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2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ε#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1]) ǡӤȯãˡեƥб빽¤ͿƤǽ˿줿ä˥եƶϤФеƤѸȥեζӤι¤ۤʤäƤȡ줫եѸ줫Ȥˤ餺ӤѤƤȤʤɤ顤ƶǧʤΩ⤢롥
Mustanoja (280) ϡե졤ƥ줫ƶβǽˤĤƿŤ˵ĤĤ⡤̣ͿƤ롥
It is not easy to assess the influence of Latin and French on the development of English comparison. It is perhaps not altogether impossible that Latin influence has played a part in this process, particularly in the earlier stages. And considering the fact that periphrastic comparison begins to gain ground in English at a time when French influence is particularly strong, it seems reasonable to assume that the influence of this language has considerably strengthened the position of more and most in the English system of comparison. Another point which seems to speak for foreign influence is that the periphrastic mode of comparison does not seem to be favoured by living popular speech. 'The comparison of adjectives is formed in the [modern English] dialects by adding the comparative suffix -er and the superlative -est to practically all adjectives, polysyllabic as well as monosyllabic. More and most are as a rule only used to supplement or intensify the regular comparison, as more beautifuller, most worst' (Elizabeth M. Wright, Rustic Speech and Folk-lore, London 1913, p. 145).
⤷ǸȤСӤζӤλȤʬϡ衤βȤ (medium) ʸ (style) ʤɤλѰ (register) ˰¸ƤȤˤʤ롥ޤλȤʬϡѸΥɤˤȥե졤ƥμҲŪϰ̤κбȤˤĤʤäƤ¾Ūʸ椬˾ޤ롥
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ѸˤϡƻӵȺǾΤˡ̾2Ĥˡ롥 -er, -est դӤȡmore, most ֤뱪ŪʶӤǤʡֶӡפθƾΤˤĤƤϡ#456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1]) ȡˡξʤʬۤȤʬˤˤĤƤϡ#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1]) ȡ#773. PPCMBE COHA ӡ ([2011-06-09-1]) ǴϢ夲٤äΤǡϤ⤦겼
ӤϡޥħŪʼʤǤꡤѸˤƤűѸǤ롥űѸǤ϶Ӥʤä13˽ ma, mo, mara, more; mast, most ʤɤˤӤ롥εϡűѸˤ mā, bet, swīþor; betst, swīþost ʤɤ줬ưʬ֤줿¤ˤȤ롥
ӤȯãطʤˤϡĤװä1ĤˤϸűѸˤߤ줿 inemest (inmost), norþmest (northmost) ʤɤ -mest αƶäȻפ롥츻ŪŪˤ -mest ϡȤ˺Ǿɽ魯 m est ӤĤ2źǾθǤꡤΩ mæst ȤϴطʤΤξԤƱ˻äʴϢơ#1307. most mest ([2012-11-24-1]) ȡ#1320. LAEME Ǹ most ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2012-12-07-1]) ⻲ȡˡۤˡեƥбӤαƶ⤢ä⤷ʤ (ex. plus beau, le plus beau; magis dignus, maxime dignus) Ūˤϡ礫ʬϤؤȤѸŪѲȤ⡤ӤȯŸߤ뤳ȤǤˡΧװθ٤Ǥ롥
Ӥ14ޤǤϻȯŪä15ˤʤȤˤȤʤä-ly ζӤѸǽФФ餯ϵä14ˤȤʤä
ʤӤνλѤˤƤϡѸηȤϰۤʤꡤष12û㤬¿Ȥ̣ޤless, least ˤӤϸűѸ̤ꡤmore, most ᤤȤΤ⤪⤷ʾ塤 (13) Mustanoja (278--80) ȤƼɮ
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ҲؤȤƼ夲 diglossia ϡФбѸˤˤŬѤƤˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1203. ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ ([2012-08-12-1])
#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#2148. Ѹ diglossia ̤ bilingualism ʸ ([2015-03-15-1])
#2328. Ѹ¿ѡ ([2015-09-11-1])
ñ㲽ƽҤ٤СűѸ diglossia λ塤Ѹ triglossia λǤ롥νˤϡƥϤޤ礭ʤäꥹȶդƤ椯ˤĤ졤μҲŪʽҲ diglossia ȤʤäNevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272) ˤС
. . . Anglo-Saxon England became a diglossic society, in that one language came to be used in one set of circumstances, i.e. Latin as the language of religion, scholarship and education, while another language, English, was used in an entirely different set of circumstances, namely in all those contexts in which Latin was not used. In other words, Latin became the High language and English, in its many different dialects, the Low language.
פʤΤϡѸΥ衼åѤǤ㳰ŪˡˡΧʸؤȤŵŪ High variety λѤդ路ȤʬˤƤѤ줿ȤǤ롥űѸ diglossia ϡǤ§ŪǤ롥
ѸȡɼҲˤѤʣ롥Ƥ Nevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272--73) Ѥ롥
This diglossic situation was complicated by the coming of the Normans in 1066, when the High functions of the English language which had evolved were suddenly taken over by French. Because the situation as regards Latin did not change --- Latin continued to be primarily the language of religion, scholarship and education --- we now have what might be referred to as a triglossic situation, with English once more reduced to a Low language, and the High functions of the language shared by Latin and French. At the same time, a social distinction was introduced within the spoken medium, in that the Low language was used by the common people while one of the High languages, French, became the language of the aristocracy. The use of the other High language, Latin, at first remained strictly defined as the medium of the church, though eventually it would be adopted for administrative purposes as well. . . . [T]he functional division of the three languages in use in England after the Norman Conquest neatly corresponds to the traditional medieval division of society into the three estates: those who normally fought used French, those who worked, English, and those who prayed, Latin.
ΤȸѸˤƥեλѤꡤѸˤϥƥλʬ⤺äȸ¤褦ˤʤꡤ̤Ȥƥɤ monoglossia ҲذܹԤʹߡѸϤषϤ diglossia triglossia ˡ High variety ȤƴͿƤΤǤ롥
Nevalainen, Terttu and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. "Standardisation." Chapter 5 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 271--311.
#2341. ɽʸɽʸ ([2015-09-24-1]) ʸ˿줿ɽʸ (ideogram) ɽʸ (logogram) ɽʸ (phonogram) äȡפʸ郎Ф#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1]) Ǥϳơñ˲⤷٤äϤ3ʸˤĤơ䤬ܲƤȤιͤϪϡʲοޤˤޤȤ롥ޤǤϤʤɤλĤޤǤϤΤʸΤȤƼ

ޤʸˤжˤˤ2ϡɽŪɽ (ideographic writing) ɽŪɽ (phonetic writing) Ǥ롥Ԥϰ̣ɽ路Ԥϲɽ魯Ū˸СԤϽ국 (signifié) Τߤɽ路Ԥǽ (signifiant) Τߤɽ魯ޤǤСˤĤжˤˤȤȤǤ롥
ɽʸɽʸϡǤʤ˴ؤƤ֤Ƥ롥ɽʸϡ̾ΥΡ뤤ϸ쳰γǰؤƤꡤɬľܤ˸ñ̤ȷӤĤƤʤΤФơɽʸϡ̾첻ɽ路Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤɽʸɬŪǤϤʤɽʸϸŪǤ롥
ξԤŪʰ֤ΤɽʸǤ롥ɽʸϸȤ餫˸Ūñ̤ؤƤΤǡǤϱü˰֤Ƥ뤬ļˤĤƤŪ뤤϶ͭŪǤ롥ȤϽ국ǽåȤˤʤäΤǤ뤫顤ɽ魯ɽʸ⡤ʤ국ǽɽ魯ȤǤ롥
ŪˤϡɽʸɽʸȯŸɽʸؤȿʤɽʸȤơʣȤ߹碌ɽ綠ȤƤñ̤ϡ䲻ǤǤϤʤǤ롥̻ŪˤⶦŪˤ⡤ˤʸϡɽ˿ԤΤǤϤʤȹͤ롥ɽϡּ꤫餷Ƥ⡤ǤХΤ褤ʸʤΤǤϤʤ
#2333. a lot of ([2015-09-16-1]) ǡѸǶˤ٤ι⤤ζ (phrasal determiner) ˤ200ǯ;Ǥ뤳Ȥߤ19ޤǤϡζˤ lot ϡְ컳ȡġ췲פۤɤθѤƤꡤθ塤褦䤯¿¿̡פθȤȤäǡѸˤ a lot of lots of ǧ٤CLMET3.0 ʸäƤߤʸ̤Υƥȥե
1 (1710--1780) Υ֥ѥ10,480,431ˤ4㤬ҥåȤ¿?פ̣ȤƤѤƤʤa lot of my own drawing Ǥϡ¿פǤϤʤְ컳פθȤѤƤꡤ"Annuities for lives have occasionally been granted in two different ways; either upon separate lives, or upon lots of lives" Ǥ餫ˡֽġפθǽʤɤǤϡ¿פؤȯŸƤʷϵϴ롥
2 (1780--1850) Υ֥ѥ11,285,587ˤ22㤬줿ͽ̤ꡤˡǻȤƤΤۤȸФĤʸ褦
You know when a lot of servants gets together they like to talk about their betters; and some, for a bit of swagger, likes to make it appear as though they knew more than they do, and to throw out hints and things just to astonish the others. (Anne Brontë, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848))
Therell be lots to speak for her! (ibid.)
