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2014-08-31 Sun

#1952. Ųפ Your Majesty ˤߤɰ [honorific][title][address_term][politeness][euphemism][rhetoric][metonymy][personal_pronoun][bible][t/v_distinction]

ɸܸɽȱѸɽϡ줾ŷĤȹ񲦤ؼƾΤǤηɰդɽ魯ɽˤ politeness euphemism άʣޤƤꡤ褯ޤǹפȻפ碌ȤʤäƤ롥
Ųפϸ¤˾볬ʤβؤˤϼ輡ζäꡤζäͳơãबŷĤξʹã뤳ȤˤʤäƤϾɽ魯ˤꤽˤ輡Ū˻ؼˤμ輡ؼ뤳ȤˤˤŷĤŪ˻ؼΤ顤2Ťδ (metonymy) Ǥꡤݥ饤ȥͥռնɽǤ⤢롥ַɤƱ󤶤פζפޤֲפȿո־פݱʤ۵ŷĤλżǡ˽ˡ (litotes) θ̤ʻġɽȤƤŷҤηɾΤȤѤƤΤܤˤäΤǤꡤŤŷĤˤϤष²פξι椬դ줿ʹߡļŵϤεˤꡤŷĤȻˤϡŲסʳι²ˤϡ²פȻȤʬ졤˻äƤ롥
Ѹ Your Majesty ⡤ݥ饤ȥͥάϡŲפ餱Ƥʤޤ#440. ˻ĤɾΤ you ([2010-07-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡYour ΤΤɰդޤǤ (cf. t/v_distinction) ˡMajesty Ϥ켫Ȥΰ̣Ȥƻɽ路Ƥ롥äơλȤŪˤäơŪʲŪ˻ؼƤ롥ˤϡȤˤն롥ʤŪˤäƶŪʿͤʪؤϡShe is our last hope., His latest novel is a complete failure., Our daughter is a great pride and joy to us. Τ褦ɽˤ⸫뤳ȤǤȤȤưŪʤΤǤ (cf. Stern 319--20)
ʤMajesty ΤˡνФϡOED ˤȡ14ȾǤ롥

a1387. J. Trevisa tr. R. Higden Polychron. (St. John's Cambr.) (1872) IV. 9 (MED), Whanne Alisaundre..wente toward his owne contray, þe messangers..of Affrica, of Spayne, and of Italy come in to Babilon to ȝilde hem to his lordschipe and mageste [L. ejus ditioni].


ηɾΤȤ夷Τ17ΤȤǤꡤˤ Henry III Queen Elizabeth I Your Grace Your Highness ȸƤФʤɡؤJames I 줿 The Authorised Version (The King James Version [KJV]) ǤϡYour Highness Your Majesty ȤѤƤ롥
ŲסYour MajestyƴϢ뤤Ĥɽϡ줾ۤʤݥ饤ȥͥȥƥˤäƤǤϤ뤬ǹ٤ηɰդɽ魯˺Ф줿ۤɹߤ¤Ǥ롥顪

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.

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2014-08-30 Sat

#1951. Ѹΰ [shortening][personal_name][suffix][onomastics][metanalysis][term_of_endearment][hypocorism]

(pet name) 俷 (term of endearment) ϡŪˤ hypocorism ȸƤФ롥ꥷ hupo- "hypo-" + kórisma (cf. kóros (child))) ƤꡤҶ򤢤䤹ɽȤȤǤ롥Ѹ hypocorism κˤϤĤ뤬ŵŪʤΤ Robert Rob Τ褦˸ûΤǤ롥ε#1950. ʤ Bill William ΰΤˤʤΤ ([2014-08-29-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡƬ˲ѰۤȼΤ⤢ꡤEdward Ned (cf. mine Ed), Edward Ted (cf. that Ed?), Ann Nan (cf. mine Ann) Τ褦ǤȤΰʬϤȤ뤳Ȥ롥
ۤˡ (hypocoristic suffix) -y -ie ղä Georgie, Charlie, Johnnie ʤɤ㤬ꡤȤ櫓̾˹ޤ롥ޤṳ̂Ĥ Elizabeth Betty, William Billy, Richard Ritchie ʤɤ¿ΰ۷Ȥ -sy, -sie ⤢ꡤElizabeth Betsy/Bessy, Anne Nancy, Patricia Patsy ʤɤˤߤ롥
ؿѸؼŵ (542) ˤСŪˤϡղäδ15溢 Charlie ʤɤåȥɤǻϤޤꡤ줬16ʹߤ˳Ϥ˹ޤäΤȤ롥ޤظʸˡŵ (670) ˤСϰΤǤ뤫̾ǤϤʤä18̾ȤƤǧ褦ˤʤä
OALD8 δ "Common first names" Ȥ䤬ꡤά̾䰦ΤΤˤĤƤϡǺܤƤ롥ʲФΤˤʳ̤դΤϡ̤λͿ޽񤫤­Ρˡ

1. Female names

AbigailAbbie
AlexandraAlex, Sandy
AmandaMandy
Catherine, Katherine, Katharine, KathrynCathy, Kathy, Kate, Katie, Katy
ChristinaChrissie, Tina
ChristineChris
DeborahDebbie, Deb
Diana, DianeDi
(Dorothy)(Dol)
EleanorEllie
ElizaLiza
Elizabeth, ElizabethBeth, Betsy, Betty, Liz, Lizzie
Ellen, HelenNell
FrancesFran
GeorginaGeorgie
GillianJill, Gill, Jilly
GwendolineGwen
JacquelineJackie
JanetJan
Janice, JanisJan
JenniferJenny, Jen
JessicaJess
JosephineJo, Josie
JudithJudy
KristenKirsty
MargaretMaggie, (Meg, Peg)
(Mary)(Moll, Poll)
NicolaNicky
PamelaPam
PatriciaPat, Patty
PenelopePenny
PhilippaPippa
RebeccaBecky
Rosalind, RosalynRos
SamanthaSam
SandraSandy
SusanSue, Susie, Suzy
Susanna(h), SuzanneSusie, Suzy
Teresa, TheresaTessa, Tess
ValerieVal
VictoriaVicki, Vickie, Vicky, Vikki
WinifredWinnie


2. Male names

AlbertAl, Bert
AlexanderAlex, Sandy
AlfredAlfie
AndrewAndy
(Anthony)(Tony)
BenjaminBen
BernardBernie
(Boswell)(Boz)
BradfordBrad
CharlesCharlie, Chuck
ChristopherChris
CliffordCliff
DanielDan, Danny
DavidDave
DouglasDoug
EdwardEd, Eddie, Eddy, (Ned), Ted
EugeneGene
FrancisFrank
FrederickFred, Freddie, Freddy
Geoffrey, JeffreyGeoff, Jeff
GeraldGerry, Jerry
GregoryGreg
HenryHank, Harry
HerbertBert, Herb
JacobJake
JamesJim, Jimmy, Jamie
JeremyJerry
John
Johnny
JonathanJon
JosephJoe
KennethKen, Kenny
Laurence, LawrenceLarry, Laurie
LeonardLen, Lenny
LeslieLes
LewisLew
LouisLou
(Macaulay)(Mac)
MatthewMatt
MichaelMike, Mick, Micky, Mickey
NathanNat
NathanielNat
NicholasNick, Nicky
PatrickPat, Paddy
(Pendennis)(Pen)
Peter, Pete
PhilipPhil
Randolph, RandolfRandy
RaymondRay
RichardRick, Ricky, Ritchie, Dick
RobertRob, Robbie, Bob, Bobby
RonaldRon, Ronnie
SamuelSam, Sammy
SebastianSeb
Sidney, SydneySid
StanleyStan
Stephen, StevenSteve
TerenceTerry
TheodoreTheo
ThomasTom, Tommy
TimothyTim
VictorVic
VincentVince
WilliamBill, Billy, Will, Willy


⿮ ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
ͺ° ̭ ԡظʸˡŵ١Ʋ1992ǯ

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2014-08-29 Fri

#1950. ʤ Bill William ΰΤˤʤΤ [shortening][rhyme][personal_name][onomastics][sobokunagimon]

ɸˤĤƤϡWilliam Will ȰŪûФ塤 rhyming slang cf. #1459. Cockney rhyming slang ([2013-04-25-1])ˤˤ Bill ȤʤäΤȻפäƤʤ /w/ /v/ /f/ /p/ ǤϤʤ /b/ ִ줿ΤϤäꤷʤRichard Dick, Robert Bob ˤĤƤƱͤˤĤƤ䤷ƤȤˡStern (262) ̤⤬ƤƤΤǾҲ𤹤롥

I may mention here the phenomenon termed by Sundén pseudo-ellipsis (Sundén, Ell. Words 141 sqq.). Bob has been considered a hypochoristic [sic] shortening of Robert. But why should R- be changed into B-? Sundén points out that there existed in OE the proper names Boba, Bobba, Bobing, and in ME Bobbe, Bobin, Bobbet. Robert was introduced into England through the Norman conquest; a shortening of Robert gave Rob or Robbe, which are also instanced in ME. We have thus Bobbe and Robbe, of different origin, but both of them proper names. It is reasonable to assume that the two names were confused, and Bobbe apprehended as a short form of Robert. Sundén is able to show that a similar process is probable for William --- Bill, Richard --- Dick, Amelia --- Emy, Edward or Edmund --- Ted, Isabella --- Tib, James --- Jem, Jim, and others. We have here a double process: shortening plus phonetic associative interference . . . .


̷⤷ʤRobert Ƴ Bob Ȥ̾äȤСrhyming slang ͳǤ첻ŪʴϢˤΤǤ졤Rob Bob ϢŤ줿ȤƤԻ׵ĤǤϤʤ
̼ϾɴȤ̾ŪȯǤ3⡼ǤĹΤǡ֤פȸƤ֤Ȥ⤢С֤ߡפȸƤ֤Ȥ⤢롥Ԥ֤פǤϤʤΤϡ¿ʬ֤ߡפΤۤŪʽҤ̾Ȥ¿ˡʹƤꡤ䤹顤Ĥδ֤ˤžƸ경ƤޤäΤʤȼʬϤƤˡΤ䤢̾ϡؼоݤʤФʤʤȤ¤ΤȤǤΰθͷӤȹͤ뤫顤衤¿¤˭ʤΤΤϤǤ롥

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.

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2014-08-28 Thu

#1949. ²ȤθüԿ [statistics][world_languages][language_family][demography]

#270. θοϤʤΤİǤʤ ([2010-01-22-1])#1060. θοȤȡ ([2012-03-22-1])#274. üԿ ([2010-01-26-1])#398. ²͸Ⱦʬ᤯ ([2010-05-30-1]) ʤɤεǡθο䤽줾üԿˤƤμפ񤷤ϺƻŦƤǧ᤿ǡϸ² (language_family) ȤθȤüԿפ򼨤ȤϤäƤ⡤W. Bright Ԥθɴʻŵ (International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. New York and Oxford: OUP, 1992.) ˵äƤ Crystal (289) ͤμˤʤ1980ǯȾߤοפǤ롥

Language FamilyLanguagesSpeakers
Indo-European3862,500,000,000
Sino-Tibetan2721,088,000,000
Austronesian1212269,000,000
Afro-Asiatic338250,000,000
Niger-Congo1354206,000,000
Dravidian70165,000,000
Japanese12126,000,000
Altaic60115,000,000
Austro-Asiatic17375,000,000
Tai6175,000,000
Korean160,000,000
Nilo-Saharan18628,000,000
Uralic3324,000,000
Amerindian (North, Central, South America)98522,400,000
Caucasian387,800,000
Miao-Yao155,600,000
Indo-Pacific7343,500,000
Khoisan37300,000
Australian aborigine26230,000
Palaeosiberian818,000
Isolates2962,000,000
Total6,5335,022,648,000


οפˤϡ310λǤ졤71 pidgin/creole75μøޤޤƤ롥绨ĤʿפǤ뤳ȤмषĤĤ⡤²üԤϡΡ͸Ⱦʬô²Ǥ뤳ȤΤ롥ʲϡͤޤǤˡοޤ򼨤ӥդˤΤǤ롥

Numbers of Languages and Speakers by the Language Family

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.

