äƴŪȤ뤫ˤĤƤ͡Ω줬롥ľŪˤϡŪʸäȤϡŪѤ졤٤ǡҶˤ˽äǤȺѤޤ뤳ȤǤΤˤ礭ƤʤȻפɤޤǤܸäǧ뤫Ȥ䡤̸줴Ȥ˰ۤʤΤʤΤ뤤̸Ūˤ٤ŪʤΤʤΤȤ⤢ꡤפ褦ơޤǤ롥㤨СػŪˤϡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) Swadesh ֻøäФơȽä줿Ȥ⤢äŪŪǾ줿 Basic English (cf. #960. Basic English ([2011-12-13-1])#1705. Basic English ǽ줿ä ([2013-12-27-1])) ȤδܸäˤĤƤ⡤ǰܤ줿Ȥä
ŪʸäȤȤǤ⤦1۵Τϡǧΰ̣ǤФм夲ܥ٥ (Basic Level Category) Ǥ롥Ūʴط1Ĥˡǰ (conceptual hierarchy) 뤤ݴط (hyponymy) ȤΤ롥㤨СֲȶפȤ̣ (semantic_field) ͤƤߤ롥ֲȶפȤŪʥƥβˡ֤פִפΥƥꡤ줾βˡɪݤס֥ǥåפٶס֥ѥǥפʤɤ롥˾ˤⲼˤ⡤Ʋˤ⤳Τ褦ʸôطäƤꡤֲȶפΰ̣˵ʸåͥåȥŸƤȤΤ̣ιͤǡֲȶס֤סɪݤפȤ3ʳݴطˤĤܤȡǤ̤Υ٥ϿΡ֤פȹͤ롥֤ä줿顤˺¤ꤿʡפֲ̤ȶ˺¤ꤿʡפŪƤ뤷ɪݤ˺¤ꤿʡפ̾ʸ̮ǤԼ˺٤롥֤פȤ٥뤬ŪŪ礦ɤ褤٥ȤФ롥Ǥϡ֤פ Basic Level Category ƤȤ롥
Ǥϡ Basic Level Category ϲˤäƷޤΤTaylor (52) ϡץȥθ Rosch ˰͵ʤ顤Τ褦ʵǽŪٻƤ롥
Rosch argues that it is the basic level categories that most fully exploit the real-world correlation of attributes. Basic level terms cut up reality into maximally informative categories. The basic level, therefore, is the level in a categorization hierarchy at which the 'best' categories can emerge. More precisely, Rosch hypothesizes that basic level categories both
(a) maximize the number of attributes shared by members of the category;
and
(b) minimize the number of attributes shared with members of other categories.
֤פϡ۲͡ʼΤ㤨Сɪݤפ֥ǥåפ¿ζ̤ (a) ˤʤޤ֤פϡִפ͡ʼδ㤨Сٶפ֥ѥǥפȶͭϾʤΤǡ(b) ˤʤϡ֤פ濴ˤƹͤƱ褦ˡֲȶפ뤤ϡɪݤפ濴˹ͤ (a) (b) ˤʤɤƤߤȡ֤פۤɤˤξʤ
Basic Level Category θäϡǧŪ˽פȹͤƤ롥ޤŪ˺Ǥ褯Ȥ졤Ҷˤäƺǽ˽졤ͤǤ®ȿ뤳ȤΤƤ롥δäȤ
ܸä̤θˤĤƤϡ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1])#1874. ٸθݼ ([2014-06-14-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1]) ε⻲Ȥ줿
Taylor, John R. Linguistic Categorization. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2003.