. . . there's a high fender, and an iron safe, and some cards about ships that are going to sail, and an almanack, and some desks and stools, and an inkbottle, and some books, and some boxes, and a lot of cobwebs, . . . (Charles Dickens, Dombey and Son (1844))
. . . I ran on through a lot of alleys and back-slums, until I got somewhere in St. Giles's, and here I took a cab. (Punch, Vol. 1 (1841))
a lot of οΰפȽǤǤʸϾʤä1ʸ̣ a lot of servants Ф gets ȼƤ뤬ư -s ϡ³ some . . . likes ȽǤƤ⡤ʣ˰פʣߤ -s ȹͤΤʣ -s ˤĤƤ 3pp γƵȡˡ
3 (1850--1920) Υ֥ѥ12,620,207ˤϡɽټΤ384㤬ҥåȤlot(s) θѤƤ⾯ߤ뤬ŪˤϸѸ¤ȵ̤ۤˡ¿?פΰ̣ѤƤ롥1800ǯ˽Фθǯǰ쵤˹ޤäήԸˡǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
̾ˤϡacoustics, aesthetics, bionomics, conics, dynamics, economics, electronics, ethics, genetics, linguistics, mathematics, metaphysics, optics, phonetics, physics, politics, statics, statistics, tectonics Τ褦 -ics ΤĤΤŪ¿-ic ǽ arithmetic, logic, magic, music, rhetoric Τ褦⾯롥ǯdialectic(s), dogmatic(s), ethic(s), metaphysic(s), physic(s), static(s) ʤɡ -ics Фơɥĸեˡ˱ƶ -ic ѤФƤƤꡤ䤳
-ic -ics ΰ㤤ϡüŪˤзƻ줫ž̾ñʣΰ㤤Ǥ롥?˴ؤפ̣ƻ̾첽ơ?˴ؤ뤳ȡפȤˤäƤϤʣˤơ?˴ؤפȤơΤȤμɽ魯Ȥ츻ºݾ塤ñʣΤ˰̣Ūʶ̤ĤƤ櫓ǤʤΤǡ䤹
-ic -ics Τ줫뤫Ȥϡ̣Ȥϡ֤ˤ˾Ȥ餷ƹͤɬפ롥ʥǤ륮ꥷޤ̤äƤߤ褦ꥷǤϡ̾ technē, theōria, philosophia ʤɽ̾ɽ蘆Τ̤Ǥꡤƻ -ikos ͳ褹̾⤽ν -ikē ȼäɽ蘆줿ēthikē, mousikē, optikē, rētorikē ǡǤ롥
-ikos ʣ -ika ϡ?˴ؤפۤɤθȼäʸ̾ȤѤ뤳Ȥä (ex. ta politikē) ʸ̾ϡΤޤ̾ؤỌ̇̄ŪȯŸ뤲뤳Ȥäᡤʣ -ika νñ -ikē ϤȤ˳̾ɽ魯ƱȤʤä (ex. physikē / physika, taktikē / taktika)
θ줬ƥؼѤ줿Ȥʤ뺮Ʊꥷ -ika -ikē ϡƥǤƱ -ica ȤƼѤ줿ΤǤ롥ƥǤϡŪˤθ줬ñͳ褹Τʣͳ褹Τ̤ĤʤʤäΥޥɥĸǤϡϰӤñʽ˷ͳ褹ΤȲᤵ졤ߤ˻롥
ѸǤϡ1500ǯμѸ˴ؤƤϡñȲᤵ졤ե臘 arsmetike, economique, ethyque, logike, magike, mathematique, mechanique, musike, retorique ʤɤ֤줿15顤ꥷʣ̤Ȥ˴ŤαѸΤʤȤ etiques ʤɤη롥16ȾϡꥷǤ⤿ɤäʤʸ̾ͳƳ̾ؤȯŸѸǤ֤ⷫ졤1600ǯʹߤϡ-ics ̾ɽ魯ŪȤ夷Ƥ-ics γ̾ϡ־ʣȤ뤬ѸǤ졦̣ǤñȤʤäƤ롥
绨ĤˤСѸˤȤäƸŤ -ic -ics ȤʬۤȤˤʤ뤬ζܤ16դȤ̣⡤ŵؤƴݤħŤ줿ѹͥθŪȿǤ⤷ʤ
ʸμˤĤơ#422. ʸμ ([2010-06-23-1]) #1822. ʸη ([2014-04-23-1]) ʤɤǹͤƤʸŪʸǤ⡤ɸ˷Ǥɽʸ (ideogram) ɽʸ (logogram) ɬΤΡξԤΰ㤤ȤʤȡƤڤ줬ФξԤƱƱ뤵뤳Ȥ⤢褦ˡξԤΤˤʤ㤤ΤΤƤͤɬ¿ʤϤӤäƤ뤳ȤϡBloomfield (285) μλŦΤ롥ɽʸΤȤɽʸפƤ¿褦
Systems of writing which use a symbol for each word of the spoken utterance, are known by the misleading name of ideographic writing. The important thing about writing is precisely this, that the characters represent not features of the practical world ("ideas"), but features of the writers' language; a better name, accordingly, would be word-writing or logographic writing.
äɽʸȤΤ⤢뤳Ȥϻ¤Ǥ롥ºݡΩɽʸȤΤʤȤɽŪʸλѤϤ롥
ɽʸȤϡˤ1ʤ꾮Ǥξ⤢뤬ˤбʸǤ롥ŵŪʸ쵭1ĤǤ뤫顤ǽ (signifiant) Ƚ국 (signifié) ӤĤñ̤Ǥ롥ñ̤Ф1ʸбƤȤɽʸȹͤ롥<> ȤˤȤȡܸʸ̮ǤϡĿʪɽ魯ڡפȤ1ˤ줤бƤΤǡɽʸȤäƤ褤ˤǽȽ국ξޤޤƤΤǡɽ魯 <> ʸˤ⡤/ki/ Ȥɤߤȡڡפΰ̣ξޤޤƤ롥ƱȤϡŪˤʣʹ¤ <> δˤĤƤ⤤롥
<> δΤȤƤ <> ƱɽʸȤ뤬ǤϡǤȤƤФʬܤСʬ <> ȤΩξƱͤɽŪȤäƤ褤Фϡ켫Τǽ⤿¸θˤʷǤˤбʤΤ顤ɽŪȤΤϤդ路ʤڤ˴ؤ뤳ȡڤμפȤۤɤξϴˤäƤꡤθ¤ˤɽŪǤȤ롥ФΩʸǤϤʤΤǡɽʸȸڤ뤳ȤϤǤʤɽŪʵǽäƤȤȤϤ (cf. #1197. Ѹ겾̾ ([2012-08-06-1]))
ʸɽɽϡŪˤϤΤ褦˶̤Ƥɬפ롥ܤ̯ʥΤˤ롥Ѹˤ륢ӥͤƤߤ褦<2> ȤʸʿˤϡѸǤ two ȤбŵŪɽʸȹͤƤ褤<2nd> ɽϤɤ3ʸʤ <2nd> ȤֻΤȤƤϡñ second бƤꡤɽʸƤ褤1ʸܤ <2> ФơˤϲȤФ褤ξ <2> ϡ¸β餫αñˤбƤ餺̣ȤƤΡ2פɽ路ƤˤȤɤޤ롥äơ <2> ɽʸŪѤƤȤ٤ϡ<> ˤФˤˤƤ롥ʤߤˡ³ <nd> ɽʸȤƵǽƤ롥ñΤȤƤ <2> ɽʸФΤ褦˻ȤƤ <2nd> <2> ɽʸȤ롥顤<2> ɽʸǤפȰŪ˸ڤ뤳ȤϤǤ<2> Ϥˡ˱ơɽŪˤɽŪˤⵡǽΤǤ롥դ꤬
Edgerton (150) Ѹʸ̮Ǥ <2> ˤĤơ˶̣ʬϤäƤ롥<222> "two hundred twenty-two" ʤɤɤޤ뤬㤨 "hundred" ɤߤϤɤȯΤȡǽ <2> two hundred Ȥʸ̩ˤ2Ȥ߹碌ˤб2Ĥ <2> twenty ȤбǸ <2> two ȤбȤ褦ˡơɽʸȤƵǽƤΤβˤ̵褦˻פ롥ꤹ줿ͤϡʸˤ2פ˴Ϣ̣ʤ줾2100ܡ10ܡ1ܡˤɽ路ƤɽʸǤȤơºݤλѤ˺ݤƤϡȤ10ˡȷγǰŬѤΤȤƤɽ魯ɽʸȤʤ롥
ʸݤˤϡɽʸǤȤɽʸǤʤɤȥƥꥫϡʸѤ˱ɽŪˤʤ롤뤤ɽŪˤʤȤ褦뤳Ȥɬפʾ¿ΤǤϤʤ
Edgerton, William F. "Ideograms in English Writing." Journal of the Linguistic Society of America 17 (1941): 148--50.