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2014-08-27 Wed

#1948. Addison clipping Ƚ [clipping][shortening][slang][prescriptive_grammar][shortening][clipping][swift][genitive][clitic][complaint_tradition]

εǤϡ#1947. Swift clipping Ƚ([2014-08-26-1]) ˤĤƸSwift ƱͤǤ Joseph Addison (1672--1719) ⡤򤸤ˤۤƱ򷫤깭Ƥ롥

Joseph Addison launched an attack on monosyllables in the Spectator (135, 4 August 1711):

The English Language . . . abound[s] in monosyllables, which gives an Opportunity of delivering our Thoughts in few Sounds. This indeed takes off from the Elegance of our Tongue, but at the same time expresses our Ideas in the readiest manner.


He observes that some past-tense forms --- e.g. drown'd, walk'd, arriv'd --- in which the -ed had formerly been pronounced as a separate syllable (as we still do in the adjectives blessed and aged) had become monosyllables. A similar situation is found in the case of drowns, walks, arrives, 'which in the Pronunciation of our Forefathers were drowneth, walketh, arriveth'. He objects to the genitive 's, which he incorrectly assumes to be a reduction of his and her, and for which he in any case gives no examples. He asserts that the contractions mayn't, can't, sha'n't, wo'n't have 'much untuned our Language, and clogged it with Consonants'. He dismisses abbreviations such as mob., rep., pos., incog. as ridiculous, and complains about the use of short nicknames such as Nick and Jack.


ư -ed ˲ä -es Ჽͭʤ 'sܼ n't ̤˵󤬤äƤ롥 Nick Jack ˤޤ̷褬ڤǤ뤫顤ϤϤθȤΤȤˤʤäƤ롥
Addison ˤȤäƤԹʤȤˡ񤵤Ƥܤ¿ϸɸѸdzΩ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Addison ˤ Swift ˤڳñ첽ɤޤܵǷäƤΤϤ狼ʤषˤϤӤֱѸפɤ٤ǥߡΩ뤿θ¤Ȥơ̤˵󤲤Τñ첽䤽¾κ٤ʹܤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤ⤷ȤȡǤϤΤΡܼŪưŪäȤȤˤʤϼŪʸϡƤȤޤǤDzȤ餽þ뱿̿Ǥ롥ϡͤŤƤ뤫ݤ̤Ȥơ礭ŪΤμʤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿褦˻פ (cf. #468. ꥫȤ Webster ([2010-08-08-1]))
ʤͭʤ 's his ξάǤȤ Addison λŦˤĤƤϡѸˤΩ줫϶̣˴ؤơ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1])#1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])#1479. his °ʤο ([2013-05-15-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.

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2014-08-26 Tue

#1947. Swift clipping Ƚ [clipping][shortening][slang][prescriptive_grammar][shortening][clipping][swift][complaint_tradition]

ε#1946. ǽŪʴߤû ([2014-08-25-1]) 񤭤ʤ顤ѸˤˤƸû shorteningȤ櫓ڳ (clipping) äʸ۵1712ǯ˥ǥߡΩƤۤɤޤǤ˸Ǥʸ Jonathan Swift (1667--1745) Ǥ롥#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1]) #141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1]) Ǿ줿̤ꡤSwift ϡλôȤαѸΡפͫθѸ "refine" "fix" 褦ȴޤΤä
Swift ͫθƤܤϤĤ뤬Ȥ櫓ñΤķڤʤä褦Ū˥ޥ°ֶޤο캬ξ ([2011-02-11-1]) Ǽ褦ñΡָ캬פϤ餺ĤˤäѸˤȤäơSwift ñؤηϡޤ˼ȿ뤳ȤäǤ⡤Swift ñ򡤤뤤ϤΤˤñ첽򡤤Swift θ˴ؤϡBaugh and Cable (259) "Taking his writings as a whole, one may surmise that he would have preferred that the seventeenth century, at least after 1640, with its political, commercial, and scientific revolutions had never happened." ɾƤۤɤݼŪä
դˤСΤȤϡñ첽ˤ˵äƤڵǤ⤢롥Swift ̤˵󤲤Τϡrep (< reputation) mob (< mobile) ʤɤڳǤ롥Baugh and Cable (259) ꡤѤ褦

The things that specifically troubled the gloomy dean in his reflections on the current speech were chiefly innovations that he says had been growing up in the last twenty years. One of these was the tendency to clip and shorten words that should have retained their full polysyllabic dignity. He would have objected to taxi, phone, bus, ad, and the like, as he did to rep, mob, penult, and others. The practice seems to have been a temporary fad, although not unknown to any period of the language.


εƤȹ碌ƹͤȡSwift Ϥڳظ˴롤罰 "desire for emotive effects" ɡʤʤäΤ⤷ʤˤäޤ٤Ȥ̤Ф Swift ٤ݼŪʸؤȯŸƤäΤȻפ롥
Swift ڳؤηϡ٤ϼؤѤ줿Ƥ Baugh and Cable (259--60) Ѥ롥

Thus George Campbell in his Philosophy of Rhetoric (1776) says: "I shall just mention another set of barbarisms, which also comes under this class, and arises from the abbreviation of polysyllables, by lopping off all the syllables except the first, or the first and second. Instances of this are hyp for hypochondriac, rep for reputation, ult for ultimate, penult for penultimate, incog for incognito, hyper for hypercritic, extra for extraordinary.


Τ̤˵󤲤줿ڳϤ褽ˤϻĤʤäΤǡSwift Campbell Ƥ顤ȤƤȤmob 㳰ǡߤޤĤäƤ롥
ϢơSwift deudg'd, disturb'd, rebuk'd, fledg'd Τ褦ʲʬ -ed Ჽ⡤ñᲽǤꡤƱͤ˴򤹤٤άȹͤƤϾ嵭¿ڳȤϰۤʤꡤˤܴۤɸѸˤ夹뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#776. ʬƻ -ed Ჽ ([2011-06-12-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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2014-08-25 Mon

#1946. ǽŪʴߤû [shortening][clipping][word_formation][morphology][function_of_language][style][semantics][semantic_change][euphemism][language_change][slang]

shortening ûˤȤϡˤƽפˤˤߤˡ1ĤǤ롥ѸˤǤߤƤ⡤Ȥ櫓Ѹ shortening ˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥϡ#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1]) dzǧϢơ#893. shortening ʬ (1) ([2011-10-07-1])#894. shortening ʬ (2) ([2011-10-08-1]) Ǥûˤ͡ʼब뤳Ȥǧ#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])#1102. Zipf's law ȸοա ([2012-05-03-1]) ǤϾãθΨȤûͻ
嵭Τ褦ˡûϼȤƷȤơ뤤ϾȤδϢǸΤ̤Stern ϵǽỤ̄ŪʴûβܤƤ롥Stern ϡ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) Ǽ褦ˡụ̂ѲʬΤʤ˴ޤƤ롥٤Ƥụ̂Ѳȼ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ʤ㤨 private soldier ʼ´ˤ private ûȤ¸θʷƻˤǤ private Ͽʡ̾Ρ˸Ȥˤʤꡤδߤа̣ѲȤˤʤ롥
private soldier Τ褦ˡṳ̂θ¸θƱȤʤ뤿˰̣ѲȤȤ̤ˡrhinoceros rhino, advertisement ad ʤɤ clipping ڳˤΤ褦ˡ̤θùܤȤʤ륱롥Ǥΰ̣ǤΡְ̣ѲפϤʤ̣Ū˸٤ΤϤʤ褦ˤפ뤬rhinoceros rhino ΰ̣κadvertisement ad ΰ̣κ⤷ȤСûϰ̣ŪʴްդȤȤˤʤ롥
Stern (256) ϡûŪʲǤȤȤˡǽŪʴפʲǤȤߤƤ롥ºݡûθΤʤǺǽפΤΤϡǽŪװǤȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥Stern (256) μĥѤ롥

Starting with the communicative and symbolic functions, I have already pointed out above . . . that brevity may conduce to a better understanding, and too many words confuse the point at issue; the picking out of a few salient items may give a better idea of the topic than prolonged wallowing in details; the hearer may understand the shortened expression quicker and better.
   The expressive function is partly covered by signals, but a shortened expression by itself may, owing to its unusual and perhaps ungrammatical, form, reflect better the speaker's emotional state and make the hearer aware of it. Clippings are very often intended to make the words express sympathy or endearment towards the persons addressed; nursery speech abounds in nighties, tootsies, etc., and clippings of proper names, transforming them into pet names, are often due to a similar desire for emotive effects . . . . The numerous shortenings (clippings) in slang and cant often aim at a humourous effect.
   Conciseness and brevity increase vivacity, and thus also the effectiveness of speech; brevity is the soul of wit; the purposive function may consequently be better served by shortened phrases.


ΤеŪʴûߤˤȤɤޤ餺ѤŪɽϡʸΤȤäǽŪ¦̤ûȤ館ƶϡStern ǡȤǤ롥֤û뤳ȤǤषǽղä⤬̣
ѤʸϤǸڤƤնɽ nighties ȴϢơ#908. bra, panties, nightie ([2011-10-22-1]) ڤӡ#469. euphemism κ ([2010-08-09-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.

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2014-08-24 Sun

#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ [typology][loan_word][latin][oe][christianity][borrowing][statistics]

#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1]) ³ơűѸΥƥѸꡥűѸˤƥѸοϡˤ뤬ɴĤȤ롥򻲾Ȥ Miller (53) ϡο600--700ĤۤɤȸѤäƤ롥

Old English had some 600--700 loanwords from Latin, about 500 of which are common to Northwest Germanic . . ., and 287 of which are ultimately from Greek, seventy-nine via Christianity . . . .


ĿȤȤ˳ꤷΤϤ줾μѸμǯǤ롥[2013-04-03-1]εǤϡSerjeantson ˽äƼǯ (i) Φ塤(ii) c. 450--c. 650, (iii) c. 650--c. 1100 3ʬƼ¿ԤˤäƺѤƤŪʻʬǤ롥ȤۤܽŤʤ뤬4μѤȤäʲ4ʬƤƤ롥

(1) continental borrowings
(2) insular borrowings during the settlement phase [c. 450--600]
(3) borrowings [600+] from christianization
(4) learned borrowings that accompanied and followed the Benedictine Reform [c10e]

4ʬ򤵤˺٤ Dennis H. Green (Language and History in the Early Germanic World. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.) ˤʬ⤢ꡤMiller (54) Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥줾ħˤĤ Miller Ѥ˴ñդ

(1a) an early continental phase, when the Angles and Saxons were in Schleswig-Holstein (contact with merchants) and on the North Sea littoral as far as the mouth of the Ems (direct contact with the Romans)
ϾʤȤƾȸ줬¿ޤξʡƻʤɡwine ŵ㡥
(1b) a later continental period, when the Angles and Saxons had penetrated to the litus Saxonicum (Flanders and Normandy)
饤ϸǥ޿ͤȤľܿƼѤ줿Ȼפ street, tile ŵ㡥
(2a) an early phase, featuring possible borrowing via Celtic
λ°ȻפϡꥢäƤ¯ƥȲŪ˰פƤꡤ֥ƥǤμѤɤϵ路Ȥ⤤롥
(2b) a later phase, with loans from the continental Franks as part of their influence across the Channel, especially on Kent
(3) begins "with the coming of Augustine and his 40 companions in 597, and possibly even at an earlier date, with the arrival of Bishop Liudhard in the retinue of Queen Bertha of Kent in the 560s"
λμѸϸűѸβѲۤȤɼʤǡ¾λΤΤȰۤʤäƤ롥¿϶ƥѸǤ롥
(4) of a learned nature, culled from classical Latin texts, and differ little from the classical written form