ѸäħŪع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1]) ʤɤεǤߤƤع¤ȤɽΤϡ岼طȳؤΤӥΤ褦ʷʪΥ⤷ʤӥȤϡĺԥߥåɤΤ褦ʷۤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ顤ι㳬ؤá䶹ޤä泬ؤΥեáⳬؤΥƥꥷäȤ
ԥߥåɤȤŬڤʤΤϡ1ĤˤϡⳬؤΥƥꥷäΤøŪϰ̤Ȱҿ褯Ƥ뤫ҲŪʸŪ¾ݤݥˤĤƤ뤳Ȥϡӥ뷿ԥߥåɷΤۤ褯ɽǤ롥
2ܤȤơ줾θä٤ԥߥåɤˤƳؤѤȤɽǤ뤫Ǥ롥ε#1959. ʸػˤʸػˤˤפԤѤäˤγ ([2014-09-07-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡäդΤߤʤ餺դˤƤ⡤ä٤¾ݤƤʤʤʬۤϡ#1645. ܸθʬۡ ([2013-10-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡܸˤƤƱͤäˡоŪˡⳬؤθä٤㤤ġθˤĤƤȿ⤢ŪʷȤƤϡƳؤ٤ѤȤб롥äȤ⡤Ƴؤθ̡ʰۤʤˤȤȤǤСɬ⤽줬ԥߥåɤѤб櫓Ǥʤ100cf. #309. Ѹδܸ100εȳ ([2010-03-02-1]) Ⱥ600cf. #202. Ѹδܸ600εȳ ([2009-11-15-1])ˤǸ¤ꡤ̤ѤϤ褽бƤ뤬10000Ȥ٥Ĵȡ#429. ѸκѸ10000εȳ ([2010-06-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡȤƤ3ؤξ岼ط롥
ԥߥåɤȤͭȹͤ3ܤͳϡԥߥåɤˤƳؤѤ٤Τߤʤ餺ΤỊ̇ˡιˤбƤ뤫ŪܶǤ٤⤤ФǤʤ¿Ǥꡤˡ¿ˤ錄롥ŪʸƱͿפǤ⡤ give Ūʸ¿ˤ¿ƥѸ donate ϸꤵƤ롥ޤgive ʸȤ SVOiOd SVOd to Oi 뤳ȤǤʤʤ dative shift ǽˤdonate ϸԤʸƤʤۤˤϡ#112. եƥѸȲˡߡ ([2009-08-17-1]) Ǽ褦ˡóؤŪʿ˴ͿƤȵ륱롥
3δ顤Hughes (43) ϡΤ褦ʥԥߥåɹ¤
![]()
嵭3Τۤˤ⡤ƳؤѤȸ䤹 (comprehensibility) طƤȤ⤢롥ɤΤȤóؤϡʸŪҿ㤵١̣ˡιȤäشطˤȤȤԥߥåɤȤϹߤǤ롥
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ɸˤĤơHughes (42) ϡFrederic T. Wood (An Outline History of the English Language. London: Heinemann, 1959. p.47) ȤơͤƤ롥ʲ˥ղƼ
King James Bible (1611) (94%): ********************************************************************************
Shakespeare (1564--1616) (90%): ****************************************************************************
Spenser (c1552--99) (86%): *************************************************************************
Milton (1608--74) (81%): ********************************************************************
Addison (1672--1719) (82%): *********************************************************************
Swift (1667--1745) (75%): ***************************************************************
Pope (1688--1744) (80%): ********************************************************************
Johnson (1709--84) (72%): *************************************************************
Hume (1711--76) (73%): **************************************************************
Gibbon (1737--94) (70%): ***********************************************************
Macaulay (1881--1958) (75%): ***************************************************************
Tennyson (1850--92) (77%): *****************************************************************
| ¸ | ̡ʰۤʤ | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ս8Ⱦ | 99.6% | 0.3% | 0.1% | 6,505 |
| ݼʪ9?10 | 91.7% | 6.7% | 1.6% | 1,311 |
| ʪ10?椴 | 93.8% | 5.3% | 1.0% | 1,692 |
| ź905ǯ | 99.9% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 1,994 |