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
ε ([2015-09-22-1]) ˰³Vachek ʸȤơդμΩˤĤƹͤ롥Vachek ϡפʤȤ顤դäդʴطĥ롥ɽ (phonetic transcription) ֻɤ߾夲 (spelling out) Ǥ롥
ɽä̩ʲɽ (narrow phonetic transcription) ϡŪˤϤޤɤߤˤؤǤͭѤŪɤ߽ѤȤˤʤäؤޤʤʤȤɤ⤦ȤʤСɽɤʤ顤ä˽ФƬDz뤳ȤˤäơŪˤñΤȤǧ뤳Ȥˤʤ줿ɽƤƤޤǤˡĤιФʤФʤʤɽǤϤʤ̾ʸֻǤСƤƤޤǤιϡäȤäľŪǤ롥
ֻɤ߾夲Ȥϡ1ʸ˽Фƥڥ륢ȤΤǡ㤨 apple ǤС1ʸ [eɪ piː piː ɛl iː] (= A P P L E) ɤ߾夲롤ΤǤ롥 [ðɪs ɪz ən æpl] (= This is an apple.) ʹСΤޤƤȤ[tiː eɪʧ aɪ ɛs aɪ ɛs eɪ ɛn eɪ piː piː ɛl iː] (= T H I S I S A N A P P L E) 1ʸɤ߾夲줿ɤʹʤ1ʸɤäƤƬֻȤΩƤơThis is an apple. ΤȤȻפ롤ʤȤ꤯ɤи뤳Ȥˤʤ롥1ʸĤɤ߾夲ʹʤƤޤǤˡĤιФʤФʤʤɽֻɤ߾夲ϡγϤȽλ𤳤ߤ˰ۤʤäƤ뤬ޤǤιҤɤ꤯ɤǶ̤Ƥ롥ޤˤͳˤꡤŪˤѤʤΤǤ롥
ɽֻɤ߾夲ζ̹Vachek ΤȤФɽС "a sign of the second order"Ĥޤ국εǤȤȤФơäդˤ첻դˤʸֻϡ"a sign of the first order"ĤޤľŪʵǤ롥δطʲοޤǼƤߤ
+---------------+----------------+--------------------------+ | | | | | | Speech | Writing | | | | | | | +---------------+-------+--------+------------+-------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | phones | letters | | First order | phonemes | graphemes | | | | spellings | | | | | | | | | +---------------+-----------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | Second order | spelling out | phonetic transcription | | | | | | | | | | | | | +---------------+----------------+--------------------------+
(writing) äդμΩ䡤 (medium) ˴ؤˤĤơܵ˥ĥä濴ˡ¿Ƥ˴ؿƤΤϡؤǤϡäդФ˴ؿ졤դϾäդλʼ̤ȤƤߤʤ졤ŪʰƤȤФ뤫Ǥ롥˸ؤˤƤϡΤۤȤɤʸǤꡤդܼƤʤ¤ꡤƳϰ̣ʤʤϤǤ롥ˤ⤫餺ؤϤޤDzŻǤޤͤʤǤ
դμΩʤäդ¤ΩȤƱϰ̤Ϳ褦Ȥʤä櫓ǤϤʤषʤԤĥƤ (e.g. #1928. Smith ˤ٥γإǥưŪǥ ([2014-08-07-1])) ŻθؤĬΤʤǡ϶¾ƤƱǤ롥
դμΩ붯Ϥʵ1ĤȤơǶɤ Vachek ʸҲ𤷤70ǯۤΡ褷ƿȤϤʤʸ¤ڤ줬롥ϡVachek ŬʸϤȴФƤݤΤߤĤߤޤäդϽդ̤ȤǤפȤ꤬̿Ƥ֤˿롥
There is a more or less generally accepted belief among students of language that writing and phonetic transcription are to be regarded as two ways of recording speech utterances. (86)
ϸǤ롥٤Vachek ϲֻɤ߾夲ʸɽδطŪƼϤΤŸ롥". . . writing is by no means the inferior pseudotranscription it has been taken for by the vast majority of scholars." (90) ȽҤ٤줿ȡʸθȾˤơΤ褦ʸϤ롥
Even if writing in the cultural languages of to-day undoubtedly represents a more or less autonomous system (constituting a sign of the first order . . . ), it is a well-known fact that it developed historically from a kind of quasi-transcription and was thus, indeed, originally a sign of the second order. This was regularly the case in the earliest stages of cultural languages, when members of their linguistic communities were trying hard to preserve fleeting spoken utterances by putting them down in writing. Soon, however, such a secondary system of signs became a primary one, i.e. written signs began to be bound directly to the content. (91)
ĤޤꡤŪˤϽդϳΤäդȹͤƤ褤äȤƳΩȡ˼ΩؤߤŪˤäդƱȤ¤ΩĤ˻Ȥεϡ#1664. CMC (computer-mediated communication) ([2013-11-16-1]) ˴ؤ Crystal ŸƤƱǤ롥
ơǸ˼Τ褦롥
Writing cannot be flatly dismissed as an imperfect, conservative quasi-transcription, as has been done up to the present day. On the contrary, writing is a system in its own right, adapted to fulfil its own specific functions, which are quite different from the functions proper to a phonetic transcription. (93)
η˻εʤΤˤĤƤεǡ
#79. øؤ inspiration ([2009-07-16-1])
#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])
#748. äդȽա ([2011-05-15-1])
#839. register ([2011-08-14-1])
#849. äդȽ (2) ([2011-08-24-1])
#1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])
#1655. ɤΤܤɤΤ ([2013-11-07-1])
#1665. äȤФȽȤ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])
#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])
#2292. ֻȯϥפǤĤʤ줿2ۤΥܡȡ ([2015-08-06-1])
#2301. äդȽդĤʤڥȥ ([2015-08-15-1])
Vachek, Josef. "Some Remarks on Writing and Phonemic Transcription." Acta Linguistica 5 (1945--49): 86--93.
ε ([2015-09-20-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ16 hem, 'em Ժߡ뤤٤ȤˤĤơEEBO (Early English Books Online) Υƥȥǡ١ѤơʰƤߤ̤ϡư hem ޤᡤλäƤꡤǫ˽֤ϼäƤʤΤΡ16ϳΤ˶ü˾ʤȤ狼ä
16ȾΤϡAndrew Boorde, The pryncyples of astronamye (1547) ˸ "doth geue influence to hem the which be borne vnder this signe" 1ΤߤǤ롥16Ⱦ300ۤɤΥ֥ѥΤʤǡˤ'em ˻äƤϡ16ȾΥ֥ѥޤƤ㤬ʤ
16ȾΥ֥ѥǤ⡤hem ϾȤϤƾѤʤF. T., The debate betweene Pride and Lowlines (1577) ʤƥȤˤ "for they doon hem blame", "For which hem thinketh they should been aboue" ʤɤJoseph Hall, Certaine worthye manuscript poems of great antiquitie reserued long in the studie of a Northfolke gentleman (1597) ȤˤƤŤᤫΤʤDz٤줿ꤹ٤Ǥ
17֥ѥθ̰äįȡhem ٤ȤݤϤʤ'em ϤᡤٳĥƤͻҤǤ롥Ԥ 'em νиϡݥȥեȤɵ漫Τγ礬17ˤƿʹԤȤȴط (see #582. apostrophe ([2010-11-30-1]))
hem, 'em Ū³ȤˤĤƤϡ16ˤ⤫㤬ʸڤȤȤ顤³ǧƤ褤ȤϹͤ롥ǤϤäˤѤƤȤ¬⡤餯ʤʸϤξˤۤȤȿǤʤäΤȤϻĤ뤷17ʹߤ褷ƤݤˡǤ˶Ūˤ them ξάȲᤵƤǽˤĤƤɤͤ뤫ȤĤ롥ϡޤȤäƤ褤
#2331. Ѹˤ3;ʣ̾ʳŪ th- ([2015-09-14-1]) κǸǿ줿褦ˡŤ3;ʣ̾Ϳʤͳ褹 hem 뤤Ϥμ 'em ϡɸѸǤ1500ǯޤǤ them ˤִۤ줿16ʹߡŪʶäƺƤʸ˸Ф'em ϡߤθ I got 'em. ˤߤ褦ˡޤκפĤƤȤ뤬űѸѸ줫鸽ѸˤŪ³ĥ뤿ˤϡ16ξڵԺߤȤʤꤽWyld (327--28) ˿Ƥ롥
The history of hem is rather curious. It survives in constant use among nearly all writers during the fifteenth century, often alongside the th- form. I have not noted any sixteenth-century example of it in the comparatively numerous documents I have examined, until quite at the end of the century. It reappears, however, in Marston and Chapman early in the seventeenth century, and in the form 'em occurs, though sparingly, in the Verney Mem. towards the end of the seventeenth century, where the apostrophe shows that already it was thought to be a weakened form of them. During the eighteenth century 'em becomes fairly frequent in printed books, and it is in common use to-day as [əm]. It is rather difficult to explain the absence of such forms as hem or em in the sixteenth century, since the frequency at a later period seems to show that, at any rate, the weak form without the aspirate must have survived throughout. The explanation must be that em, though commonly used, was felt, as now, to be merely a form of them.
Wyld ϡ16 hem, 'em ϸȤ³ƤϤǤ them Ρ줿άȤƤꡤʸϤξȿǤ뵡ʤäΤȤո
βդڵϤ롥Wyld 16㤬г̵ȤƤ뤬OED 'em, pron. Ūʸįȡ촴첻ɤ̵뤹Сhem 'em तϡΤ˾ʤΤΡĤʸڤ롥
a1525 (a1500) Sc. Troy Bk. (Douce) 143 in C. Horstmann Barbour's Legendensammlung (1882) II. 233 A ferlyfule sowne sodeynly Among heme maide was hydwisly.
a1525 Eng. Conquest Ireland (Trin. Dublin) (1896) 28 He bad ham well þorwe that thay sholden yn al manere senden after more of har kyn.
c1540 (?a1400) Gest Historiale Destr. Troy (2002) f. 66, Sotly hyt semys not surfetus harde No vnpossibill thys pupull perfourme in dede That fyuetymes fewer before home has done.
1579 Spenser Shepheardes Cal. May 27 Tho to the greene Wood they speeden hem all.
1589 'M. Marprelate' Hay any Worke for Cooper 48 Ile befie em that will say so of me.
ŪϢ³ĥΤ˼餬ĤʤäȤ٤ǡ16ϳΤʤ褦Ǥ롥ŪʸȤʸϤȿǤ뵡ʤäȤˤĤƤ⡤⤦겼ƹͤɬפꤽ
ʤ18ˡSwift 'em 餷ʤˡȤƤ뤳ȤդäƤWyld (329) ۩
Note that this form ['em] became so widespread in the early eighteenth-century speech that Swift complains that 'young readers in our churches in the prayer for the Royal Family, say endue'um, enrich'um, prosper'um, and bring'um. Tatler, No. 230 (1710).
Wyld, Henry Cecil. A History of Modern Colloquial English. 3rd ed. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1936.