ºݤˤϡޤǺ٤ȤꤷƤ⡤Ѹ򤤤ȤˤϤ٤οäƷ褹뤳Ȥ񤷤continental insular Ȥ绨ĤʬǤ񤷤ۣ early later 餤դȤȤ⾯ʤʤ

Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

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2014-08-23 Sat

#1944. 츻Ūֻ෿ [etymological_respelling][spelling_pronunciation][spelling_pronunciation_gap][typology]

Ѹ濴Ȥƥ˴Ť츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ϡ#192. etymological respelling (2) ([2009-11-05-1]) ˵󤲤ΤˤȤɤޤ餺ʤ餺롥θ츻ŪֻʬˡϤĤͤ뤬ֻƳ줿塤äȯȤδطɤʤäȤϡ3Ĥμʬह뤳ȤǤ롥ʲ (241--43) ˵äƼ

(1) ֻ˹碌ȯѤäΡʤֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) ε#1943. Holofernes --- 츻Ūֻ黿ԡ ([2014-08-22-1]) Ǥ Holofernes ŪʤΡ

MEMod. ELatin
savaciounsalvationsalvātiō
fautefault*fallitus
saumepsalmpsalmus
fauconfalconfalcōn
caudrouncauldroncaldārium
auteralteraltāria
distraitdistracteddistractus
parfitperfectperfectus
descryvedescribedescrībere
suget, sugietsubjectsubjectus
egalequalaequālis


(2) ֻ˹碌ȯѤʤäΡʷ̤ȤֻȯЪΥ (spelling_pronunciation_gap) Ρ

MEModELatin
det, dettedebtdebitum
dote, dutedoubtdubitāre
sutil, satilsubtlesubtilis
receiptreceiptrecepta


(3) ֻ˹碌ȯѤʤäˡֻز󵢤

PDE deceit ME Ǥ <deceite> ֤줿ƥ deceptus ä <deceipt> ֤ʤ줿ޤǤϡ(2) receipt ƱǤ롥<deceipt> <p> ȯʤäˡ䤬ֻ <p> Ť <deceit> ز󵢤deceit receipt ۤƱäˤ⤫餺ϵֻ˲󵢤¾ϿֻˤȤɤޤäΤʤ뤳ȤϤǤʤƱͤˡPDE count ME <counte> ֤Ƥƥ computare 򻲾ȤƤäϸ츻Ūֻ <compt> زޤäϹԤʤƤ˺Ƥ <count> ز󵢤
ѸֻηϤȤߤȡ(1) (3) Ϸ̤Ȥֻȯ̩ʴطˤꡤʤΤ褦ľ˺äơͽ¬Բǽʬۤ (2) 㤬¸ߤƤ뤿ˡѸֻηϤΤȤԵ§ˤߤΤǤ롥ѸֻϡͽԲǽˤλʪǤ롥

졡رѸˡ١罤ۡ1983ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-03-01-1]

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2014-08-22 Fri

#1943. Holofernes --- 츻Ūֻ黿 [shakespeare][etymological_respelling][mulcaster][spelling_pronunciation][silent_letter][orthography][popular_passage]

16ϡƥ˴Ť츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ήԤǤ롥ʳŪĬäơShakespeare Love's Labour's Lost (1594--95) Τʤ Holofernes ʤؼԤо줵Ƥ롥Holofernes ϡ츻Ūֻ黿ԤǤꡤֻƥ˲Ф꤫̤ȯ٤Ȥİֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) 黿ԤǤ⤢롥Holofernes Ͻ Nathanial ȤβäˤơDon Armado ̵ؤ񤷤ʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤롥

He draweth out the thred of his verbositie, finer then the staple of his argument. I abhore such phanaticall phantasims, such insociable and poynt deuise companions, such rackers of ortagriphie, as to speake dout sine b, when he should say doubt; det, when he shold pronounce debt; d e b t, not d e t: he clepeth a Calfe, Caufe: halfe, haufe: neighbour vocatur nebour; neigh abreuiated ne: this is abhominable, which he would call abbominable, it insinuateth me of infamie: ne intelligis domine, to make frantick lunatick? (Love's Labour's Lost, V.i.17--23 qtd. in Horobin, p. 113--14)


Shakespeare ʳؼԤ뤿 Holofernes о줵ºݤ Holofernes ֻȯʸŪȤʤäȤΤϡǿƤ doubt, debt, calf, half, neighbour, neigh, abhominable (PDE abbominable) ΤˤƤ⡤ѸǤλҲȯʤλҲֻȤƤϤθ夷ΤǤꡤHolofernes ˾ߤȾʬϤʤ줿̤ˤʤ롥
ơHolofernes ֻ˹碌ȯѤֻȯפ򾧤षȯ˹碌ֻѤȯֻפʤä櫓ǤϤʤ㤨Сե󥹸줫ѤѸ <delite> ϡǤֻ夷Ƥ <light>, <night> Ʊ첻Ĥˡˤ <delight> ֤ʤ줿ϡȯŻ뤷츻̵뤷ֻѤȤ Holofernes ȤȿФλǤ롥
Ƭ16ϸ츻ŪֻήԤȽҤ٤ºݤˤ16ֻԤˤϡ츻Ż Holofernes Τ褦ʼԤ⤢СȯŻμԤ⤢ä#1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡֻˤ͡ʷ褬蘆äƤShakespeare ⤳Ф뼫ΩʤΤʤǼ褦ȤΤǤϤʤ
ʤHolofernes ζ鳦ν Richard Mulcaster (1530?--1611) ˵Ȥ᤬뤬Mulcaster Ȥϸ츻Ūֻ黿ԤǤϤʤäȤդäƤ

Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.

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2014-08-21 Thu

#1942. 츻Ūֻνᤰä [etymological_respelling][spelling][french][latin][hart]

ε#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1]) ˰³etymological_respelling ꡥѸˤǤϸ츻Ūֻϼ16--17ȤǧƤcf. #1387. 츻ŪֻκѤ17 ([2013-02-12-1])ˡᤤ14--15ǧƤ뤷#653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])#1790. ե󥹤Ǥ16ĺޤ츻ֻ֤ ([2014-03-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ٥ե󥹤Ǥ褯ݤ13ȾƤºݤ˥ե󥹤Ǥ츻Ūֻ16˥ԡޤΤǡθݤˤĤơʩϤ褽Ĵ碌ƤȤˤʤ롥
ե󥹸¦Ǥθ츻ŪֻˤĤƾܤĴƤʤMiller (211) 14꤫ȤƤ롥

Around the end of C14, French orthography began to be influenced by etymology. For instance, doute 'doubt' was written doubte. Around the same time, such etymologically adaptive spellings are found in English . . . ., especially by C16. ME doute [?a1200] was altered to doubt by confrontation with L dubitō and/or contemporaneous F doubte, and the spelling remained despite protests by orthoepists including John Hart (1551) that the word contains an unnecessary letter . . . .


ե󥹸Ǥϰ <doubte> ³17ˤϺƤ <b> æǤ doute äƤ롥
ǤϡѸ¦ǤϤɤdoubt ؤ <b> Ĵ٤ƤߤȡMED ʸˤС15¿㤬󤬤ۤ14 Gower ⻶롥
ƱͤˡOED Ǥ <doubt> ȰʸƤߤȡ15㤬ʤ餺ۤ14ˤ1300ǯ Cursor Mundi ⻶줿رѸ츻ŵ٤Ǥϡdoubt ˤ <b> αѸǤ15ȤʤäƤ뤬ºݤˤϤä᤯㤬äȤˤʤ롥

a1300 Cursor M. (Edinb.) 22604 Saint peter sal be domb þat dai,.. For doubt of demsteris wrek [Cott. wreke].
1393 J. Gower Confessio Amantis I. 230 First ben enformed for to lere A craft, which cleped is facrere. For if facrere come about, Than afterward hem stant no doubt.
1398 J. Trevisa tr. Bartholomew de Glanville De Proprietatibus Rerum (1495) xvi. xlvii. 569 No man shal wene that it is doubt or fals that god hath sette vertue in precyous stones.


˽Ѹ쥳ѥ LAEME <b> ޤֻϸĤʤä

߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

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2014-08-20 Wed

#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ [etymological_respelling][code-switching][bilingualism][latin][silent_letter][etymology][borrowing][grapheme]

Ѹˤϱʩδ֤Ǹڤؤ code-switching ƥȤ뤳Ȥ򡤡#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹν񤭸դˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) εǤߤȤƤϽŪʱʸ件ʸޤʤʤɤλ㤬뤬餬ԤˤڤؤʤΤ뤤ڤؤ˺ݤƲ餫 "social and discourse-pragmatic reasons" äΤȤʤcf. #1627. code-switching code-mixing ([2013-10-10-1]
̾嵭 macaronic code-switching ȤΤϡ硤ᡤʸȤäŪ礭ʸñ̤ǰθ줫¾θڤؤ꾮ñ̡㤨зǤ䲻ǡʸǡˤȤñ̤Ǥ macaronic code-switching ϤꤦΤ⤷ȤСˤⲿ餫 "social and discourse-pragmatic reasons" ؤäƤȹͤΤ
Miller (211) ϡ<doubt> (cf. ME <doute>) ˸褦ʸ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ϥ⤷ macaronic code-switching ˤΤ⤷ʤȿ¬Ƥ롥

Some changes may be due to the macaronic codeswitching between Medieval Latin and Late Middle English in certain poetic texts and especially London accounting records . . . .


ο¬ɤ뤳Ȥ񤷤<doubt> <receipt> Τ褦 <b> <p> ԰٤ϡ¤˺Ĥƥ줫֤ι԰٤Ǥ롥礭ʸñ̤Ǥα֤ڤؤˤ˵äƤʤ¤ꡤκʪΤϡԤή礦2ѼԤǤϤʤƥ򳰹ȤơԽʬˡ˳ؤѸüԤȤȤƥθ츻򻲾Ȥʸ macaronic code-switching ȸƤ֤٤ɤϡɭˤäƤ롥code-switching ȤϲͤϤСbilingualism ȤϲȤƬˤˤ餶ʤޤ#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) ؤäƤ褦<b> <p> 줿ȤϤϤ macaronic code-switching θʤΤ뤤ϥƥμѤʤΤơˤ衤˼ҲŪŪʰտޤϤäΤ
ٴƤȡ츻ֻʳŪĬ΢ǤơּҲŪŪʰյפղä뤳ȤˤϤʤä줿ȤˡΤ褦ʰյտޤäɤϡ¬ΰФʤ
ʾͻǡΤ褦ʴۤä(1) code-switching ʸȤñ̤ǵ뤫ɤ路(2) #653. Ѹˤե󥹼ѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) Ǥߤե󥹸ˤ㤬褦ˡȾüʥƥμ˴ŤѤȤߤʤȤǽʬǤϤʤ(3) ̤ȤƸˡ<b> <p> ˼ҲŪŪʰյդ줿פʤΤǤäơβ code-switching ѤʤɤϳơǤꡤۤɽפǤϤʤβ macaronic text ¸ߤͤƤߤϤʤäΤǡʿ¬ǤϤ롥

Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

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2014-08-19 Tue

#1940. 16ֻԤη [spelling][orthography][emode][spelling_reform][mulcaster][alphabet][grammatology][hart]