| ں935ǯ | 94.1% | 4.5% | 1.4% | 984 |
| ҡ1001ǯ | 84.1% | 12.2% | 3.6% | 5,247 |
| ʪ11 | 87.1% | 8.8% | 4.0% | 11,423 |
| 12ᤴ | 67.6% | 27.6% | 4.8% | 4,819 |
| 浭1212ǯ | 78.0% | 20.1% | 1.8% | 1,148 |
| 1331ǯ | 68.6% | 28.1% | 3.3% | 4,242 |
ս8Ⱦ (99%): *******************************************************************************
ݼʪ9?10 (91%): *************************************************************************
ʪ10?椴 (93%): ***************************************************************************
ź905ǯ (99%): ********************************************************************************
ں935ǯ (94%): ***************************************************************************
ҡ1001ǯ (84%): *******************************************************************
ʪ11 (87%): *********************************************************************
12ᤴ (67%): ******************************************************
浭1212ǯ (78%): **************************************************************
1331ǯ (68%): ******************************************************
Ѱ (register) ˤäỌ̇̄ιˤĤơ#611. Murray θ ([2010-12-29-1]) Ǹǿ褦ˡCOMMON (meaning) 濴ˡLITERARY, FOREIGN, SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, COLLOQUIAL, SLANG, DIALECTAL ؤ;˸äỌ̇̄äƤȤΤMurray ªοޤŪʸỌ̇̄Ƥߤ褦ʲο (Hughes 5) Ǥϡǥ (PREGNANT) Ȥ̣ξäơθ礬٤֤Ƥ뤳ȤƤ롥

ʿŪ줬ʰ̣ξ˻ѰȤäŪʴطΩŪȤǽȤǡָפȤθϱԤƶäHughes ϸΤ̻ŪѲȤ뤳ȤϤʤȤѸθ륬ʻѰˤϡޤޤ¿˵ڤǤƤMurray 100ǯä̤οɬפȡơMurray θΤ褦˲ɤ (372)

٥뤬ä줿֤ѲꤷƤ뤬Hughes (370--71) ˤСϸѸθäȿǤΤǤȤ㤨СϼѸФ (purism) ޤꡤ¾줫äή䤹ʤäƤȤǡFOREIGN Ȥ϶̤٤ޤ줿Ǥ٥ EXOTIC ɬפʤѸŪ˸üѤäƤƤ뤳ȤˤĤơ#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) ȡˡޤSCIENTIFIC TECHNICAL θäѲȼäơξԤΰִطˤĤƤƹͤɬפ⤷ʤ嵭4٥뤬 ARCHAIC ȤȤ濴Υ줿դ˰֤ƤΤϡθäƩȿǤƤ롥ˡLITERARY Ȥ٥μϰϤۣˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥ顤Υ٥ϤʤȤʬŪ FORMAL, ARCHAIC, ˤäƤ COLLOQUIAL, SLANG, OBSCENITY ¾Υ٥䤦Τ⤷ʤ
οޤȿǤƤʤΤȤơ¾Ѽ狼θä롥㤨СꥹѸθäǰƬˤȤΤʤ¿Ǥ褦ˤʤäꥫѸθ (americanism) 䤽¾ѼθäϤɤΤ褦˰֤ŤFOREIGN EXOTIC Ȥ㤦ŪϰǰƬˤ DIALECT Ȥۤʤ롥
ù¤̣¤ȤȤѲ롥Ѹ⤽ϳʤѸǤ⡤ѰȤŽդ٥롤ƸοƹͤƤ롥
Hughes, G. A History of English Words. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ΰ̣Ȥϡλؼо (referent) ΤΤǤϤʤ줬복ǰ (concept) ǤȤΤΰ̣ǤϼήιͤǤ롥γǰȤΤΤɤΤ褦ʤΤǤ뤫ϡҤȤĤϤäꤷʤΡְ̣ᳵǰϡ礭2ĤΩʬ롥
ֳǰˤ2濫ꡤĤϷʵؤήỤ̄ιͤǤꡤ⤦ĤϿǧθؤιͤǤ롥Ụ̄Ǥϡǰʡ̣ˤɽɽ魯ʪݤƥˤȤƻνΤȹͤ롥ȤСָפȤγǰʡ̣ˤϡ¤¸ߤ¿ͤʸƥȤƻӮǤ롤ͤǿ롤ʹ֤ˤ褯ʤĤʤɡˤ«Ǥȹͤ롥Ụ̄ǤγǰϡΤ褦ˡ줬ŬѤʪݤȤƯޤΤ褦ʹͤγǰϡɽβƱ褦ˡѤξˤƤϴ¸ΤΤȤư졤ΤγǰɤΤ褦ʲФƷ뤫Ȥǰβˤʤ
Ф츦ˤƿʹ֤ǧǽϤ뤹ǧθؤǤϡɽɽ魯ǰϡǰ (conceptualization) ȸƤФ롤ѼԤγª (construal) ȿǤǰˡˤäƷΤȹͤ졤ѼԤΥ¸ߤʴ¸ΡˤΤȤϤߤʤʤǰꤷΤǤʤѼԤѤξ˱Ū˷ΤȤ뤳ǧθؤγǰѤϡǰʥƥˤβɽ˸복ǰγĥΤͭǤ롥p. vii--viii
Ụ̄ˤ복ǰ⤦ܤȡΤ褦ˤʤʡ#1931. ǰỤ̄ ([2014-08-10-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