ǶǤϡƥʬϤΤιⵡǽʥġ뤬ڤǤ褦ˤʤäѸ쥳ѥʬϤץʤɤǤϡѸ˴Ťͤ͡졤䤹롥Τ褦ʥġƸɬפʤȤФʤʰץƥʬϴ CGI ƤߤΤǡ hellog ǤȤȤ֤ƤƥȥܥåʸϤꤲ
ѹϡIJιǤ롥ˤϡȵIJ褤ˤȤǽǤꡤparliament ȤñΤİյ礭ѸˤˤƤ⥤ɵIJˤϽפǤꡤΤȤϺε#2334. ѸȵIJȯŸ ([2015-09-17-1]) ǿ줿̤Ǥ롥ޤ#880. ˤ⥤ꥹѸ졤ˤ⥢ꥫѸñ ([2011-09-24-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡparliament ϡꥫѸФƥꥹѸħŤ륭ɤ1ĤȤʤäƤ롥
parliament ȤϡAnglo-Norman parlement, parliment, parliament Old French, Middle French parlement 13˱ѸؼѤ줿ΤǤꡤϡä礤ġפǤ (cf. ModF parler (to speak); PDE parley) θȤʤƥǤ parlamentum ȤѤ줿ꥹʸΥƥˤƤϡФ parliamentum ֻԤƤѸǤϼ -e- ʤɤֻŪǤꡤ-ia- ֻѤ褦ˤʤΤ15Ǥ롥MED parlement(e (n.) ˤꡤ¿ֻͤǧ줿
-ia- ȯŸˤĤƤϡΤʤȤϤ狼äƤʤƥư -iare 䡤бե -ier αƶäȤ⤵ (cf. post-classical L maniamentum (manyment), merciamentum (merciament)) ѸǤϡ-ia- ȯ /ə/ б뤳Ȥա
parliament ȤȤλؼоݤŪôϤΤϡHenry III (߰ 1216--72) μˤƤǤ롥OALD8 parliament ιʸ˰ʲεҤä1ˡ˱ѹˤΥåͤޤäƤ뤳Ȥ
The word 'parliament' was first used in the 13th century, when Henry III held meetings with his noblemen to raise money from them for government and wars. Several kings found that they did not have enough money, and so they called together representatives from counties and towns in England to ask them to approve taxes. Over time, the noblemen became the House of Lords and the representatives became the House of Commons. The rise of political parties in the 18th century led to less control and involvement of the sovereign, leaving government in the hands of the cabinet led by the prime minister. Although the UK is still officially governed by Her Majesty's Government, the Queen does not have any real control over what happens in Parliament. Both the House of Lords and the House of Commons meet in the Palace of Westminster, also called the Houses of Parliament, in chambers with several rows of seats facing each other where members of the government sit on one side and members of the Opposition sit on the other. Each period of government, also called a parliament, lasts a maximum of five years and is divided into one-year periods called sessions.
Υޥ (norman_conquest) Ǥäϰ̤βѸ줬ѸȾФեƥ˹ƽƤˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ reestablishment_of_english γƵǼ夲ƤѸϿˤ錄ʲǤ뤿ᡤγʳǤζŪʾȤ館ˤǡƱ˿ʹԤ#2321. ֻɸಽδĬή ([2015-09-04-1]) Ȥ롥μŪ褯뤿ˤϡƱ͡ʳ٤įᡤΩŪ夲Ƥʤ
ϢȤơ#2330. 13--14ɤˡΧޤλѸ ([2015-09-13-1]) 夲ϡǤ줿ФΡɤߤ䤹ľδˤ륤ꥹ˳ꡤƱˡΧޤλѸȤ顤ѸˤĤƿƤս꤬ΤǡѤ
֥Υޥװʸ塤ɵ²ϥեǤꡤʸʤɤˤϥƥ줬ѤƤ줬ˤ֥ΥޥӼװʹߡ²δ֤ǤѸ줬Ū˻Ȥ졤ɥ3ΰ컰ϻǯϵIJǤ˱Ѹ줿̱ˤϥե줬Ǥʤؤ¿ȤȤؤäƤ
IJθʸΤۤϡȾޤǤϥƥȤȤ˥ե줬ȤƤȬǯˡƤѸȤʤäʵIJˡΤϥƥΤޤޡˡŪˡȤǧֹˤ۲ġסʥ롦ȡˤ⡤켷ȾޤǤϥե줬ȤƤʰϻͶǯˤȤȤ˱Ѹľ졤ʸ庣ޤ³Ƥ롥 (134--35)
ѤǤ⼨ƤȤꡤѸϡIJȯŸȾʤ餺¹ԤƤ롥13ʹߡɤβϡJohn μäΦϤåԤ٤ʩƤ椯Ѥ롥ä14ɴǯ˺ݤơEdward III ĴãΤ˹̱ФǤᤷǤˤλޤǤˤϡǤǼԤɽޤIJξǧʤƤϼ¸ˤƷȤʤäƤˤIJ䤬礭ʤꡤơ³ʤɤƤΤEdward III μ (1327--77) äλˡѸ줬ŪʻѤǧƤ椯褦ˤʤȤΤϡǤϤʤ
äդǤϾ嵭Τ褦˱Ѹ塹ȿʤդǤϤޤޤʪեȥƥ줬Ф餯ѸȤƤϰ̤³뤳ȤˤʤäǤ⡤ñ̤ǤߤСϤŪʱѸĬήϡѸȾФˤϤǤޤƤȤߤƤ褤
ľδʪ졡ꥹˡʾˡ١ҡӡ2015ǯ
914դǡa lot of ɤơ¿Ρפ̣褦ˤʤäΤȤϡѸˤ˸ؤδϡ̣ѲʸˡȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥ʲˤȤʤ̾ lot θŪ̻ŪѲάҤ褦
OED 츻ŵˤȡѸ lot Ρ֤פθϡűѸ hlot (allotment, choice, share) ˤΤܤ롥켫Τϥޥĸ *χlutam ˤΤܤꡤŪˤϰĸθ촴 *kleu- (hook) ˵ġ¾ΥޥˤƱ줬ߤ졤ޥؤѤƤ롥֡ʤΤΡ˾ޡפ̣ȹͤ졤ƥ clāvis (key), clāvus (nail) ȤδϢŦƤ롥
ơűѸΡ֤פθ˻ϤޤꡤˤäƷʤΡʬۡסơֳơפθѸ parking lot ־ˤϡϤγƤȤȤǤ롥Ǥ뤫ֱ̿פθѸΤΤǤ롥
Ѹä16ȾФˤϡΡַʡפθȯãʤˤθѤȤʤˡʤȤСߡƥåڡѡ1ǯʬܥɥȾǯʬʤɡʤΰ컳뤳Ȥ¬Ǥ褦ˡƱΤΡְ컳ȡפȤ17ȾФߤǤ⡤˽Фʪؤ Lot 46: six chairs ʤɤɽѤ롥ƱʪͤΡֽġ췲 (group, set) ۤɤθȯŸ The first lot of visitors has/have arrived. / I have several lots of essays to mark this weekend. / What do you lot want? (informal) ʤɤ㤬ǧ롥
Ťֳơפθˤ衤ֽġ췲פθˤ衤a lot of [noun] ηѤ뤳Ȥ¿äȤϼǤ롥ޤlot ˡä˷Τΰ̣͡ʷƻ줬ź졤an interesting lot of people a lazy lot (of people) Τ褦ɽƤ1800ǯˤϡa great lot of a large lot of ʤɿ̤礭ɽ魯ƻ줬Ĥ졤餯줬Ȥʤäơ19ˤϷƻʤ a lot of 뤤 lots of ñΤǡ¿Ρ¿̤Ρפɽ魯ˡȯãߡ¿Ρפΰ̣Ƕˤܶ a lot of ϡ̤ꡤʤ꿷ɽǤ롥
a lot of [noun] lots of [noun] μϡ衤Ūˤ lot(s) ΤϤˤΰפȽǤˡ [noun] ȤȤ館Ƥ褦ߤǤϡa lot of lots of many much Ʊͤ˸ (determiner) 뤤Ͽ̻ (quantifier) ȲᤵƤ (Quirk et al. 264) ΤȤϡȤ alot of ֤줿ꡤa ά lot of ʤɤɽ뤳ȤǧǤ롥
Ʊ褦ˡʬɽ魯 of ޤ礬ȤƺʬϤ졤ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤȤơa number of a majority of ʤɤ롥a [noun_1] of [noun_2] ηɽˤơ [noun_1] [noun_2] ؤȰܹԤѲ̤ƤƤ뤳Ȥ狼 (Denison 121)
嵭 lot ΰ̣ѲˤĤƤϡRoom (169) ⻲Ȥ줿
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Denison, David. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4. Ed. Suzanne Romaine. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
Room, Adrian, ed. NTC's Dictionary of Changes in Meanings. Lincolnwood: NTC, 1991.