ε#1939. 16ˡᤰ ([2014-08-18-1]) ǡֻ̾Ԥ̾󤲤礭ɽε޿ɤβɤʬ롥16ȾФ鼡ؤϢʤ뤽η (64) ˤäƼ

Genealogy of C16 Spelling Reformers

εǽФƤƤʤ̾⤢롥Cheke Smith ϵȴطäȤ顤طԤǤ Waad Laneham ˤɽؤδؿܤä褦ǡ Cheke οֻˡ¹ԤHart Bullokar Waad ˱ƶͿϩȤƤϡMulcaster Edmund Coote (fl. 1597; see Edmund Coote's English School-maister (1596)) 16˱ƶϤ17ˤ Francis Bacon (1561--1626) Ben Jonson (c. 1573--1637) Фơ18 Dr. Johnson (1709--84) ޤϢʤäơϩϡɤΤȤˤޤǻɤƤΤǤ롥
̤ȤƤߤСʤɽ̤ɽʸɸ֤ ޥ󡦥ե٥å (Roman alphabet) ѤѸˤˤơʤɽषȤȤϡʸδϽפʰ̣Ĥ褦˻פ롥ʸˤȤäƺǤפŪȤϡɽ졤뤤ϸȤ鷺Ȥⲿ餫θñ̤ɽ魯ȤǤꡤե٥åȤŵŪäƤɽǽϤŪã뤿μʤˤʤΤǤϤʤɽǽ켫ΤͭѤǤꡤΤƵɬפϤʤɽȤǽŪΤɬפȤ¿ϵˤǤۤɤεǽʤΤǤϤʤ
Τ褦˹ͻǡ#1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])#1829. 񤭸եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1]) εƶ̣

졡رѸػˡ١Ѹ13罤۽Ź1975ǯ

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2014-08-18 Mon

#1939. 16ˡᤰ [punctuation][alphabet][standardisation][spelling][orthography][emode][spelling_reform][mulcaster][spelling_pronunciation_gap][final_e][hart]

16ˤˡ (orthography) ꡤMulcaster Ȥ "right writing" ꤬줿cf. #1407. Ѹ3Ĥ ([2013-03-04-1])ˡѸֻϡˤƱͤˤǤ˺𤷤ƤޤƤβѲˤȯֻЪΥꡤޤޤɽŪǤʤʤäĿͥ٥ǤϤֻηϤռƤĿͤĶ٥ǤϤޤ경ƤʤäĤϥƥˡäδ줿ãˤϡ⤦1ۤɤλ֤ߤɬפäʲȤ Baugh and Cable (208--14) εҤ˰͵򤷡16ˡᤰ⤹롥
Ŀͥ٥ǤϰӤֻηϤܻؤ줿ȽҤ٤ΤʤˤϻŪˤȤɤޤΤ⤢СǤƸˤΤ⤢äŪȤƤϡŵؼԤǤä John Cheke (1514--57) ϡĹ첻첻2Ĥ֤뽬 (ex. taak, haat, maad, mijn, thijn) <e> 뽬 (ex. giv, belev) <y> <i> Ѥ뽬 (ex. mighti, dai) ޤRichard Stanyhurst Virgil (1582) ˺ݤơĹΤɽ魯ֻηϤФ㤨 thee, too, mee, neere, coonning, woorde, yeet ʤɤ֤ä
Ūˤ줿Τϡ1558ǯ˽Ǥ줿ƿ̾ An A. B. C. for Children Ǥ롥Ǥ첻Ĺ򼨤 <e> (ex. made, ride, hope) ʤɤƤ뤬ۤοǤΤߤԽʬʰäŪʻߤȤƺǽ˵󤲤Τϡŵؼ Thomas Smith (1513--77) ˤ1568ǯ Dialogue concerning the Correct and Emended Writing of the English Language Smith ϥե٥åȤ34ʸ䤷Ĺ첻դʤɤϥƥǽ񤫤줿ᡤڤ뤳ȤϤʤä
ǯ1569ǯ³1570ǯJohn Hart (c. 1501--74) An Orthographie A Method or Comfortable Beginning for All Unlearned, Whereby They May Bee Taught to Read English ǤHart ϡ<ch>, <sh>, <th> ʤɤŻ ((digraph)) Фüʸ򤢤ƤʤɤSmith λߤƱ͡޿ŪˤˡޤȤ˼뤳ȤϤʤä
1580ǯWilliam Bullokar (fl. 1586) Booke at large, for the Amendment of Orthographie for English Speech ˽ФSmith Hart οʸƳԤ˽äȤȿ̶դȤΥե٥åȤΤߤֻפܻؤ˥ȵ桤ݥȥեʤɤˤߤʤʸղäᡤ̤Ȥ Smith Hart Ʊʾɤߤˤ٤ˡǤäƤޤä
Smith, Hart, Bullokar ϩϡ17ˤ³1634ǯCharles Butler (c. 1560--1647) The English Grammar, or The Institution of Letters, Syllables, and Woords in the English Tung Ǥ <e> ˵դΥݥȥեѤꡤ<th> <t> դˤʸȤäꤷʾ塤Smith Butler ޤǤε޿ŪɽֻפϤ⼺Ԥ˽ä
嵭ε޿ɤФơݼɡɡ뤤Ť󤸡ֻ경δ򸫤ĤФȤ븽¨ɤȤǤƤ֤٤ϩͼԤϡRichard Mulcaster (1530?--1611) ǤʤαѸ˾ν׿ʪˤĤƤϡ#441. Richard Mulcaster ([2010-07-12-1]) mulcaster γƵǰäƤˡֻФϡֻȯΤˤɽ路ʤפäܼŪʲˡϤʤΤ顤δŪֻˤƤ⤦褤ΤˤǽŪʵϤϿ͡뤳ȤȤ٤Ǥ롥 The First Part of the Elementarie (1582) ˤơĤƤФƤ롥<fetch> <scratch> <t> ¸ٻ<glasse> <confesse> θ <e> ¸ٻ <e> ˤĤƤϡ#1344. final -e ˡ ([2012-12-31-1]) Ǥߤ褦ʵ§Ƥ
#1387. 츻ŪֻκѤ17 ([2013-02-12-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡMulcaster Ƥɬɸಽ줿ֻȿǤƤ餺ȾʾȿǤƤˡʬŪɾܸꤹ뤫⤷ʤǤֻפϩ޿ɤ鲺ɤإեȤӤǧƤ褤βϩ English Schoole-Master (1596) Edmund Coote (fl. 1597) The English Grammar (1640) Ben Jonson (c. 1573--1637) ˰Ѥ졤Edward Phillips ˤ The New World of English Words (1658) ˽Ф17ȾФޤǤˤϡֻθ경ܴۤλ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
˴ؤƤ (40--64) ܤؤͭѤǤ롥

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
졡رѸػˡ١Ѹ13罤۽Ź1975ǯ

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2014-08-17 Sun

#1938. Ϣ -by ˤ̾ϸťΥɸΤΤ [toponymy][old_norse][onomastics][personal_name][contact]

ε#1937. Ϣ -son ˤΤϸťΥɸͳ ([2014-08-16-1]) ǰä̾Ʊ餤ťΥɸ줫αƶȤƤΤˡ󥰥ɤ̾롥ˤĤƤϡ#818. 󥰥ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) ϿޤǤƾҲ𤷤ΤʤǤȤ櫓¿ΤťΥɸ -by ղä Derby, Grimsby, Rugby, Thoresby, Whitby ʤɤ̾Ǥ롥600ʾ -by ̾ǧƤꡤʬۤ the Danelaw ФäƤ뤳Ȥ顤ťΥɸ "farm; town" ̣ by αƶ餫ʤ褦˸ (Baugh and Cable 98) ޤ6ä the Five Boroughs ˽椷ƤȤ (Miller 103)
Ԥ򻲾Ȥ Miller (102--04) ˤС餬ťΥɸϢ -by Ѥ̾Ǥ뤳ȤϳΤʤ⡤̾ΥѥƱΥǥʥǰŪʤΤǤϤʤäȤ10--11˺줿 the Danelaw -by ̾ˤǤȤƿ̾ΤĤΤ¿ǥʥǤϡֿ̾ -byפΥѥϸߤ˻ޤǤۤ¿ʤĤޤꡤ̾ the Danelaw ˤ Anglo-Scandinavia ȼΤΤǤꡤषǥʥˤƱ̾ the Danelaw ε͢ǤϤʤȡMiller (104) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥

Personal names are rare as satellites of -by names in Sweden, but more common in Norway . . . and in southern Denmark and south Schleswig. Fellows Jensen . . . argues that since most of the -by formations with personal name in Sweden and Norway postdate christianization, and those in south Schleswig postdate the Viking period, the name-type spread back to Denmark from the Danelaw, as suggested by Hald . . . . In any event, the Danelawl type seems not to have been based on a pre-existing Scandinavian type. Moreover, of 207 place names for which an Old Norse cognate existed, the substitution of the cognate for the native English form was close to perfect . . . . Anglo-Scandinavian settlements thus have an identity of their own . . . .


βޤȤС̾Ϣ -by ΤϸťΥɸǤֿ̾ -byפȤ̾Υѥ the Danelaw ȼȯãΤǤꡤΥѥϸ˥ǥʥڤص͢줿ȤȤˤʤ

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

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2014-08-16 Sat

#1937. Ϣ -son ˤΤϸťΥɸͳ [patronymy][old_norse][onomastics][personal_name][contact][map]

#813. Ѹο̾ˡ ([2011-07-19-1])#1673. ̾¿ȿ̾ء ([2013-11-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸ̾ˤ褯 -son (ex. Johnson, Tomson, Williamson, Wilson) ϸťΥɸ (patronymy) ͳ褹ȤΤѸˤǤ롥κϡ8Ⱦ󥰤˽졤줿󥰥 the Danelaw ˡȤ櫓 -son Ŀ̾ǻʬۤƤȤ¤Ǥ롥ʲˡCrystal (26) ʬϿޤǺܤ롥

Map of ON Patronyms with -son

Ͽοϡ줾νޤФȹͤۤʤοɽ魯󥰥ɤ˽椷Ƥ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥä Yorkshire Lincolnshire Ǥ6Ķ̾ťΥɸαƶΤǤ뤳ȤѸνο̾Ͽ狼äƤˡʬۤʤȤϡ#818. 󥰥ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) ˷ǺܤťΥɸͳ̾ʬۤɽ魯Ͽޤ򤵤ɤŨ롥Baugh and Cable (99) ⼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

It may be remarked that a similarly high percentage of Scandinavian personal names has been found in the medieval records of these districts. Names ending in -son, like Stevenson or Johnson, conform to a characteristic Scandinavian custom, the equivalent of Old English patronymic being -ing, as in Browning.