ǰ (concept) ȤϡʪƥˤȤİ뤳ȤޤǧǡǧϻʪθŪŪħӽŪܼŪǤФ뤳Ȥˤä롥p. 13--14
Τ褦ˡỤ̄ˤơΰ̣ʡᳵǰˤȤϵҴŪŪǷޤäΤȤǤ롥ǧΰ̣ΩǤϡΰ̣ʡᳵǰˤȤϼŪưŪǷޤʤήΤȤǤ롥
30ǯۤɤδ֤˵ĹƤǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) ʬˤϡʸˡʤɤγɤˤŵŪʡ줾Ȥʶ̾櫓ǤϤʤʤΰ̣ˤ˴ؤ͡ʴؿäʣθԤˤ䤫˸Ʊ˶̤ǧۤƤ̡ƬƤʬǤ롥δˤ䤫ʶǧΤĤȤϡë (7) ˤȡΤΤǤ롥
ȤФϡֵפǤ롥Ĥޤꡤַפȡְ̣פηӤĤΩäƤ롥
ȤФΡַפ㤨Сְ̣פɬ㤦
Ʊַפ˷ӤḤ̂ʣ硤ΰ̣ߤ˴Ϣ1ĤΤޤȤޤƤ롥
ȤФΡְ̣פϡҴŪʰ̣Ƥ˸¤餺䤬ɤΤ褦ªȤǧŪʺѤޤǤ롥
4ܤǼƤ褦ˡǧΰ̣ˤƤϡȤФΰ̣ʡᳵǰˤϤޤήưŪʤΤǤ롥
ë سؤӤΥǧθء١ҤĤ˼2006ǯ
ԡˡذ̣١īҽŹ2012ǯ
Hughes (xvii--viii) ϡ A History of English Words ǡûˤȼˤǰƬ֤̻ˤŻ뤷ѸǯɽͿƤ롥άǯɽǤϤ뤬Ȥ櫓ûˡȤδϢ̤˲ФƤǡԤƩƸǯɽǤ롥
| 410 | Departure of the Roman legions |
| c.449 | The Invasion of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians |
| 597 | The Coming of Christianity |
| 731 | Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People |
| 787 | The first recorded Scandinavian raids |
| 871--99 | Alfred King of Wessex |
| 900--1000 | Approximate date of Anglo-Saxon poetry collections |
| 1016--42 | Canute King of England, Scotland and Denmark |
| 1066 | The Norman Conquest |
| c.1150 | Earliest Middle English texts |
| 1204 | Loss of Calais |
| 1362 | English restored as language of Parliament and the law |
| 1370--1400 | The works of Chaucer, Langland and the Gawain poet |
| 1384 | Wycliffite translation of the Bible |
| 1476 | Caxton sets up his press at Westminster |
| 1525 | Tyndale's translation of the Bible |
| 1549 | The Book of Common Prayer |
| 1552 | Early canting dictionaries |
| 1584 | Roanoke settlement of America (abortive) |
| 1590--16610 | Shakespeare's main creative period |
| 1603 | Act of Union between England and Scotland |
| 1604 | Robert Cawdrey's Table Alphabeticall |
| 1607 | Jamestown settlement in America |
| 1609 | English settlement of Jamaica |
| 1611 | Authorized Version of the Bible |
| 1619 | First Arrival of slaves in America |
| 1620 | Arrival of Pilgrim fathers in America |
| 1623 | Shakespeare's First Folio published |
| 1649--60 | Puritan Commonwealth: closure of the theatres |
| 1660 | Restoration of the monarchy |
| 1667 | Milton's Paradise Lost |
| 1721 | Nathaniel Bailey's Universal Etymological English Dictionary |
| 1755 | Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language |
| 1762--94 | Grammars published by Lowth, Murray, etc. |
| 1765 | Beginning of the English Raj in India |
| 1776 | Declaration of American Independence |
| 1788 | Establishment of the first penal colony in Australia |
| 1828 | Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language |
| 1884--1928 | Publication of the Oxford English Dictionary |
| 1903 | Daily Mirror published as the first tabloid |