ѥ饭ɤȤʬϤ#317. Ǽʬޥ˥ʥԡˡ ([2010-03-10-1])#518. Singapore English ΥɤС ([2010-09-27-1])#880. ˤ⥤ꥹѸ졤ˤ⥢ꥫѸñ ([2011-09-24-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ƤϽѸ濴Ū˰ƥȡǡ١ EEBO (Early English Books Online) ꡤɤäƤߤ
EEBO ĿŪ˼ѸΥƥȽ11ʾˤФWordSmith KeyWords еǽѤȥѥȤƤϡ奤ꥹѸɽΤȤ LOB ѥꤷϻȥѥΤۤä絬ϤǤϤʤФʤʤΤEEBO 礭ȤȤǡܤĤ֤äƤϡѸ٤ƻ٤⤤ѸθФȤȤǤ롥μҲħŤäޤϤǤ롥
ɸι⤤ˡ500ޤǤΥꥹȤɤ줿⾮ʸǼ
[ Top 100 ]
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[ -- 200 ]
loue, ly, selves, scripture, self, law, st, those, thing, cor, sinne, being, glory, euery, death, good, sonne, true, neuer, whereof, iohn, againe, psal, pope, religion, ed, hym, soule, hast, lib, ex, heaven, agrave, whiche, pray, neither, downe, acirc, tion, quod, my, sed, fore, soul, nature, euen, dayes, is, p, apostles, euer, till, feare, chap, ver, rom, vnder, ma, qui, vse, according, giue, power, ouer, mans, egrave, lesse, se, doctrine, ne, ment, meanes, themselues, shal, d, sins, viz, prince, did, vertue, wicked, honour, earth, ut, blessed, princes, ter, apostle, th, persons, que, thinke, same, others, lords, ought, pag, truth, none, kingdome
[ -- 300 ]
tho, si, cap, goe, if, beene, flesh, et, christs, make, fathers, concerning, reason, body, mercy, selues, enemies, bishops, farre, v, bishop, ar, hearts, wil, likewise, other, rome, name, obedience, en, wise, cum, speake, finde, nay, iesus, we, conscience, manner, non, heart, sinnes, it, yt, hauing, saints, generall, mat, contrary, worke, wit, sayd, whereby, covenant, wherefore, gen, passe, poore, lorde, publick, word, mens, suffer, na, heare, mee, ei, heb, divers, christians, therein, theyr, minde, shalt, bloud, shewed, certaine, vers, un, son, amongst, ibid, ca, jesus, betwixt, quae, scriptures, say, divine, thine, rest, countrey, besides, di, heauen, cannot, qu, therfore, godly, sent
[ -- 400 ]
m, moses, these, christian, called, n, vn, false, should, paul, also, discourse, meane, without, booke, whence, shee, emperour, souls, place, thereby, yeares, tyme, lawes, peace, what, dis, behold, foure, citie, giuen, israel, anno, liberty, thence, gospel, cast, ograve, aboue, souldiers, tooke, sa, priests, gaue, fol, maketh, places, pardon, te, warre, saviour, wayes, saint, thinges, will, themselves, kinde, suche, bene, love, salvation, yeare, towne, spirituall, esse, fa, duke, majesty, brethren, laws, alwayes, workes, ab, lest, for, wrath, wordes, soules, done, sunt, angels, vel, ry, liue, ted, ty, looke, repentance, dr, beare, prayer, keepe, faire, ii, parts, helpe, iudge, no, churches, r
[ -- 500 ]
dy, vsed, prophet, outward, ble, ap, spake, sect, armes, notwithstanding, come, h, naturall, maner, crosse, popes, sayth, pa, papists, whatsoever, gospell, iudgement, writ, noble, hoc, par, sacrifice, dye, worship, ons, af, eternal, leaue, ob, euill, am, sacrament, diuers, both, ghost, quam, lye, yee, comming, secondly, how, iustice, sword, daies, father, vi, before, prayers, bodie, whome, councell, nec, though, faithfull, lawe, humane, aut, wel, mi, hir, iii, worthy, isa, easie, ugrave, nowe, lawfull, ere, seene, priest, glorious, serue, commanded, earle, forme, thither, eternall, prophets, turne, iewes, mo, im, halfe, matth, manifest, wilt, are, words, iust, betweene, affections, ocirc, li, ned, creatures
оݤȤΤ EEBO ʿƥȤǤꡤˤ¿䥿ޤޤƤ롥ʤɤ̤ʥƥȽϻܤƤʤΤǡäƤ뤳Ȥդºݡ1̤ amp ϥΰǤꡤ2̤ note ɽ魯ȹͤƤ褤Τǡ̵뤹٤Ǥϥз̤Τޤ뤳Ȥˤ
ǤٸǤϤ뤬Ǥֻۤʤ hath, haue, doth, hee, vs, bee ʤɤ̤뤳ȤǤޤǤϸȤʤäƤ2;ñ̾ thou, thy, thee θʤȤǤ롥
⤷ΤϡߤǤ⸽ǤϤ뤬ۤɸǤϤʤʤäƤǤ롥㤨СꥹȤξ̤˥ꥹȶŪʸ줬¿Ȥ˵Ť200̰˸¤äƤäȽǤ⡤god, christ, gods, faith, holy, church, grace, spirit, loue, scripture, sinne, glory, death, pope, religion, soule, heaven, pray, soul, apostles, vertue, wicked, honour, blessed, apostle ʤɤ롥塼ī奢īȤˡꥹȶϮ³äȤطդˤС夬¯ȤȤǤ⤢롥
ֻȤƤϡ̵ <e> μͳղáæ<u> <v> ڤ <i> <j> κߡshall θʻѡye λ¸ʤɤ (see #373. <u> <v> ʬ (1) ([2010-05-05-1])#374. <u> <v> ʬ (2) ([2010-05-06-1]); #1650. ʸǤȤƤ j Ω ([2013-11-02-1])) ޤߤǤϷ줷ǽ¿ (ex. upon, vnto, nor, therefore, thereof, whereof)
3;ʣ̾줬Ѹˡ h- ťΥɸͳȤ th- ؤ֤ƤäȤϡѸˤǤϹΤƤ롥th- ؤִϡʤˤäƥߥۤʤäƤ (see #975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1]), #1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1])) ٤ƤǷ֤줿ѥϡޤʤ°ʤǸ˼гʡͿʤгʤͻ礷Ρˤ th- ذܹԤȤѥ㤨С Ormulum (?c1200) ǤϡǤᤤʳǼʤ þeȝȝ ݤˤʤäƤꡤ°ʤǤ¿ h- Ĥʤʬ þeȝȝre гʤǤϵդ¿ þeȝȝm ʤ hemm ܤǤ롥
ɥǼʤ þei Τ14ǤꡤChaucer Ǥ þei / her(e) / hem ȤѥबѤƤ (#181. Chaucer ο;̾ηϡ ([2009-10-25-1])) 15ˤʤȡ°ʤ their her(e) ȶ礹褦ˤʤꡤˤ Caxton ʤɤ their ¾ͣȤʤ롥them ϺǤ٤Chaucer μ Lydgate Hoccleve Ǥޤ hem ΤߤǤꡤCaxton Ǥ them ΤΡޤ hem Τۤͥä16νˤʤäơ褦䤯 them 夷ɸѸξã뤳Ȥˤʤä (Lass 120; Mustanoja 134--35)
äơ3;ʣΥѥϡˤƤ⡤ǯ夳ۤʤ졤̤ưʲ3ʳФȤˤʤ (Lass 121)
| I | II | III | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | þei | þei | þei |
| Genitive | her(e) | her(e) ? þeir | þeir |
| Oblique | hem | hem | hem ? þem |
Υޥ (norman_conquest) ΥɤǤϡˡΧϢѤʣäˡΧθȰˤäƤ⡤դäդȤä (mode of discourse) Ȥѥ⤢äˡʸȽϿʸƬʤɤȤäξ (field of discourse) Ȥѥ⤢äѸϡɥȤǤϰۤʤäƤ⤷ʤȽεˤäƤѰۤƤǽ롥ơȤȤˡƥեءƥեѸؤȤĬή⤢äѸˤˡΧʬǤ塦ʩѸλȤʬμ֤ϡĤ줿˴Ťơ餫ˤ뤳Ȥϲǽ¿οɬפȤʤ롥
#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1]) Ƭ˵褦ˡάȤƤϡ13ˤϥƥäƥե줬ˡΧطɽˤͥȤʤäƤ椯եˡʸˤƤƥȶ礤14ˤͥȤʤ롥15ˤϡLaw French Law English ˽˼äƤ椯˻ޤǥեΰ仺ϼѤ줿פȹͤƤ褤Brand ϡˡΧޤäλѰʬǡ13--14ɤˡΧޤλѸĴƤ롥
Υޥ塤ˡΧطʸˤƥƥ줬Ǥ̤θǤäȤϴְ㤤ʤȽѤˤĤƤϤɤäΤBrand (66) ϡHenry II (1133--89) ΩȽΩ餫顤ǤλѸϱѸǤϤʤեäȤߤƤ롥
It seems much more likely that French had been the language of the royal courts from the very beginning of the system of central royal courts established by Henry II and that French was their language because in that period it was the first language of the men appointed as royal justices and of many of the litigants. French seems then to have remained the language of the courts in part because of cultural conservatism, the absence of any really compelling reason for changing accepted practice; in part because there were advantages to the professional elite who came to dominate legal practice in using a language which needed to be learned and mastered by outsiders and which enhance their mystique; in part also because the courts had developed a technical French vocabulary that was not easily translatable into English.
Ǥϡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǤ12ȾˤϥΥޥϵ²ޤ।ɹ̱¿ѸȤƤȹͤ뤬ˡΧȽȤŪʻѰˤƤϡեѤŪ˻³ƤȤꤵƤ롥
1314ˤƤ³षȯŸ餷եˡʸˤƥƥȶ礷1275ǯ˽ƥեˤŪꤵ줿ˡʸȡ1300ǯʹߡե "the language of the future in 1300 for English legal instruction" (Brand 72) Ȥʤä
եαɸĹ³ʤä14ȾФˤϡ#324. IJˡDZѸѤǧ줿ǯ ([2010-03-17-1]) #131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸ줬ˡΧʬؤƤǤ롥
Brand (75--76) ϡ1314Ⱦˤơե줬ˡΧʬѤ줿ˤĤơΤ褦Ƥ롥
The languages of English law in the thirteenth and fourteenth century were primarily Latin and French. Latin was and remained the language of formal record at all levels of the court hierarchy. It was also the language of some of the thirteenth-century instructional literature of English law and even perhaps of some of the actual instruction. Its status as the language of formal legislation appears to have gone unchallenged prior to the last quarter of the thirteenth century but thereafter was increasingly challenged by the Anglo-Norman French of the common lawyers. Anglo-Norman French was the language actually used in pleading not just in the royal courts but also in county and city courts and came to be the invariable language of the law reports which recorded such pleading and which were also used to teach the following generation of law students. Anglo-Norman was also the language of oral legal instruction and of the legal literature which grew out of such instruction and of some other instructional literature as well. Anglo-Norman may always have been the language for the drafting and discussion of legislation but was also from 1275 onwards one of the two languages used for the formal enactment of legislation as well. The third language used in thirteenth- and early-fourteenth-century England, English, is little in evidence here. It may have been used in the local proclamation of legislation, but it was not for the most part one of the written languages used in legal contexts.
ϢơLaw French ˤĤƤϡ#336. Law French ([2010-03-29-1]) ڤ law_french γƵȤ줿
Brand, Paul. "The languages of the Law in Later Medieval England." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 63--76.
ѸθüѤȤСޤե줬פ⤫ (#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1]))˥ƥ줬 (#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]), #1211. ѸΥƥѸΰ ([2012-08-20-1])) μϥޥ졤ťΥɸʤɤθ̾뤬ե졤ƥαǤۤϴʤ
ºݤΤȤѸϾ嵭ʳ¿θȤܿƤΤˤ¾θ줫μѸο¿ϤʤäۤȤɤľܤǤϤʤȤƥեͳƴŪäƤѸǤ롥¿ (multilingualism) ȤѸ̣ǼСѸ쥤ɼҲϳΤ¿ѼҲäȤΤǤ롥ѸˤѸȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Crespo (28) ɽƷ)
| LANGUAGES | Direct Introduction | Indirect Introduction |
| Latin | --- | |
| French | --- | |
| Scandinavian | --- | |
| Low German | --- | |
| High German | --- | |
| Italian | through French | |
| Spanish | through French | |
| Irish | --- | |
| Scottish Gaelic | --- | |
| Welsh | --- | |
| Cornish | --- | |
| Other Celtic languages in Europe | through French | |
| Portuguese | through French | |
| Arabic | through French and Spanish | |
| Persian | through French, Greek and Latin | |
| Turkish | through French | |
| Hebrew | through French and Latin | |
| Greek | through French by way of Latin |
Ѹˤ롤Ѹ졤ե졤ƥ3ѤҲŪŪˤĤƤϡޤǤεǤ¿夲Ƥ㤨Сʲȡ
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2025. ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])
Crespo (24) ϡѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤ŤŪˤϻѰ衤Ρϰ̤֤ǤϤ뤬ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
| LANGUAGE | Register | Medium | Status |
| Latin | Formal-Official | Written | High |
| French | Formal-Official | Written/Spoken | High |
| English | Informal-Colloquial | Spoken | Low |
| ENGLAND | Languages | Linguistic situation |
| Early Middle Ages | Latin--French--English | TRILINGUAL |
| 14th--15th centuries | French--English | BILINGUAL |
| 15th--16th c. onwards | English | MONOLINGUAL |
ʲεǡݳزλԤäƤ
#2004. ICEHL18 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2014-10-22-1])
#2325. ICOME9 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2015-09-08-1])
#2326. SHEL-9 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2015-09-09-1])
ޤȤʤ顤ر긦ԤΩΩäơѸʬ˴ؤݳز˻äĹû֥쥹ȤƤߤ¿ʬ˸ĿŪʰո⺮äƤ뤬λͤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤȻפվ֤äƤ
Ĺ
ؿͭο͡1Ĥ˽ޤΤǡͥ륮̩٤⤤
ŪԤβߤδؿܤdzĤɤभäˤʤäꡤɤˤ
ȯɽʲƲؤλä̤ơزʳسˤμʪΤ礨ꡤï椷Ƥ뤫Τ뤳ȤǤ
ܹDzξʤܿԤȳǽв뤳Ȥ⤢
Proceedings Ƥ븢ʸɮΥڡˡ
ʸɮռĤıѸθƬȯɽν뤳Ȥټ֤ʤ
γΥ
ˤäƤߵϡܹγز٤⤤櫓ǤϤʤ
ʾʤȤ䤬ޤǽʤݳزǤϤɤǤİꡦͤФƲŪܤƤ
ŪȯɽȼĤ
û
Ϲʤɤô
ŻܤǤϳشʤɡߥ褯ʤȤ
ڤᤤ
Ѹȯɽɬפ
ιԹǤСۤˤ¾ʤĹ꤬¿ϤǤ롥кŪϤû⤢뤬¿Ĺ㤨ȻפСĿŪˤϰ¤Ȼפݳزǡʤˡޤ礦
ε#2325. ICOME9 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2015-09-08-1]) ˰³ SHEL-9 γز
2015ǯ65?7˥ʥΥХС (University of British Columbia) dzŤ줿 DSNA-20 & SHEL-9 Dual Conference ؤλȤơزȯɽȯɽԤγפĤΤΩĤȻפزܺ٤ SHEL-9 (Studies in the History of the English Language) ꥢġ
(1) زα
衼åѤdzŤݳز ICEHL (International Conference on English Historical Linguistics) ǡSHEL ICEHL ǯߤ˳Ť뤳ȤˤʤäƤ뤬SHEL ¾δϢزȤ碌Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿ϽƤλáSHEL-9 DSNA-20 ǹ碌107ȯɽ120̾ȯɽԡʥޤˤ4¹ԤǹԤ줿ѸʬΤ2/3餤
1UCLA (2000)
2University of Washington, Seattle (2002)
3University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (2004); jointly with GLAC (= Germanic Linguistics Annual Conference)
4University of Northern Arizona (2006)
5University of Georgia, Athens (2007)
6Universities of Calgary and British Columbia at Banff, Alberta (2009); jointly with GLAC
7Indian University, Bloomington (2012); jointly with GLAC
8Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah (2013)
9University of British Columbia, Vancouver (2015); held jointly with DSNA (= Dictionary Society of North America Meeting)
(2) Ĵֱ
Nikolaus Ritt (Vienna University)
"Language Change as Cultural Evolution: From Theory to Practice"
Charlotte Brewer (Oxford University)
"Mapping the OED: The Changing Record of the English Language"
Colette Moore (University of Washington)
"Sociopragmatics in Middle English Manuscripts"
(3) ȯɽʲϡγز뤤ϸߤĬή˾Ȥ餷ħŪȻפ줿
OED
Bilingual Lex I & II
Medieval English
HEL Workshop
Lex in South Asia
Metre and Stress
Lex in Canada
Historical Special Registers
Language Contact I & II
Phonology Workshop
Earlier Modern English
Lex. Semantics & Usage
Contact and Onomastics
Syntax & Lexis
Middle English
Literary Sources Workshop
Language Rights
Long-Term Change
Online Lexis
Varieties & Diachrony
Word-Formation
Sketch Engine Workshop
Old English
Early Phonology
Special Lexicography
Grammatical Change
Digital Resources
Caribbean Lexicography
MOOC Workshop (Corpus linguistics: Method, Analysis, Interpretation)
Lex. Aspects
Usage
History of Lexicography
(4) زĬήʤɵŤ
Ѹʬ˸¤äƤ⡤ICEHL Ʊͤ뤬Ƥ
ѥŻΤѤ˴ؤˡؤδؿä
ƤʤǤϤδؿ
- ϰѼ (Caribbean and Asian varieties)
- ʥѸ
- Ѹ˶Υå
- 츢
¾زȤζŤDzȿ⡩
ͽۤƤ衼åѤλüԤ¿ճȹݿ˭
رʸʸʳ칶ŤѸ˸ǡǯ٤ιݳزؤλ뵡äǯ٤Ρ#2004. ICEHL18 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2014-10-22-1]) ˰³ǯ٤Ͻդ ICOME9 SHEL-9 ˻äƤΤǡܥ֥Ǥ⤽ ICOME-9 ˤĤơ
2015ǯ429?53˥ݡɤΥ֥ĥ (Philological School of Higher Education) dzŤ줿 The 9th International Conference on Middle English (ICOME9) ػäƤʲˡزȯɽȯɽԤγפĤΤΩĤȻפ

(1) زα
Jacek Fisiak Ω夲Ѹ˴ؤʸؤȸؤιݳزȹ碌Ʋ3789˻äüԤ50?70̾ۤɡʸطϤ椷ƸطϤ¿եο̤ǻϡֱȸĿȯɽޤ3¹Ԥǡ49ȯɽ69̾ȯɽԡʥޤˤä
1Rydzyna, Poland (1994)
2Helsinki, Finland (1997)
3Dublin, Ireland (1999)
4Vienna, Austria (2002)
5Naples, Italy (2005)
6Cambridge, UK (2008)
7Lviv, Ukraine (2011)
8Murcia, Spain (2013)
9Wrocław, Poland (2015)
(2) Ĵֱ
Hans Sauer (University of Munich) and David Scott-Macnab (University of Jahannesburg)
"The Names of a Thousand-and-One Hunting-Hounds in a 15th-Century List"
Marcin Krygier (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan)
"Laȝamon's Foreigners"
Michiko Ogura (Tokyo Woman's Christian University, Japan)
"What Really Happened to 'Impersonal' and 'Reflexive' Constructions in Medieval English"
Rafał Borysławski (University of Silesia, Sosnowiec)
"'Dreaming of the Middle Ages'?: Dream-Visions and Transgression from Marie de France to Chaucer"
(3) ̥å
The recipe in the history of English (cf. Bator, Magdalena. Culinary Verbs in Middle English. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2014.)