©Ҥ̣̾ son ϸűѸ sunu Ȥ¸ߤƤꡤޥˤ¾Υɥ衼åѽˤƱ줬롥ΤϢȤѤ뽬ϸűѸˤϤʤä̲ǤϸťΥɸƱ sunr ϢȤѤ̾Ǥ Amundsen, Andersen, Jacobsen, Jespersen, Nielsen ʤɤ̾¿ߤ줿Ѹ̾ -son ղäϡűѸθťΥɸȤܿˤäƳ줿ŤǤѤäȤߤʤȤǤ롥
Ѹ줫 -son դο̾˽ФȡAcheson, Anderson, Cookson, Davidson, Dickinson, Dodgson, Edison, Ellison, Emerson, Harrison, Henderson, Hudson, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Jonson, Larson, Madison, Magnusson, Robinson ʤ¿󤬤롥

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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2014-08-15 Fri

#1936. ʹΤѲ [phonetics][consonant][function_of_language][language_change][causation][h][sonority][reduplication][japanese][grimms_law][functionalism]

4֤εǡưˤʹ꤬äƱ餤뤤Ϥʾ˱ƶϤĤȤ򸫤Ƥʡ#1932. Ѳ monitoring (1) ([2014-08-11-1])#1933. Ѳ monitoring (2) ([2014-08-12-1])#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1])#1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˡ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1])ޤεǽ˴ؤ뤽¾ε (function_of_language) Ǹ褦ˡʹϸưԲķǤ1ĤǤ뤫顤ͤƤߤΤȤǤ롥 (139) Τ褦ˡθѲθˤơʹˤ줬ɤΤ褦ʹ뤫Ȥ˷ƤפȤϤ褽ǧʤФʤʤ³ơäŪϡ򤵤뤿ᡤ򤵤뤿Ǥ뤫顤äȤڤʤΤϡäΰտޤȤʹ򤵤뤳ȤǤ롥ϡʹ꤬Τʹ褦äȤǤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
ʹΤθѲ¸ߤ̵뤵Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѲΤʤˤϡʬ (metanalysis) ˤꤦޤΤ⤢СƱ۵ (homonymic_clash) ⤢뤳ȤϻŦƤ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) ǤϡʹδͿ̣Ѳˤ⿨줿ʹδͿϤ褽׻뤵ƤȤϤ
(118--38) ϡܸΥϹԻҲηϤ԰ꤵŪʥϹԻҲʹΰ˵Ƥ롥ΥϹԻҲϡ11 [ɸ] [w] Ѳʡ#1271. ܸȤθ ([2012-10-19-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ㤨СβѲ˽äơ [ɸawa] [ɸiwi]ˤ [ɸowo] ȤʤäΤޤ޼ȯã뤲ƤʤСƬ [ɸ] [h] Ȥʤꡤϡ֥ϥסϡ֥ҥסˤϡ֥ۥסʼºݤˡ֥ۥۡפ¤ǡ֥ۥפ⤢ˤȤʤäƤΥϹԻҲμ夵䶯٤ޤҲνƱˤꡤĻŵŪƱ˽ʣ (reduplication) ޤä2ܤΥϹԻҲ褷ߤϡ֥ϥϡס֥ҥҡס֥ۥۡפȤʤäƤ롥ϹԻҲĴϢѲ뤲ƤȤϡľܤˤäˤ˰㤤ʤŪˤŪϹԻҲʹΰŪʼ夵˵ȹͤ롥­ʹΰȤʹΩΩäɸǤ롥ҤλҲˤĤ [h] > [ç] ȤѲΤ⡤[h] ʹΰ䶯ȤƤ롥
ܸΥϹԻҲȴϢơѸ [h] Ȥμդβ˴ؤˤʣˡ§ (grimms_law)#214. ԰ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) h γƵ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) ʤɤ꤬ط롥 (132) ܸȱѸˤݤŦƤꡤ<gh> ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ġıѸ light, tight ʤɤ gh ɤޤʤ«ˤʤäƤ뤬 h ϡʹæڥ󥰤ˤ줬ĤäΤǤ뤷rough, tough ʤɤ gh [f] ˤʤäƤΤϡʹΰ [h] [f] ֤줿̤Ǥ롥[ɸ] [f] Ȥΰ㤤Ϥ뤬ܸΤ뿰ಽȵäƤ뤳Ȥܤ


ȤСrough tough [f] ϡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) Ǽ褦äΤβѲη ([x] > [xw] > f) ȤƤǤϤʤ[x] 뤤 [h] ʹΰˤʤʤʹΤΡ [f] ǤִȤȤˤʤ롥󡤤줬˵äȤ¾ڤ뤳Ȥ񤷤

ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١޴ֽ񱡡2001ǯ

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2014-08-14 Thu

#1935. accommodation theory [accommodation_theory][audience_design][sociolinguistics][variation][style]

εǼ夲#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1]) ϡaccommodation_theory ȸƤФŪǤ롥accommodation_theory ˤĤƤϤޤǤˤ⤤ĤεǸڤƤϲƹͤƤߤޤϡTrudgill (3) Ѹ켭ŵѤ롥

accommodation The process whereby participants in a conversation adjust their accent, dialect or other language characteristics according to the language of the other participant(s). Accommodation theory, as developed by the British social psychologist of language, Howard Giles, stresses that accommodation can take one of two major forms: convergence, when speakers modify their accent or dialect, etc. to make them resemble more closely those of the people they are speaking to; and, less usually, divergence, when, in order to signal social distance or disapproval, speakers make their language more unlike that of their interlocutors. Accommodation normally takes place during face-to-face interaction.


ǤСä꤬ʹռä֤ȤǤ롥Ȥ櫓äʹ˹碌뤫դʹȤϰۤʤإեȤ뤫ȤäƤ褤ʺ夲 audience design ϡʹ (audience) 򡤶ʹꡤ˵İ͡ʹ͡ʹͤؤȺʬ󲽤ϢǤ롥
Wales Cardiff ιŹǤλ㤬ͭ̾Ǥ롥ŹҰعݽפʤ͡ʼҲؤεҤȡιμۤˤĤääƤ롥N. Coupland βäϿʬϤȤŹҰϵҤä˹碌ä뤳ȤȯŪˤϡ첻֤ /t/ [t] ȼ¸뤫ͭ [d] ȼ¸뤫ΰ㤤ȤƸ줿Cardiff Ǥ첻֤ /t/ ϡҲ񳬵ι⤯ʤ͡Ǥͭ [d] Ǽ¸뤳Ȥ¿ŹҰή°̾25%γ [d] ȯƤ[d] Ψ75%εҤäȤˤϡγ礬70%ãդˡ[d] Ψ10%εҤäȤˤϡγ礬10%˲äȤŹҰ [t] [d] ϡʹ˹碌ƹԤʤƤΤǤ롥λȯˤĤƤ accommodation 򼨤Τñ졤ơݡä®١äĹʸˡưޤ᤿¿ιܤˤĤƤƱͤ accommodation ȹͤ롥
accommodation ˤϤĤμब̤롥嵭Ǥ⡤Ҥ˹碌ưҿι⤤ [t] ع碌 "upward convergence" ⤢СҤ˹碌ưҿ㤤 [d] ع碌 "downward convergence" ⤢äԤ¾ȤƤϡҶͧãοƤäȤǫɸŪʸոˤʤ륱󤲤롥Ԥ¾ȤƤϡҶФäȤ˻Ҷդڤؤ륱䡤ܸüԤüԤФԼ˰פܸäȤ "foreigner talk" 󤲤롥
ʾϡΰ㤤Ϥ졤ä碌 convergence դä㤨 divergence ⤢롥Ʊ뤵줿ʤꡤΥ򤪤äȤˤϡäǤ㤨褦Ȥ뤳Ȥ롥褯ΤƤϡ륺üԤФ¸Ǥ롥ǽ顤RP äܴФ륺üԤܴ RP ˶ŤҿΤȯäƤȤܴ륺ФŪȯ򤹤䡤Υ륺üԤϡRP Υ줿ȯDZѸäФϡܴФ︳ԤԿΥ֤ȤȿǤ줿 accommodation λǤ롥ޤdivergence ϡή礦2ѼԤ뤿ʤɲ餫פΤˡˤäθ줬ޤäʤΤ褦˿񤦤Ȥˤ⸫롥üԤϡä˹碌ǤϤʤæ뤳Ȥˤäơ餫μҲŪưʤƤΤ
äդΤߤʤ餺񤭸դǤ accommodation ϴѻ롥㤨СɸηϤΤʤѸ줫ɸηϤΤܸؤˤơɸɽɲä줿ꤵʤäꤹΤϡԤܸɼԤؤ accommodation ȿǤƤ롥
accommodation ϰάǤ뤫顤Ԥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ä˹碌 convergence äƤ⡤ˤ줬ʤäꡤդ divergence ȼ뤳Ȥ餢롥㤨СꥹΤĮǡɿͰ̱ͼҲ˼줿ͤαѸѼ˻ȯäȤͤˤȤäưҿΤʤѼäΤǡष줿줿ȤäˤŪ accommodation ʹˤҴŪ accommodation ȤäƤޤäǤ롥
ʾ塤 (110--21) 򻲾ȤƼɮ

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
󡡡ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ

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2014-08-13 Wed

#1934. audience design [communication][language_change][sociolinguistics][audience_design][accommodation_theory][variation][style]

ε ([2014-08-12-1]) κǸˡѲˤİԤδͿˤĤƿ줿Ѳ variation ΤʤΤ򤬼Ҳ񽬴ΤǤªʤСˤİԤδͿȤϡѲˤƽפüԤİԤռƸդȯȤȤϥߥ˥Ū˾Ȥ餻мΤ褦˻פ뤬θѲθǤϡѲüԼΤȤ뤵ƤаޤꡤİԤϴԺߤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤ŪôˤʤäǯθˤƤİԤ䤬Ū˹ޤäƤƤ롥
ؤˤʬɤ뤬㤨мҲؤǤİԤŻ뤷ͤƤƤ롥1Ĥˡaudience design ȤΤ롥Trudgill Ѹ켭ŵ˵

audience design A notion developed by Allan Bell to account for stylistic variation in language in terms of speakers' responses to audience members i.e. to people who are listening to them. Bell's model derives in part from accommodation theory. (11)


ʲ (101--09) ˤ­롥Allan Bell ˤä󾧤줿 audience design ϡüԤïФ (attention) ʧĤäƤΤˤäơʸŪѰۤ褦Ȥ벾Ǥ롥βˤСä (Speaker) ϡʹ (Addressee) ˺¤դʧʳˤ˵İ (Auditor)ʹ (Overhearer)ʹ (Eavesdropper) ˤ⤳ν¿դʧΤȤäˤȤäƤοͤΤƤ뤫ǧƤ뤫äƤ뤫Ȥ3ĤΥѥ᡼ʬϤȡ줾ʲΤ褦ʽȤʤ롥

 ΤƤǧƤäƤ
ʹ+++
˵İ++-
ʹ+--
ʹ---


Ź1ȤΥåץȤζ̤ͧͤ㤷Ƥ륷ꤹ롥åץˤäȤʤ餽νդʧʤä˵İͤǤͧͤʾ塤åץͤǤȤϰۤʤä򤹤ǽ⤤äˤȤäơ˵İͤ¸ߤʹǤ¸ߤ˼ǸդФװȤ礭ΤǤ롥ءȥ쥹ʶʹ͡ˤʸ򱿤Ǥ硤äϤΥȥ쥹ʹƤ뤳ȤռոѤ뤫⤷ʤޤظˤ3ͤβä˼򷹤İԡʹ͡ˤȤƤ⡤˵Ťʤ¤ꡤäİԤռƸդ֤ȤͤڤФʤ
ܸѤŪʾ̤Ǥ⡤ͧͤͤäƤȤˡʤʤܾοͤäƤΤ˵Ťȡɸ򤨤äڤؤ뤳ȤʤޤƤǤϡľäƤʤȤ⡤λٻ٤˵İԤռƸդ֤Τ̤Ǥ롥ξïΤޤοͤˤɤ٤դʧΤˤäơäʸΤѤ롤뤤Ѥ뤳Ȥ;ʤ롥ΰ̣ǡaudience ä˸դ򤵤ϤäƤȹͤ롥 (104) ۩

ǥ󥹤ϤդĤä꤬äΤʹ䡤мŪʤΤȻפƤ뤬¤ϤäѶŪʤΤǡǥ󥹤λϻפƤϤϤ뤫礭ƶǤ롥礦ԤǴѵҤδꡤ뤤˱ƶ褦ˡǥ󥹤ǡäϼʬΥĴƤΤȹͤ롥


Ǹˡɽ˼ audience νŪʤΤǤϤʤȤդäƤƤΤ褦ˡƤԤƤԤʹȤäƤϤΤΡ⤷Ȥʹ⶯ռƤΤϡˤ˵İԤ⤷ʤΤλٻդ뤿ˡष˵İԤ˸ƵƤȻפ礬롥ΤȤäʧդ̤ϡ˵İ͡ʹפȤʤ
ʤä꤬ïˤⲿդʧ鷺äȤ̤ϤȤȤǤ̾ä꼫ȤʹꤷƤǤϡΤ褦ꤹʤȤϤꤦĤƤܤäȽФȤ䡤ռ˽Фʤʤɤᤤ⤷ʤȤˤĤơ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) ⻲ȡ

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
󡡡ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ

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2014-08-12 Tue

#1933. Ѳ monitoring (2) [communication][linguistics][language_change][phonetics][speech_perception][causation][speed_of_change][usage-based_model][monitoring]

ε ([2014-08-11-1]) ǰѤ monitoring ˴ؤ Smith ʸϤǡLyons ȤƤLyons (111) äƤߤȡ첻λФˤĤƤսǡüԤİԤθߤ monitoring ѤȤ뤳ȤפȤݤεˤơfeedback 뤤 monitoring ȤɽƤ롥

In the case of speech, we are not dealing with a system of sound-production and sound-reception in which the 'transmitter' (the speaker) and the 'receiver' (the hearer) are completely separate mechanisms. Every normal speaker of a language is alternately a producer and a receiver. When he is speaking, he is not only producing sound; he is also 'monitoring' what he is saying and modulating his speech, unconsciously correlating his various articulatory movements with what he hears and making continual adjustments (like a thermostat, which controls the source of heat as a result of 'feedback' from the temperature readings). And when he is listening to someone else speaking, he is not merely a passive receiver of sounds emitted by the speaker: he is registering the sounds he hears (interpreting the acoustic 'signal') in the light of his own experience as a speaker, with a 'built-in' set of contextual cues and expectancies.


ѼԤĴŪȲŪȤƤФǤʤ첻λФˤϢưƤ롤Ȥ⤬ǾƤ롥Ϣơ#1656. γФΤγФΤ ([2013-11-08-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
Lyons ϡȤƸ첻λФˤ monitoring κѤĴƤ뤬monitoring κѤϲʳ¾θˤƱͤ˸ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

It may be pointed out here that the principle of 'feedback' is not restricted to the production and reception of physical distinctions in the substance, or medium, in which language is manifest. It operates also in the determination of phonological and grammatical structure. Intrinsically ambiguous utterances will be interpreted in one way, rather than another, because certain expectancies have been established by the general context in which the utterance is made or by the previous discourse . . . . (111)


monitoring ȴϢƴ (established)ʸ̮ (context)塼 (cue) ȤɤФƤСˤ϶ (collocation) (frequency) ʤɤȤѸ줬ФƤƤ⤪ʤѲδϡUsage-Based Grammar #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) Ǥߤ "clusters of bumpy change" ιͤȤط򺣤ϡüԼΤǤϤʤİԼΤθѲ¿ʹ褦ˤʤäƤmonitoring ȤͤϡˤơüԡİԡפǤ뤳ȤǧƤ륭ɤȤ뤫⤷ʤϢơʹδͿ̣ѲˤĤơ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 1968.

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2014-08-11 Mon

#1932. Ѳ monitoring (1) [communication][linguistics][language_change][prescriptive_grammar][diachrony][causation][monitoring]

Smith ѲѤɽ魯ΤȤơ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ȡ#1928. Smith ˤ٥γإǥưŪǥ ([2014-08-07-1]) Ҳ𤷤ϵŪʸѲθǤꡤʹԺߤΰݤͿ뤫⤷ʤSmith θѲϷ褷ƸμҲŪ¦̡üԤİԤȸδطʤˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤSmith (49) ϡѲμȤƤ variation ¸ߡ variation ΤʤθġθȤ԰٤ϡѼԤǤ˼Ƥ monitoring ȤѤȿؤ꤬ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

Human beings are social creatures, and not simply transmitters (speakers) or receivers (hearers); they are both. When humans speak, they are not only producing sounds and grammar and vocabulary; they are also monitoring what they and others say by listening, and evaluating the communicative efficiency of their speech for the purposes for which it is being used: communicative purposes which are not only to do with the conveying and receiving of information, but also to do with such matters as signalling the social circumstances of the interaction taking place. And what humans hear is constantly being monitored, that is, compared with their earlier experience as speakers and hearers. . . . / This principle of monitoring, or feedback as it is sometimes called (Lyons 1968: 111), is crucial to an understanding of language-change.


üԤϼʬȯդ򤵤뤫˾դʧäƤ뤷İԤȯդ򤹤Τ˾ˤθɸŪηϤ򻲾ȤƤ롥üԤİԤ⡤ȯ줿դƻܤ餻Ƥꡤߤ˥åäƤ롥2ͤθηϤϲʸˡäκˤƼ㴳㤷Ƥߥ˥ȼǤξȹȤ椨ˡߤ礭æ뤳ȤϤʤ2ͤθηϤϾͭƤꡤξΤΤư뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ξԤȤ˰ưƤΤǤ롥줬Ѳˤˤ monitoring Ȥ
ͤθոΤʤѲ뤳ȤˤĤơ#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) #1890. ФȤȤ˸ոѤ ([2014-06-30-1]) ǹͻƤmonitoring ȤͤϡˤƤƤĿͤƸѤʤǡüԤȤδ֤ monitoring ǽѤ monitoring η̤ȤơηϤξ򾯤İưƤ⤷ʤˤΰư¥Ƥ⤷ʤ
monitoring ϡˤ뵬ϼȤ礤˴ط롥̾üԤİԤ monitoring λϡߤθѡ뤤Ϥ⤦餬°춦ƱΤˤ̤θѤ#1929. ؤΩ줫鵬ϼŪѤɤ٤ ([2014-08-08-1]) Ǽ褦ˡϼŪѤٸ춦ƱΤΤʤ˿ƩȡʸˡΤΤ monitoring λȤʤꤦ롥Ĥޤꡤʬ꤬εϤ餷Ƥ뤫ɤå礦Ȥ̾⤺ä©줷롥ϼŪѤȯãϡmonitoring ȤߤСmonitoring μ̤ŤǤȤ⤤뤫⤷ʤ

Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.

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2014-08-10 Sun

#1931. ǰỤ̄ [semantics][register][taboo][information_structure]

ɽΰ̣ˤϡǰỤ̄ (conceptual meaning) ǰỤ̤̄롥ǰỤ̄ϼỤ̄ (dictionary meaning) ȤƤФ졤ʪ򥫥ƥ꡼ȤƤȤ館켫Ȥ򤽤ʳΤΤ̤뤿Ф줿ŪܼŪǤν礫ʤ롥ǰỤ̄ϡʸ̡̮뤤ϤȤϢۤˤ공ǰỤ̄դạ̈Ǥ롥ǰỤ̄ˤϡĤμबǧ롥Leech 򻲾ȤƳ⤷Ƥ (23--26) ˵äơñ˲ܤ


(1) Ụ̄ (connotative meaning)
λؼоݤϢۤؼоͭؤ ("what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to") 㤨СѸ mother ܸΡפϡλؼоݤϢۤͥ𿼤οʤɤΥ᡼ȼ⤷ʤΥ᡼ϼŪǿͤˤäưۤʤΤǤꡤҲΤʤǰꤷƤʤ

(2) ҲỤ̄ (social [stylistic] meaning)
ѤطʤˤҲŪˤĤ ("what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use") ǯء̡Ҳءϰ衤Ρ줷ɰաʸʤɤμҲŪطʤȿǤΡʸŪħȤɽФΤǡʸỤ̄ȤƤФ롥Ѹ father, dad, daddy, pop, papa ܸΡס֤㤵ס֤סֿס֥ѥѡס֤Ȥפʤɤϡ줾ۤʤ register °ƤꡤѤμҲŪطʤۤʤäƤ롥#839. register ([2011-08-14-1])#227. ѸѼΥǥ ([2009-12-10-1])#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#849. ä񤭸 (2) ([2011-08-24-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ

(3) Ụ̄ (affective meaning)
ѼԤδ٤ˤĤ ("what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer") Stop being so bloody arrogant." "What a darling little dress!" ˤ륤åʬΤ褦ˡäΰɽ蘆褦ʾ硥

(4) Ƥ줿̣ (reflected meaning)
ɽ̤θϢۤˤ̣ ("what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression") ¿줬ѤݤŪʰ̣ؤض (taboo) ŵŪ˸롥㤨СκݤˤϡڤסֵסʬפϤ줾γǰỤ̄΢ˡΥ۵Ƥ줿̣롥Ѹ cock, ass ʤɤŪƤ줿̣ȼˡѼˤäƤ򤱤뷹롥

(5) ϢỤ̄ (collocative meaning)
ϢȤƶ뤳Ȥ¿˴ϢŤ ("what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word") 㤨СŵŪ pretty Ͻɽ魯ȶhandsome ɽ魯ȶ롥ξγǰỤ̄ϡִ̤Τ褤פǰפ뤬ϢỤ̄ϰۤʤ롥ϢỤ̄ˤꡤԤϤ襤餷ԤüʴΩȤްդ롥

嵭 (1) (5) ϡ줬Ị̇ǤꡤޤȤϢỤ̄ (associative meaning) ȤƤФ롥μỤ̄ʸỊ̇Ǥ롥

(6) Ụ̄ (thematic meaning)
䶯ĴˤäƺФ¤ (information structure) ˴ؤ̣ ("what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis") 㤨Сγƥڥˤơ1ܤ2ܤʸǤϡο֤ˤäƼỤ̄ۤʤ롥

(a) John owns the biggest shop in London.
(b) The biggest shop in London belongs to John.

(c) I like Danish cheese best.
(d) Danish cheese, I like best.

(e) Bill uses an electric razor.
(f) The kind of razor that Bill uses is an electric one.


ʾǰỤ̄Ȥ櫓° (1)--(6) ϢỤ̄ϡǰỤ̄Τ褦˸ŪǤϤʤѼԤѤطʤˤѰۤ뤿ᡤ˵ܤ뤳ȤϤʤ㳰Ȥơ(2) μҲỤ̄ŪäǰꤷƤΤǡ˥졼٥ȼäƵܤ뤳Ȥ¿

ְ̣Ȥϡסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ1--27ǡ

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2014-08-09 Sat

#1930. ȱƶθ줿ɥ衼åѸ²δط [indo-european][family_tree][contact][loan_word][borrowing][geolinguistics][linguistic_area][historiography][french][latin][greek][old_norse]

#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1])#1925. ɴ֤δط򼨤ɥ衼åѸ²ηޡ ([2014-08-04-1]) ǿƤ褦ˡθޤμȤơܿ (language contact) Ūܴط˴Ť (linguistic area; cf. #1314. [2012-12-01-1]ˤޤɽǤʤȤ꤬ä׼ǡޤΤʤ¾줫αƶ˴ؤळȤԲǽǤϤʤMiller (3) Τ褦ʻߤԤäƤΤǡ䤹˺ޤΤ򼨤

Family Tree with Interactive Contact of Western Indo-European and English

οޤǤϡѸ줬Ū˷иƤܿŪʾ郎ޤɽƤ롥äˡפʸȤܿϡ褽狼褦Ƥ롥ޤƥ졤ե󥹸졤ꥷ줫αƶ٤κϤŪǤꡤŪʤΤ˸¤뤳Ȥ鸫Ƽ롥ťΥɸ (ENorse) ȤθܿˤĤƤƱͤΰ뤬ˤꡤ¤Ūʳ׿ˤƶ̹ξʤʤȤƤ롥ȸ (Brythonic) ȤδطˤĤƤϡǯȯƤƤ뤬ϰŪΥͥˤäƼƤ롥
󡤤οޤѸȽȤαƶδط˼Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨Сǿ޼ƤΤϼ礿ܿΤߤǤμȿ䤷ƿޤ̲뤳ȤϤǤˡޤե󥹸ȤܿˤĤơѸʹߤη³ŪʴͿϤޤ޼ƤʤǤ⡤οޤ̤ξޤƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤꡤѸˤγѤȤƤΩĤΤǤϤʤ

Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

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2014-08-08 Fri

#1929. ؤΩ줫鵬ϼŪѤɤ٤ [prescriptive_grammar][singular_they]

ѸǤܸǤ⡤ˤ뵬ϼ (prescriptivism) ϷߤǤꡤ˴Ťʸˡˡ񤬽ŹΰѤ碌Ƥ롥ƥӤ俷ʹʤɤΥǥǤ⡤ѤȸѤβϿ͵ʡǤꡤİԡɼԤλݤƤ⤷Фܤˤ롥ϤޤȤ "linguistic complaint literature" (Millar 106) ȸƤФƤ뤬ä˥ꥹǤϿ򤫤ݤƤǥŪʥȤäƤ褤ޤعθضǤϵϼϴʬˤǤȤ뤬ޥ뤫ХĤ׵᤹Ȥ붵Ǥ¤ꡤŪˤϵϤΰҿǤ롥ؤϡεŪʸѤæŪʸѤ뤳ȤˤȯŸƤΰ̣ǤϡؤȵϼѤȤϿøΩΤǤꡤؼԤȵϼŪʸضաɾȤޤԤΩŨмƱΤǤ롥ΤȤϡ#747. ([2011-05-14-1]) Ǹ褦 Martinet Ƥ
Ѹˤ˸ؤ򸦵椷ƸѲõäƤȡθϼŪʸѤ˴ŤΤäꡤ뤤Ϥؤȿȯη̤äꤹ뤳Ȥ롥㤨СǶε (##1920,1921,1922) ǡѸʹߤ singular they οưˤĤƸο⡤͡θεϤФ٤ˤäưܤѤäƤͻҤϢưƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥ȡؼԡä˼ҲؼԡˤˤȤäơϼŪѤȤϡ褷ŨФΤǤϤʤषɵ椹٤ҤȤɤθоݤȤȤˤʤʤ
θˤĤơMillar (105) ϡVerbal Hygiene 路 Cameron ΰո˻դɽʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Cameron (1995) makes the persuasive point that the difference between description and prescription may not be as great as linguists think: after all, a description by its nature encourages a sense of what is 'normal' within a system. More importantly, she suggests that it is a good idea for linguistics to listen to what people interested in language have to say about it, primarily so that we can understand why they hold views which, from an insiders' viewpoint, appear ill-conceived or even meaningless.


⵬ϼѤФ뤳Τ褦ʸ˻Ǥ롥ؼԤ⡤Ω礦ɬפȹͤ롥ؼԤɤޤǼºݤθġθ˲٤ʤΤƤ褤ΤǤΤϡ񤷤Ǥ롥Cameron ϸȤŴѤƤǤꡤCrystal ϤΤ褦˴롥ؼԤϵϼŪѤɤ٤ϸؼԤδ֤ǿܤƤ褤ǤϤʤ

Millar, Robert McColl. English Historical Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2012.

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2014-08-07 Thu

#1928. Smith ˤ٥γإǥưŪǥ [language_change][linguistics][systemic_regulation]

ѲΥǥȤơεǡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) #1600. Samuels θѲǥ ([2013-09-13-1]) ʤɤҲ𤷤ƤSmith ϡѲΥǥΩäơ줽ΤΤΥǥ롤뤤ϸƥ٥δطޤ󼨤Ƥꡤ˴ŤƸѲƤ롥
ޤSmith (4) "The levels of language (hierarchical model)" Ƹ롥

The Levels of Language (Hierarchical Model)

ϡκǤ⿼٥ Semantics ʰ̣ˤꡤˤ줬 Grammar ʸˡˤ Lexicology ʸáˤˤäɽ졤Ǥ餬 Transmission ãˤβФơǸ Speech äաˤ뤤 Writing ʽ񤭸աˤȤΤˤ긲ȤإǥǤ롥ǡTransmission ȤäդȽ񤭸դƱ֤Ƥ뤳Ȥܤͤ롥ϲǤȤ20ؤξQæ񤭸դؤθ˰᤽Ȥջ֤롥θѤˤĤƤϡ#1665. äȤФȽ񤭤Ȥ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])#748. ä񤭸 ([2011-05-15-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
γإǥŪǤ롥ѲȤưŪʲ򰷤ȻפСΤޤޤŪʥǥǤѤ³뤳ȤǤʤSmith (5) ѲˤĤƽҤ٤ƤȤꡤ"any given linguistic event is the result of complex interaction between levels of language, and between language itself and the sociohistorical setting in which it is situated" Ǥ롥ǡSmith (5) ϰʲưŪʥǥ "The levels of language (dynamic model)" 󼨤

The Levels of Language (Dynamic Model)

ϡؤξ岼ζ̤ߤˡߺѤŻ뤷ưŪʥǥǤ롥Grammar, Lexicon, Transmission 3ԤäȥȤη (cf. "système où tout se tient") ˤơѲϡη̤ʬˤƶͿʤʤοޤ Semantics ޤޤƤʤΤϡ̣ϤΥ٥Ȥľܤ˴ؤΤǤꡤοޤ̡ʤ뤤̡ˤǾ˺ѤƤȤ󤬤뤫Τ褦 (Smith 5)
Smith ϸѲˤ쳰Ū ("the sociohistorical setting") Ż뤷Ƥ뤬Ȥ߹3ΥǥϿ޼Ƥʤλվ Samuels 󼨤#1600. Samuels θѲǥ ([2013-09-13-1]) ǰƬˤƤ뤳ȤϳΤΤ褦

Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.

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2014-08-06 Wed

#1927. ʩ [waseieigo][french][loan_word]

ѸˤĤơ#1492. ֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫 ([2013-05-28-1]) #1624. Ѹΰ ([2013-10-07-1]) Ǽ夲ˤĤơ#1629. ([2013-10-12-1]) ǿ졤ˤĤơ#1493. Ѹʤ̱ ([2013-05-29-1]) ǸڤƤϢơϡֱʩפƤߤ褦Jespersen (101--02) ϡֱʩפƾΤȤäƤʤޤˤθݤˤĤƵƤ롥

Fitzedward Hall in speaking about the recent word aggressive says, 'It is not at all certain whether the French agressif suggested aggressive, or was suggested by it. They may have appeared independently of each other'. The same remark applies to a great many other formations on a French or Latin basis; even if the several components of a word are Romanic, it by no means follows that the word was first used by a Frenchman. On the contrary, the greater facility and the greater boldness in forming new words and turns of expression which characterizes English generally in contradistinction to French, would in many cases speak in favour of the assumption that an innovation is due to an English mind. This I take to be true with regard to dalliance, which is so frequent in ME. (dalyaunce, etc.), while it has not been recorded in French at all. The wide chasm between the most typical English meaning of sensible (a sensible man, a sensible proposal) and those meanings which it shares with French sensible and Lat. sensibilis, probably shows that in the former meaning the word was an independent English formation. Duration as used by Chaucer may be a French word; it then went out of the language, and when it reappeared after the time of Shakespeare it may just as well have been reformed in England as borrowed; duratio does not seem to have existed in Latin. Intensitas is not a Latin word, and intensity is older than intensité.


ΰ Jespersen ֱʩפȤߤʤƤΤϡaggressive, dalliance, duration, intensity ʤɤǤ롥б줬ե󥹸ˤäȤƤ⡤ñȤƤϤ餯󥰥ɤΩȯΤȤߤƤ롥ˤäƤϡʩ줬ե󥹸ص͢줿⤢äJespersen ϡ嵭ΰѤ³Ǥ⡤mutinous, mutiny; cliquery; duty, duteous, dutiable ʤɤʩθȤƵ󤲤Ƥ롥μαʩϼºݤĴٽФФĤФƤΤǤϤʤ
֡פȤݤ뤳Ȥ񤷤ˤĤƤϡ#1492. ֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫 ([2013-05-28-1]) ǸȤΤ褦ʸݤŪطʤϤ褽ŦǤ롥#1629. ([2013-10-12-1]) Ȥꡤ줬줫θüѤ˽ʬˤʤǤȡ٤ϢθǥȤƼθä߽ФȤΤ⼡μʳ˿ʤȤФ褤ϡʩΤߤʤ餺졤Ѹ졤ˤⶦ̤˸ŪʲǤ롥#1493. Ѹʤ̱ ([2013-05-29-1]) #1878. ƵΥꥵ ([2014-06-18-1]) εκǸ˽Ҥ٤ݤƷ֤С֡ϡ̣򤽤ȥԥåȤƤФм夲뤬̸ŪˤϷ褷ðۤʸݤǤϤʤפΤǤ롥

Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.

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2014-08-05 Tue

#1926. ܸܿ͡ü [terminology][sociolinguistics]

ܸѸʤɤˤĤƸŪä򤷤ƤȤˡܿͤ?ס֥ꥹͤ?ס֥ꥫͤ?פȤʤ뤳Ȥ롥̩ˤϡܸüԤ?ס֥ꥹѼΡ˱ѸüԤ?ס֥ꥫѼΡ˱ѸüԤ?פȤ٤ȤĹä餷ΤǤΤ褦˴ؤ˸ΤǤ롥ʾΤȤλ򤷤ƤȤƤ⡤ϤΤ褦ʥ硼ȥåȤϤǤѤ٤ǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
ͳϡܿͤ?פतϡθĿͤιҡʤ뤤Ϥ˴ˤ̱²ˤˤƤǤäơä졤Ȥ櫓ȤƤΤǤϤʤ̱Τ褦ˡҤܿͤǤäƤ줬ܸʳǤȤͤϤ뤷դܸǤҤܤˤʤͤ⤤롥ä򤹤¤ꡤܿ͡פǤϤʤܸüԡפȤʻǰʤĹä餷ɽȤΤ̩ޤƤ䡤ֱѸüԡפȤ٤Ȥ֥ꥫ͡פɽ褦ʥ奢ʸϡŤθޤǤʤ뤤ϸ򾷤ɽǤꡤ򤱤ȻפäƤ롥̱²ҡʤߤ˴Ϣ뤳Ȥ¿ҲؤϤޤˤδط褦ȤƤΤǸ§ȤƤ̡Υѥ᡼ȤƤߤ뤳ȤҲؤǤϾQȤʤäƤ롥ǡϾ (14) θ˻롥

ܸüġġܸŪ˻ȤĶǰܸ˿ȤˤĤͤʤܸΥͥƥԡüԡnative speakersˤ򤵤ܸüԤ¿ܹҤǤ뤬ܤ꽻Ƥ볰ҤοͤˤܸüԤϤ󤤤롥Τ褦ʸϤϡܿͤʤ?פȤ褦˽񤭻ϤΤQˤʤäƤ뤬˴ؤܿȤ¾ŪѸѤ٤ǤϤʤƱͳǡȤѸ⹥ޤʤҤˤ餺ܸüԤˤȤäܸnative languagemother tongueˤǤ롥ѸȤͤϥꥹͤǤϤʤʥͤ䥹ͤϤʤΤ褦Ѹ˺ǿդʧȤХܸ֤Ťƹͤ뤿Ǥ롥


Ϣ⤦1ĤȤơ̩ˤС?üԡפȤĹۤθǤ顤դפ뤳Ȥ˿ƤηˤĤƤϡ#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
嵭餫ʤ褦ˡ졤ڤӤäĿ͡ĤؤȤʬˤȤäƤ̿ŪʤȤˡȤ䤹ŬܸɽʤΤǤ롥ܸüԡפֱѸüԡפϤޤĹä餷ʤΤǡ伫ȷ֤ȯΤפ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤʤȤѸФȻװƤƤߤΤܸԡפܸ͡פޤʤѸ "L1 Japanese Speakers" ȤΤ⡤षʤĹ#1539. ethnie ([2013-07-14-1]) Ǽ褦ˡܸ쥨ˡפʤɤȸƤǤߤΤϰƤ⤷ʤȻפäƤ뤬⡼ǤäûʤäƤʤ񤷤

ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١޴ֽ񱡡2001ǯ

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2014-08-04 Mon

#1925. ɴ֤δط򼨤ɥ衼åѸ²η [indo-european][family_tree]

ɥ衼åѸ²ηޤϡŪʤΤʬŪʤΤޤơindo-european family_tree γƵƤMiller (1) ϡǯΰӸؤθȻʸ˴ŤʬȤƤޤʲΤ褦ʿޤǤƤ롥

Major Divisions of Indo-European

ǤŤʬΤ Hittite ʤɤ۲ˤ Anatolian ǡ Tocharian ʬ줿ʡ#101. ӸؤΥޥ --- Tocharian Anatolian ([2009-08-06-1]) ڤӡ#109. ӸؤΥޥ --- Tocharian (2) ([2009-08-14-1]) 򻲾ȡˡθ塤Italo-Celtic Ȥ¾β (Central IE) ʬȤѤǤ롥Central IE ʲޤƤܺ٤ʤȡMiller (2) μʲΤ褦ʷޤȤʤ롥

Elaborated Into-European Tree

ηޤ˽ȡѸޤ Germanic ϡBalto-Slavic ڤ Indo-Iranian ͭ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ѹ줬Ūǻ̩ܿƤ Italic 䡤ǯѸȤθܿ򽸤Ƥ Celtic ϡŪˤषѸ줫󤤤Ȥˤʤ롥
θޤϡɤȤʬΥߥ󥰤򼨤Ƥǡ#50. ɥ衼åѸ²ηޤͷӤǡ ([2009-06-17-1]) Τ褦ʥեåȤʿޤϡ#1129. ĸʬϵ5800--7800ǯ ([2012-05-30-1]) θǯؤ˴Ťޤ˶ᤤμηޤϡƸɤŪȯŸ򤿤ɤäƸɴ֤δطİΤˤϤ֤ܿʤȤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) Ǥ⿨ƤȤǤ롥Old English ʹߡMiddle English, Modern English ϡŪˤŪ󤤤 Italic ʵڤ Celticˤν줫¿ʱƶƤȤͤȡѸˤϡǾ Tocharian A, B Hittite ʤɤξܺٿޤʬȡ뤤ϱƶȤǡ餫δطäƤȤˤʤ롥Ѹʻˡˤ¾θʻˡˤ椷̻뤹ĤϤʤѸȤü饤ɥ衼åѸ²ηޤįȤΤϡ1ĤΰյįǤϤʤ

Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-08-09-1]

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2014-08-03 Sun

#1924. ե󥹸Ѹʸˡü˴Ϳ (2) [gender][french][old_norse][contact][bilingualism][french_influence_on_grammar]

#1884. ե󥹸Ѹʸˡü˴Ϳ ([2014-06-24-1]) ǡΥ󥰥ɤˤѸ Norman French Ȥ2Ѿ2ĤΰۤʤʸˡηϤͤ줬ȤʤäƱѸʸˡηϤ뤳ȤˤʤäפȤȽŪ˾Ҳ𤷤θ Miller (234--35) ˾嵭ȾߤĤMiller Ȥⲱ¬ (speculation) ȤƤ뤬¾ʸˤƤѶŪƤ褦

It is reasonable to speculate that gender was strained by scandinavianization but not abandoned, especially since Danish only reduced masculine and feminine later and in Copenhagen under a different contact situation . . . . Miller . . . suggests that the final loss of gender would most naturally have occurred in the East Midlands, a BUFFER ZONE between French to the south and the Danish-English amalgam to the north, the reason being that the gender systems were completely incongruent. In French, for instance, soleil 'sun' was masculine and lune 'moon' feminine, in stark contrast to Scandinavian where ON sól 'sun' was feminine and máni 'moon' masculine. Like other buffer zones that give up the conflicting category, the East Midlands had little recourse other than to scrap gender.


̩ˤСεϱѸ Norman French 2Ԥθܿ˴ؤΤǤΤФMiller ϱѸ Norman French Old Norse 3Ԥθܿ˴ؤΤʤΤǡ2Ĥ̤ɬפϤMiller β򸡾ڤ뤿ˤϡξüǽ "the East Midlands, a BUFFER ZONE" ܳŪ˻ϤޤäȤ򼨤ɬפ롥ޤεǤȿݥȤȤƻŦ "BUFFER ZONE" ˤơɤ٤μҲŪĿŪ bilingualism 뤤 trilingualism ԤƤΤȤʤ롥
ˤ̤Ǥϥե󥹸δͿǧˤǤξüʤǤ櫓顤ƤƤܿϡǤ˿ʹԤƤξü¥ȤȤǤꡤưϤä櫓ǤϤʤȤդ٤Ǥ롥򲡤ƤСMiller β¬쳵ꤷ٤ΤǤϤʤ褦˻פ롥

Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-10-08-1]

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2014-08-02 Sat

#1923. only ΰ̣ but [adverb][shortening][negative][negative_cycle][semantic_change][reanalysis][metanalysis][terminology][clipping][but]

Ѹ but ¿1ĤǤ롥ˡ¿ʻߤƤ³졤ֻ졤̾졤졤̾졤ưޤǤϰϤΤʤȤƤˡܤʸˤ only ΰ̣Ѥ but 롥ʸ󤲤褦

He is but a child.
There is but one answer to your question.
There were a lot of famous people there: Tom Hanks and Julia Roberts, to name but two.
I heard it but now.
I don't think we'll manage it. Still, we can but try.


but Τΰ̣ˡŪˤϤɤ褿ΤͤƤߤСHe is but a child. Ȥʸ He is nothing but a child. Ȥ롥ԤǤ but ϡ?ơפΰդֻʬϤΤȤƤ깽¤Ȥʤ뤬Ԥι깽¤Ȼ¾ƱȤʤΤϰ츫Ի׵ĤǤ롥Ūˤ only ΰ̣ but ϡޤ nothing but Τ褦깽¤꼭æ뤳ȤˤäΤǤ롥ṳ̂뤤ϾάλǤ롥Stern (264) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

In English, an original ne--butan has been shortened to but: we nabbað her buton fif hlafas and twegen fiscas > we have here but five loafs and two fishes (Horn, Sprachkörper 90), he nis but a child > he is but a child (NED but 6). The immediate cause of the omission of the negation is not quite certain. It is not impossible that influence from other uses of but may have intervened.


OED but, prep., adv., conj., n.3, adj., and pron. θ6aˤƱݤεҤ롥

By the omission of the negative accompanying the preceding verb . . ., but passes into the adverbial sense of: Nought but, no more than, only, merely. (Thus the earlier 'he nis but a child' is now 'he is but a child'; here north. dialects use nobbut prep., conj., and adv. = nought but, not but, 'he is nobbut a child'.)


ʤOED ǤLangland (1393) ˡνȤʤäƤ뤬MED but (conj. (also quasi adj., adv., and prep.)) 2a ˤС13 The Owl and the Nightingale 㤬롥
û̡άݤȤƤϡne butan > but Ѳϡ"negative cycle" Ȥͭ̾ʥե󥹸 ne . . . pas > pas ѲȤ롥pas ְ (pace) ۤɤΰ̣ǡľܤΰ̣ôƤ ne ȶ򶯤Ư򤷤Ƥne ޤäƼ줿̡pas 켫Τΰ̣ƤޤäΤǤʸˤ Ce n'est pas possible. > C'est pas possible. Ѳ򻲾ȡˡ pas ηФѲϡΰ̣򼺤ΰ̣ȤѲǤ뤫顤#1586. ʬβ̶ʬ ([2013-08-30-1]) Ǽ Croft νѸǤ "metanalysis" Ȥ
ΤˡȤȶƤ꼭æǡΰ̣ȤǤ϶̤ƤꡤŪû̡άǤˡ̣δϰ̣ž (meaning transfer) Ȥ (contagion) ȤƤ֤ȤǤbut pas ΥǤϡˤư㤤롥 (115) Ѥ褦ʸʸηϡǤˤƤˡ

ne + pas Ǥϡ꼭 ne ΰ̣ pas ΰ̣ҰӤȴ֤줿ΤФơ but ȯãǤϡbutan ΰ̣ϤΤޤݻ졤Τ ne ΰ̣žƤ롥˴ؤƶ̣Τϡ꼭 ne ϲŪ˾äƤޤäΤˡ̣ʤ˴Τ褦˻ĤäƤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ but ˡǤϡά줿Ǥΰ̣žƤ֤but ¾ˡ٤ựʣˤʤäƤ롥


äơbut ηФѲϡCroft Τ "metanalysis" ˤϸ̩ƤϤޤʤ褦˸롥Ĥϡbut ηФѲ򡤴 (contagion) ǤϤʤûŪ (contractive contagion) ɽpas ѲȤ϶̤Ƥ롥ʤStern ϤΥ̣Ѳ෿Τʤ Shortening ʤ٤ ClippingˤȤƵ󤲤Ƥʡ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
ְ̣Ѳסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ106--33ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-07-30-1]

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2014-08-01 Fri

#1922. singular they ޤ뵬ʸˡ (3) [singular_they][prescriptive_grammar][gender][number][personal_pronoun][language_myth]

([2014-07-30-1]) ([2014-07-31-1]) ³ƤꡥˤѸ̤ѤƤ̿;ΤФ singular they ϡ18εʸˡδ˽äơ񤵤褦ˤʤäǤ᤯16ꡤʤ he ˡȤͤϲƤBodine (134) ˤȡT. Wilson 1553ǯ Arte of rhetorique ͥȤ븫Ƥ롥

Some will set the Carte before the horse, as thus. My mother and my father are both at home, even as thoughe the good man of the house ware no breaches, or that the graye Mare were the better Horse. And what thoughe it often so happeneth (God wotte the more pitte) yet in speaking at the leaste, let us kepe a natural order, and set the man before the woman for maners Sake. (1560 ed.: 189)


ƱͤˡBodine (134) ˤȡ7ˤ J. Pool English accidence (1646: 21) Ʊͤθ򼨤Ƥ롥

The Relative agrees with the Antecedent in gender, number, and person. . . The Relative shall agree in gender with the Antecedent of the more worthy gender: as, the King and the Queen whom I honor. The Masculine gender is more worthy than the Feminine.


Bodine (135) ϡ̿;Τ he ܳŪʸλȤƺǽΤΤ Kirby A new English grammar (1746) ǤȸƤ롥Kirby 88쵬§ϤȤƷǤ Rule 21 βսǤ롥

The masculine Person answers to the general Name, which comprehends both Male and Female; as Any Person, who knows what he says. (117)


ʹߡθϹ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥L. Murray English grammar (1795) ϤȤεʸˡȤϤä he ٻthey 򤳤ƤĬήĺAct of Parliament (1850) ϡhe or she he ֤٤ȤˡŪʸڤǤ롥
ơKirby Rule 21 ³ Rule 22 ϡǤϤʤ򰷤äƤ뤬εȤؤäƤΤǾҲ𤷤Ƥϰ;ΤˤñʣϤߤ˸򴹤뤳ȤǤȤ롼Ǥꡤ㤨 "The Life of Man" "The Lives of Men" ƱͤǤȤΤBodine (136) ϡKirby Rule 21, 22 Act of Parliament ˤϵη٤ȻŦ롥

Thus, the 1850 Act of Parliament and Kirby's Rules 21-2 manifest their underlying androcentric values and world-view in two ways. First, linguistically analogous phenomena (number and gender) are handled very differently (singular or plural as generic vs. masculine only as generic). Second, the precept just being established is itself violated in not allowing singular 'they', since if the plural 'shall be deemed and taken' to include the singular, then surely 'they' includes 'she' and 'he' and 'she or he'.


ϡε ([2014-07-31-1]) Ǽ夲ˤ̤롥̿;Τ he ˡȤϡȤˤäƺ졤ƤοäǤȤäƤ褤⤷ʤ

Bodine, Ann. "Androcentrism in Prescriptive Grammar: Singular 'they', Sex-Indefinite 'he,' and 'he or she'." Language in Society 4 (1975): 129--46.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-11-27-1] [2016-01-16-1]

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