| 1922 | Establishment of the BBC |
| 1947 | Independence of India |
| 1957--72 | Independence of various African, Asian and Caribbean states |
| 1961 | Third edition of Webster's Dictionary |
| 1968 | Abolition of the post of Lord Chancellor |
| 1989 | Second edition of the Oxford English Dictionary |
ΰ̣Ѳͽ¬ԲǽǤ뤳Ȥϡ¾θѲƱͤǤ롥Ǥ˵ạ̈Ѳ椹뤳ȤϽפ狼뤳Ȥϰ̣ѲΰŪʷǤꡤΰ̣Ѳͽ¬ۤɤηϤϤʤ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) ǡˡ§פ̾ͤ뤫⤷ʤ̣Ѳ⤷줬¤ȤƤ㳰㳰ȤۤȤɤϡ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) #1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1])#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) Ǽ褦ʰ̣ѲΰŪʷǤ롥
Brinton and Arnovick (87) ϡΤ褦ʷŦƤ롥
롥Τ˼ؤϿɤĤʤȤ⤢롥ex. desultory (slow, aimlessly, despondently), peruse (to skim or read casually)
Ūʰ̣Ūʰ̣ءex. understand
ΩŪʰ̣ΩŪʰ̣ءex. esteem (cf. #1099. Ҥηƻɾηƻ ([2012-04-30-1])#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤 ([2012-05-01-1])#1400. relational adjective qualitative adjective ؤΰ̣Ѳθưϡ ([2013-02-25-1]))
Ūʰ̣ޤ뷹ex. awful
Ūʸưʪ䲼ο͡ɽ魯ɽ顥ex. rat, villain
ŪɽŪʷи˴Ťex. mouth of a river
ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ΰ
Ե§Ѳϡ쳰Ūװˤ餵䤹̾ˤȤ櫓Ǥ
⤦1ġ̣ѲΰŪʷȤϡ켫ΤüȸƤ֤٤ˤựѲ餫ηǤȤˤȤȤƤ褤¤ǻȤ Brinton and Arnovick ⡤"Of all the components of language, lexical meaning is most susceptible to change. Semantics is not rule-governed in the same way that grammar is because the connection between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional." (76) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ޤ̣ѲˤĤơ (106) ϰʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Ȥ졦¯Ǥϰ̣ѲȯǤ롥٤ȡʸˡѲϤʤޤǡ餯ΤǤȵŤΤϤ鷺ѲϡܸΡ֤ȴȤСפΤ褦ˡ⤦Ť䤹Ǥ̣Ѳ˭٤٤ΩʤǤϡʤ̣Ѳ (semantic change) Ϥۤˤ˵Τϡ餯̣Ѳǥ (discourse) ˤŪĤߤľΤǤ롥
Ǹʸơ (130) ϡְ̣ãθưǤǥˤ륳ߥ˥ưŪľܷӤĤƤ뤫ǤפȷƤ롥
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ְ̣Ѳסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ106--33ǡ
Brinton and Arnovick (87) ˡΰ̣Ѳ⤷ʸܤäƤѤäƤʤΰ̣ѲƤޤäȤˤꡤ츫̤αʸ˸ΤμºݤɤỌ̇̄뤤̷褿ȤʸϤ
He was a happy and sad girl who lived in a town forty miles from the closest neighbor. His unmarried sister, a wife who was a vegetarian teetotaler, ate meat and drank liquor three times a day. She was so fond of oatmeal bread made from the corn her brother grew that she starved from overeating. He fed nuts to the deer that lived in the branches of an apple tree which bore pears. A silly and wise boor everyone liked, he was a lewd man whom the general censure held to be a model of chastity. (adapted from John Algeo and Carmen Acevedo Butcher. 2005. Problems in the Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th edn. Boston: Thomson-Wadsworth, pp. 224--5.)