Translating Middle English literature
(4) ȯɽԤν°浡ؤι
ʲϡȯɽԤν°ؤιʬۡƮƤ롥
Poland (33) ************************************
Germany ( 6) ******
Japan ( 4) ****
Austria ( 3) ***
France ( 3) ***
Norway ( 3) ***
Spain ( 3) ***
Belgium ( 2) **
Russia ( 2) **
Switzerland ( 2) **
Ukraine ( 2) **
USA ( 2) **
Finland ( 1) *
Italy ( 1) *
South Africa ( 1) *
United Kingdom ( 1) *
伫ʬѤ n-gram Ȥʬϼˡ롥ѥؤǤ⤹ǤˤߤγǰǤꡤɽ (collocation) θʤɤǤΤ褦Ѥ褦ˤʤäΥѥΥեˤƤѤƤꡤ#607. Google Books Ngram Viewer ([2010-12-25-1]) Ǥ̾˴ޤޤƤۤɤܥ֥Ǥ COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English) N-gram ǡ١Ѥơ#956. COCA N-Gram Search ([2011-12-09-1]) ƤʤαѤϡ#953. ƬƧ2।ǥ ([2011-12-06-1])#954. ӱƧ2।ǥ ([2011-12-07-1])#955. ʸϤ碌2।ǥ ([2011-12-08-1]) ȡˡBNC ǤϡExplore Words and Phrases from the BNC ѤǤ롥
ԥ塼ѤʬϼˡȤʹ뤬n-gram ιͤϻäñǤ롥ʸ٥ 2-gram (bigram) ͤƤߤ褦ĹαñȤ pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis (#63. پɤϱѸǺǤŤµ ([2009-06-30-1])) ˤȤ롥ޤƬ2ʸ1Ȥ pn Фˡ2ʸܤ˿ʤƱ褦 ne Ф3ʸܤ˿ʤ eu 4ʸܤ˿ʤ um 롥Ʊ褦ˡ1ʸıˤ餷ʤ顤Ǹ is ޤ2ʸ1ȤȽäƤ44Ȥ2ʸȤˤʤ롥ȤΤʤǡic co ȤȤ߹碌ϳơ3ꡤos, si, no, on Ȥ߹碌ϳơ2졤ʳȤ߹碌Ϥ1٤Ǥ롥äơñˤƺǹ٤2ʸ1Ȥ ic co Ȥʤ롥
n-gram ñ̤ϡΤ褦ʸǤɬפϤʤǤǤ褤礭ñ̤ǤǤǤ褯礭ʶʤɤΤ礭ñ̤Ǥ褤Ѹ쥳ѥؤǤϡȤñ̤ǹͤΤ̤Martin Luther King, Jr. I Have a Dream αΥƥȤǸñ̤ 4-gram ȡǤ¿4Ȥ߹碌ϡͽ̤ "I have a dream" 8"will be able to" Ʊ8롥"Let freedom ring from" 7Ȥ褯롤ʬϤǽȤʤ롥Ǥ4ȤפꤷΤ 4-gram ȸƤФ뤬ܤ뤤Ĥʸθ뤫ˤ 1-gram (unigram), 2-gram (bigram), 3-gram (trigram) 5-gram ʾͤ뤳ȤǤ1-gram ξ硤ꥹȤϡ¾ƸɽǤˡ
祳ѥ줿 2-gram 3-gram ΰϡ켫ΤɽθʤɤǤϴܥǡȤʤ뤿ᡤ־Ǥ⤤ȸƤ롥ܸǤN-gram ѥ - ܸ쥦֥ѥ 2010뤷ѸǤ COCA n-gram ǡ١ 롥ޤBigram Plus Ǥϡ˱Ѹ쥳ѥޤƼѸ쥳ѥ N-Gram Search Ԥʤ뵡ǽƤ롥ۤˤǤդΥƥȤ䥳ѥоݤ n-gram ƼΥġ䥽եȤ⡤־ǽ
n-gram ʬϤθʬؤαϰϤϹʲʸˤϲȤͽ¬ǽȤطᡤˤ벻ǧʬϡȽꡤưڥåõΡʸѥǥåκʤɤ˳Ѥ롥ɽθǤϡܤˤԲķμʤȤʤäƤ롥n-gram ϤäѤȤɽ̲줿ƥȤоݤȤؤˤ빽¤ˤޤä뤳ȤʤᡤʸˡΤ褦ʸ̤Ƚ褦ܤϡn-gram in Wikipedia ȡ
n-gram ϹǡޤޤȤƻꤽ˱ѸƥȤˤ⡤ѤƤ
ʸ嵭2015/09/12(Sat) Sketch Engine N-grams ⻲ȡ
űѸμʤȤʬۡǯˤĤơ#1433. 10θűѸƥȤʬۡ ([2013-03-30-1]) ǰѸκʤˤĤƤϡ#1044. ѸʡChaucerShakespeareά ([2012-03-06-1]) ̾άȤȤΤߤǡʬۤʤɤƤʤä
ϡѸμʤˤĤơ켣 (57--59) ˤǤ褦ǯϸ§Ȥ Kurath et al. (1954) ˤΤOED ȤΤ⤢ȤΤȡѸʸؤΤȤˡ
| 1. | |
|---|---|
| c1275 | Kentish Sermons |
| 1340 | Dan Michel's Ayenbite of Inwyt (= D.M.'s Remorse of conscience) |
| 2. | |
| ?a1200 | Ancrene Wisse (Corp-C) (= The English Text of the Ancrene Riwle (= Nuns' Rule)) |
| ?a1200 | Laȝamon's Brute, or Chronicle of Britain |
| ?c1200 | Sawles Warde (= Soul's Guardian) |
| a1225--a1300 | Poema Morale (= Moral Ode) |
| ?c1225 | King Horn |
| c1250 | Floriz and Blauncheflur |
| c1250 | The Owl and the Nightingale |
| a1376--?a1387 | William Langland, Piers Plowman A-, B-, C-Versions |
| a1387 | John de Trevisa's Translation of Higden's Polychronicon (= H.'s History of many Ages) |
| 3. | |
| a1121--1160 | The Peterborough Chronicle |
| ?c1200 | The Ormulum |
| a1250 | Bestiary |
| c1250 | The Story of Genesis and Exodus |
| 1258 | Proclamation of Henry III |
| c1300 | Havelock the Dane |
| 1382; 1388 | Wycliffite Bible |
| c1375--a1400 | Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales |
| a1393 | John Gower, Confessio Amantis |
| c1400 | Mandeville's Travels (Tit) |
| 1425--1520 | Paston Letters and Papers |
| a1438 | The Book of Margery Kempe |
| 4. | |
| ?c1380 | Patience |
| ?c1380 | Pearl |
| ?c1390 | Sir Gawain and the Green Knight |
| 5. | |
| a1325 | Cursor Mundi (= The Runner of the World) |
| ?c1343--?a1349 | Richard Rolle, Prose and Verse |
| ?a1400 | Morte Arthure or The Death of Arthur |
ѸˤơƱλؼоݤؤ̾ϡ̾ñ̾ǤϤʤ -self ȼƵ̾η֤ȤʤФʤʤȤΤ§Ǥ롥Ȥñ̾ȺƵ̾ǤդȤ礬롥֤ɽ魯ֻŪȤѤ륱ǡQuirk et al. (359) ˤСΤ褦㤬롥
She's building a wall of Russian BÒOKS about her(self).
Holding her new yellow bathrobe around her(self) with both arms, she walked up to him.
Mason stepped back, gently closed the door behind him(self), and walked down the corridor.
They left the apartment, pulling the spring lock shut behind them(selves).
ˡƱؼоݤǤʤ顤ñǤդɤ̳Ȥ礹餢롥ϤֻŪȤѤǡɸʸɽ롥Quirk et al. (360) ǤϡΤ褦ʸƤ롥
He looked about him.
She pushed the cart in front of her.
She liked having her grandchildren around her.
They carried some food with them.
Have you any money on you?
We have the whole day before us.
She had her fiancé beside her.
ŪˤߤСñⵡǽŪˤȤƵ̾Ǥ롥ŪطʤάҤСѸޤǤϡưŻߤɽ魯ư (ex. fare, go, run; rest, sit, stay) 䴶ɽ魯¾ư (ex. doubt, dread, fear, repent) ϡñκƵ̾ȼΤ̤ä17ˤϤθˡϿषñκƵ̾ѤȤʤäƤäϡp. 36ˡϢơ#578. go him ([2010-11-26-1])#1392. ͿʤκƵ̾ ([2013-02-17-1])#2185. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο ([2015-04-21-1]) ⻲ȡ
Τ褦ñहʤǡͣĤӤΤǤλǤ롥ĤäͳȤƤϡ̾˶Ĵΰ̣Ƥ餺ŪˤûΤޤ줿ȤȤͤ롥ʸˤƶĴƤΤϡषֻΤۤΤȤϡ"Pat felt a sinking sensation inside (her)." Τ褦ˡ̾줬ά礹餢뤳Ȥ¬롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
ѸֻɸಽĬήϡü郎Ѹ줫顤ѸФơ1755ǯ Johnson Dictionary Ǥ˻ޤǡĹ³ѸˤեѤοȤݤƱͤΤ褦˿ˤ錄äƴ³ŪȤΤϡɤˤ15ǤϤɤʳʤΤ17ǤϤɤդ꤫ʤɡľŪˤȤ館뤳Ȥ
ϼ̤14ȾChaucer λդ˽ɸβߤ줿15ɸಽή줬ˤ䤫˿ʤȾΰѤƳϡɬ̤˿ƤۤɷŪֻɸಽʤ櫓ǤϤʤ³16ˤƤ⡤ɸಽؤĬήϴˤ䤫ˤߤ줿֤ۤ⤬פϴʤ17ȡȼԤȤϤषؼԤ䶵դƯˤꡤɸŪֻϰϤŸ뤳Ȥˤʤä1650ǯˤϻ¾ɸಽãƤռŪʡפʳ˿ʤΤλ夿18ΤȤǤ롥ơJohnson Dictionary (1755) ˤᲡä줾ܤϡܵդ cat:spelling standardisation Ȥ줿
δȤֻɸಽĬή٤°桦 (73) Ըܤۤä16ʹߤΤĤŤסڡĤŤνǤˤʤɤѤʤ顤?ȾСפȤåݥȤߤĤġʲΤ褦ʬ䤹Ƥ롥
ĤŤؤפϤǤ16ȾФ鸫Ϥᡤ17ȾФˤϡΤɸϤʤȤ⡤濴ŪʡĤŤؤγˤȤ⤤٤ΤϤƤꡤ줬17ޤǤˤϤ˽㲽ꤵñ첽ηɤꡤǤ Johnson's Dictionary ˤΤȤޤʤĤŤԤƤȤ
ȸˤϡåݥȤȤʤƻʸɤߴ졤ŪФȤɸಽ٤İǤ褦ǤʤФʤʤΤ
#193. 15 Chancery Standard through ΰ֤14̤ ([2009-11-06-1])
#297. ѤƳϱѸɸಽʤݤ ([2010-02-18-1])
#871. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ ([2011-09-15-1])
#1312. Ѥȯˤֻθ경˷ӤĤʤäͳ (2) ([2012-11-29-1])
#1384. ֻɸಽ˹Τ17ؼԤȶա ([2013-02-09-1])
#1385. Caxton ֻɸಽ˹ʤäȹͤ뺬 ([2013-02-10-1])
° ̭ ͡ΤäƤѸˡ١ҡ2014ǯ
Ѹˤˤ thou you λȤʬ T/V distinction ˤĤƤϡ#1126. 衼åѤμˤ T/V distinction ε ([2012-05-27-1]) #1127. ʤ thou ǤϤʤ you ̲ ([2012-05-28-1]) t/v_distinction γƵǼ夲Ƥ
2;ʣ̾ηɾñȤƤˡϡ4ΥФ vos λѤ˻Ϥޤꡤ12 Chrétien de Troyes ʤɤˤեФơѸؤϤ餯13ꡤ1600ǯˤϴѤȤƺդƤ17˿ƾñ thou ϿषϤᡤɸѸǤ18ѤȤʤäJohnson (261) 嵭Ūаޤ¤˼ݤ褯ޤȤƤΤǡΤޤްѤ
IN LATIN THE EMPEROR, representing in his person the power and glory of his predecessors, was addressed with vos in the fourth century A.D. By the fifth century, this pronoun was commonly employed to indicate respect. In French by the time of Chrétien de Troyes, vous was not only given to superiors but was also interchanged by equals. In Latin and French works of twelfth-century England, the plural pronoun had been used as a singular by, for example, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Wace, and Marie de France. The practice of using ye and you (the "you-singular") instead of thou and thee (the "thou-singular") apparently spread to English during the thirteenth century and by about 1600 had become established in polite usage. For some time thereafter, however, the thou-singular continued to appear in emotional or intimate speech and in the discourse of superiors to inferiors and of the members of the lower class to one another. Gradually decreasing in use, it became obsolete in the standard language in the eighteenth century and now appears only in poetry and the address of the deity or among Quakers and those who speak a dialect.
Johnson ϡthou οह17˾ơεʤ罰ե47ʤѥȤơyou thou ʬۤ٤Ĵоʪ̤˾ήήήʬषʲΤ褦̤ (Johnson 265)
| 1600--1649 | You | Thou | You* | Thou* |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper Class | 5,851 | 2,664 | 64.36 | 35.64 |
| Middle Class | 2,807 | 629 | 81.40 | 18.60 |
| Lower Class | 2,385 | 470 | 83.47 | 16.53 |
| 1650--1699 | ||||
| Upper Class | 10,853 | 2,353 | 81.40 | 18.60 |
| Middle Class | 3,145 | 574 | 81.77 | 18.23 |
| Lower Class | 2,849 | 317 | 88.32 | 11.68 |
| * In percent. |
The historical uses of the you-singular, as in respect or irony, and of the thou-singular, as in emotion or intimacy, to an inferior, or in the exchange of the members of the lower class, are exemplified in the various texts throughout the era. However, further demonstrating the meaninglessness of the distinction between them, you may frequently be found in circumstances where thou might be expected to occur, and, at times, thou where we should expect to find you.
Johnson, Anne Carvey. "The Pronoun of Direct Address in Seventeenth-Century English." American Speech 41 (1966): 261--69.
Ѹ̤ˤߤ wh- δطϡѸ which ȤƽФ롥ط which ϡŪä that ȶ礷ʤ⡤14դ꤫ʬۤȤ15ˤ̤Ȥʤä#2314. °³ȤƤ that ([2015-08-28-1]) Ǽ褦ˡexpletive that ȼ which that ⸽졤Chaucer ʤɤǤ̤ˤߤ줿expletive as ȼ which as ΤƤ (Mustanoja 197--98)
ܤ٤ϡƱѸ the which (that) Ǥ롥괧 the ȼطϡѸǽ줿 Cursor Mundi ǽФCursor Mundi Ǥϡ¤70ۤɸˡOED which, pron. and adj. ꡤ13
a1400 (a1325) Cursor Mundi (Gött.) l. 9434 þe first law was cald 'of kinde,' .. þe toþer has 'possitiue' to name, þe whilk lawe was for-bed Adam, Forto ete þat fruit.
θ塤14ˤǤ⸫褦ˤʤꡤ٤ƤԤƥȤˤäƤ٤ϤޤޤǤꡤChaucer Ǥ which ٤1:9ȳʤ˾ʤGower Ǥˤ褯롥15λʸˤʤȰ̤ the which which ⤺ä٤⤯ʤ뤬Capgrave, Pecock, Fortescue 㳰ǡष the which ڸʤ (Mustanoja 199)
ʬۤޤޤǤȤ⤵뤳Ȥʤ顤ᤤƤΤϡεǤ롥ɴФǡϤʤˤȡʩ liquels ʸʩ lequelˤȴطȤʤϡ#1252. Bailey and Maroldt ˤ֥եαƶܡס ([2012-09-30-1]) ΥꥹȤǤˡʩ줫ƥȤˤƤб뤳Ȥ顤ξԤ̵طȤϸʤФ嵭Τ褦ƥȤǤ뤳Ȥ顤ե줬 the which ľܤΰȤʤäȤϹͤˤեϡѸŪȯãɽλѤ岡ۤɤä
ŪȯãȤȡűѸ seþe swa hwelc 1˵롥ʣطϡűѸƥ Lindisfarne Gospels ˸ƤꡤȤƤϤդ路褦˻פ롥ͤγؼԤٻƤΤűѸ줢뤤ϽѸ se þe Υפδط˵ߤǡѲ þe which ֤줿ΤȤ (Mustanoja 198)
켣 (253) ˤ18ȾǤܾۤǤߤϻ¾ѤȤʤäƤ뤬OED ǤκǤ٤ϡ"1884 Tennyson Becket Prol. 20 He holp the King to break down our castles, for the which I hate him." ȤʤäƤ롥
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ
Ѹˤˤϡ絬Ϥ¾ư첽 (transitivization) Ĭήǧ롥űѸǤŪ¾ưʤȤѤưˤϼư⾯ʤäѸˤơƤȤ櫓Ѹˤơοä¾ư첽Ȥϡưΰ̣ˡˤ뤳ȤषŪװ礭ͿƤ롥 (100) ˤС3װꤵ롥
1ĤϡѸ˶οबʹԤ̾̾ˤƳʤηŪʶ̤ĤʤʤäȤ롥ˤꡤűѸǤͿŪ°ŪȤäƤư줬γʤȷ־ͻ礷ŪгʤȤ뤳ȤˤʤäĤޤꡤŪϤ٤гʤǤʬϤ졤ư줽ΤΤ¾ưǤǧ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥1200ǯͿʤȤưֹʸ褦ˤʤ뤳Ȥ⡤κʬϤ̩ܤʴطˤȹͤ롥
2ܤȤơűѸưˤФղä줿 ġe- ʤɤƬѸޤǤ˾üȤ롥űѸǤϡ㤨мư restan ʵ٤ˡgrōwan ˤФơƬղä ġerestan ʵ٤ޤˡġegrōwan ߽Фˤ¾ưȤƵǽʤɡܼˤäƼ¾ڤؤ礬äƬüξηṲ̄ȡμưη֤¾ưεǽդä뤳Ȥˤʤä
3ܤˡűѸưˤϸ촴첻ѰۤˤäƼ¾ˡ̤Τäbrinnan / bærnan (burn), springan / sprengan (spring), stincan / stencan (stink) ʤɤǤ롥θѲˤξ줬Ū˰פ˵ڤǡäͣθ¾ξˡô褦ˤʤä
嵭ϡŪѲǡ2Ūưΰ̣ˡѲȤʥꥪư켫ΤŪ˰̣ˡѲȤľŪʥʥꥪäǽǤʤषȵǽξ¦ΰϤˤäơư¾ưƤȹ̵ͤۤϤʤ褦˻פ롥līcian Τ褦;ư (impersonal_verb) ο;βʤɤ⡤ư¾ư첽ȤĬήΤʤ˰֤Ť뤳ȤǤϲ֡졤̣ѤΤ٤Ƥ˴ؤ븽ݤǤꡤװѲΰȤʤꡤϤȤʤäΤ̤뤳ȤưפǤϤʤޤ#995. The rose smells sweet. The rose smells sweetly. ([2012-01-17-1]) ǿ줿Ѹˤˤ linking verb γȤ⡤ưȤޤѲỌ̇̄ѲȤͻ礷褦褹롥
ˤ衤¾ư첽ĬήѸ˽װ椷ƤȤϸ
ưμ¾žˤĤƤϡư (passive) ȯãƵư (reflexive_pronoun) οϢƤԤˤĤƤϡ#2185. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο ([2015-04-21-1])#2206. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο (2) ([2015-05-12-1])#2207. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο (3) ([2015-05-13-1]) ⻲ȡޤ¾ưȤѸˤĤƤϡ#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1]) Ȥ줿
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
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