ֻǼ줬̣ѲФǤ롥ԤθǤϤʤϼ줿ĤƤθȤȡʸϤϤäỌ̤̇̄褦ˤʤ롥ʲƸˤĤơŤȷи̣ѲΥפޤȤcf. #473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])ˡ
| Word | Old meaning | Type of semantic change | See also: |
|---|---|---|---|
| sad | sober | metonymy | |
| girl | youth | specialisation | |
| town | small enclosure | cultural change | #1395. up and down ([2013-02-20-1]) |
| wife | woman | specialisation | #223. woman ȯֻ ([2009-12-06-1]) |
| meat | food | specialisation | #780. ٥ꥢ meat ([2011-06-16-1]) |
| liquor | liquid | specialisation | |
| corn | grain | specialisation | |
| starve | die | specialisation, weakening | #596. die ([2010-12-14-1]) |
| deer | animal | specialisation | #127. deer, beast, and animal ([2009-09-01-1]) #128. deer Ρưʪפΰ̣ϤĤޤǻĤäƤ ([2009-09-02-1]) |
| apple | fruit | specialisation | |
| silly | blessed | pejoration | #505. silly ΰ̣Ѳ ([2010-09-14-1]) |
| boor | farmer | pejoration | |
| lewd | lay | pejoration | |
| censure | opinion | pejoration, metonymy |
#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) ƱΤStern βɮ (10) ˡ̣Ѳ7ʬबäȤ狼䤹ޤȤƤ
A ????????
i (substitution)
(a) ؼоݤʪŪѲ: house, ship, telephone
(b) ؼоݤ˴ؤμѲ: atom, electricity
(c) ؼоݤФ٤Ѳ: scholasticism, Home Rule
B Ūװ
I ɽطο
ii ?? (analogy)
(a) : reversion [reversal Ȥ٤Ȥ]
(b) Ū: red letter day black letter day
(c) Ū: bless ? bliss, start naked ? stark naked
iii (shortening)
(a) û: pop < popular concert, props < properties
(b) ??????: fall (of the leaf), (sewing) machine
II ؼطο
iv ̿̾ (nomination)
(a) ̿̾: Kodak, Tono-Bungay
(b) ž: labyrinth [of the ear], crane տŪ
(c) : the herring-pond (= the Atlantic)
v 転移 (transfer)
(a) ˴Ť: pyramid, saddle ('')
(b) ¾δط˴Ť: pigtails (= China men)
III Ūطο
vi 崹 (permutation) տŪ
(a) 黺ʪ: copper, nickel
(b) ƴ狼Ƥ: tub, wardrobe
(c) ʬΤ: bureau, dungeon etc.
vii Ŭ (adequation): horn ('' 'ū' 'ۥ')

iv (b)--(c) ȡStern Ȥɤ (fluctuation) ȤΤͿ v--vii ϰտŪտŪȤĤˤäƶ̤졤ŪˤƱƱϰϤǤ롥̤γ٤餤Сबΰ̣ѲפȤߤƤɤפϡãξ̤̾ǵ붦ŪžܼŪѤ꤬ʤȤȤˤʤ롥̻Ụ̄餫齤ؤؤηФߤƤStern Ű줷ؼˤäƤοͳ餫ˤʤäȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥٤ƤθѲθư˺Ƥ롤̤ΤȤФǤжŪˤäǽǤȤ Paul (1880) ΤȤФ̻Ụ̄ϤʳǤϤäǧȤˤʤ롥
ϡStern ˤȤäƤ̻Ụ̄ˤȤäƤʤȤˡ̻Ụ̄϶Ūʰ̣θݤ졤˵ۤޤ褦ˤƼΰյǤƤäȤɾ Stern ˤȤäʤȤˡ̣θƤȾʬˤϡỤ̄ˤƹθ٤ΩƤꡤνǤƤʤȤǤϡỤ̄Ụ̄ºỤ̄Ụ̄ͭỤ̣̄ŬϰϡỤ̄طỤ̄͡ʤɤζ̤Ƥ롥
Stern ̻ŪǤϤʤŪʹǧƽȤɾϡ⤷ʤȤΤϡ#1686. Ụ̄άˡ ([2013-12-08-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŪʰ̣ǤؤˤȼΰäƤ뤫ɤСϲ̣ˤ̣Ѳˤ衤غŪʥץǸ椵Τ̤ˤʤäƤĤޤꡤ줽ΤΤغŪʥץʤǤϸǤʤʤäƤƤ롥ˤƤ⡤̣ˤˤ Stern θŵȤƤβͤǤʤ
˰졤 塤 ŵ ԡˡذ̣١ұѸʸꡡ7ҡ2005ǯ
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow