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2013-05-31 Fri

#1495. ä٤ޥʸ multilingualism [bilingualism][lingua_franca][map]

ε#1494. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ ([2013-05-30-1]) μݤ䤦ˡä٤ multilingualism μҲ𤷤褦Sorensen ܺ٤ĴޥʸǤ롥
֥饸ȥӥι񶭤ˤޤޥϰˡ͸1ͤۤɤʤʸ롥Ǥϰۤʤ²ˤä25ʾθ췲ԤʤƤʤäơ1ʸ1פ餫ȿǤˡϰˤϤĤΥ󥬡ե󥫤¸ߤ뤬Ǥ⹭Ѥ Tukano Ǥ롥Tukano ѤϰϤȤʸȤŪˤۤܰפƤ롥
ơʸ°ۤȤɤθĿͤϡ3ʾͳ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϸĿŪ polylingualism ڤӼҲŪ multilingualism 㳰ǤϤʤǤꡤüԤƤξʤ鶯ռ뤳ȤϤʤ㤨СեɥθؼԤĿͤˤĤθΤäƤ뤫䤦Ƥ⡤Τ֤äƤʤ̾ΥꥹȤ򼨤ƽơ줳θΤäƤȤޤäʣθ줬礵 code-mixing Ūˤߤ뤬üܿͤϤ̵ۤռˤԤʤäƤ롥multilingualism ʤʤΤǤ롥
multilingualism طʤˤϡ²뺧 (exogamy) δؤäƤ롥ˤϼʬ°²Ȥϰۤʤ²줫ǤޤʤФʤʤȤȤϰζ괯Ȥƥ֡Ȥ롥ˤפȺʤϾ˰ۤʤĤȤˤʤ롥˥ߥ˥ʤפϲõβǾʤȤʤͤ°²θؤӻϤ뵡Ĥνꤹפ²θ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥뤤ϡߤˤޤǤοǡ3θ̤θȤƽƤǽ롥󥬡ե󥫤ȤƤ Tukano ξԤ򤵤뤫⤷ʤ
뺧Ⱥʤפ² "longhouse" ʶƱĹˤ°뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬longhouse Τ multilingual ʶ֤Ǥ롥longhouse Ǥפ²θ줬礿ȤѤ뤿ᡤʤޤ줿Ҷܰ򤽤θǹԤʤȤˤʤ롥ȤƱĹˤϡפηκʤʤɤȤơʬƱ뤤ϰۤʤ²пȤνʣΤ̤Ǥ롥ʤϡ⤷νƱ²пȤǤмʬDzäۤʤ²пȤǤиߤǽƤ椯ȤˤʤθŪ˼ˤƤ longhouse ¾ν͡Ȥ櫓ҶϡΤ٤Ƥθʹ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ơפȺʤ⤳Τ褦 longhouse ޤäƤ櫓ʤΤǡҶ夫 multilingualism ˤϴäˤʤäƤΤǤ롥פʤɤˤ²֤ˬ䤬ˤǤ뤳Ȥ multilingualism ¸˹׸Ƥ롥ʸΤɤعԤäƤ⡤ʬäΤ줫򤷤Ƥͤɬ뤷ʬäΤ줫Ǥǽ⤤ΤǤ롥
longhouse Ȥ˻ȤʤΥѡȥ꡼Ϥ褽ޤäƤꡤ°ĿͤθΥѡȥ꡼⤽˽ऺ뤳Ȥ¿¼¼ؤȰưƤ椯ȡΥѡȥ꡼ѲƤ椯Ȥ顤Ϣ³ (dialect continuum) Ȼѡȥ꡼Ϣ³ΤʤΤ¸ߤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ܤѰ۷Ȥ߹碌ѼħŤΤƱͤˡȤʤȤ߹碌 longhouse ʤ²ʤħŤȤҲŪˤϤƶ̣
Τ褦ޥʸϡmultilingualism ζͭˤäƵǽƤΤǤ롥
Ethnologue ꡤNorthwestern Brazil θϿޤDZǤ롥  *

Sorensen, A. P. "Multilingualism in the Northwest Amazon." American Anthropologist 69 (1967): 670--84.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-07-12-1]

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2013-05-30 Thu

#1494. multilingualism ξ֤Ǥ [bilingualism][world_languages][model_of_englishes][native_speaker_problem][linguistic_imperialism]

ܤޤܸۤͣδĶ褷Ƥ¿ܿͤˤȤäơͤ bilingual ǤȤ multilingual Ǥʤɤʹȡò޻ǰΤǤϤʤƱ褦ȿϡ¿νǤǧʼºݤˤϡ[2013-01-30-1]εǤߤ褦ˡ#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤפˤ⤫餺ˡʣθȤȤüǽϤ뤤ϰζȤǤꡤʤȤ̤ǤϤʤȤΰݤ롥
㤨СѸˤμȤǡѸΥ󥰥ɼҲ񤬱Ѹ졤ե󥹸졤ƥ trilingualism μҲäȤΥ󥰥ɲϥե󥹸ȤѸ򤷤ʤԤ⾯ʤʤäȾҲ𤹤ȡ͡ϤɤΤ褦˸ߤ˥ߥ˥äƤΤϤɤΤ褦˽̱̿ƤΤȤ䤬ɬФ롥伫Ȥ multilingual Ҳ褷ȤʤΤǡΰտޤǤ뤷ϤƯȤƤ´ͯˤ
źθҴŪįȡܤפνΤ褦 monolingual ǥեȤȹͤѤΤۤФäƤΤȤȤ狼äƤ롥ΤʿФΤ񤷤Ǥ monolingual ʸ춦ƱΡmonolingual üԤΤۤȤäƤ褤Ҳؤ3ĤꡤƱݤΰѤ󤲤롥

In view of the need for communication with neighbouring communities and government agencies, it is fair to assume that many members of most communities are multilingual. (Hudson 9)


. . . in many parts of the world an ability to speak more than one language is not at all remarkable. . . . In many parts of the world it is just a normal requirement of daily living that people speak several languages: perhaps one or more at home, another in the village, still another for purposes of trade, and yet another for contact with the outside world of wider social or political organization. These various languages are usually acquired naturally and unselfconsciously, and the shifts from one to another are made without hesitation. (Wardhaugh 93)


It has been estimated that there are some 5,000 languages in the world but only about 185 nation-states recognized by the United Nations. Probably about half the world's population is bilingual and bilingualism is present in practically every country in the world. (Romain 33)


ɤ졤͸ϤʤΤQǤäơϤʤΤȻפǤҲ⡤ˤϰճ¿ΤǤ󤽤餹٤ƤͤҤȤοʹ֤Ʊ٥ǤȤȤǤϤʤ礬¿ΤǤξǧƤȤϡȤƤפʤȤȻפޤܤǤϳ줬ĤǤǡ֤פȻפ褦ʴФޤɡȤС˥˽ޥ͡ϲȤǤޥäƤޤȤϥޥͤǤƱ˥˥ͤʤΤǡҥȱѸ줬Ǥʤä顤Ūʹ̱ȤƤ褬ǤʤǤ͡Į˽ФƿƲбĤ褦Ź˶Ф褦ҤϤߤʱѸ䥹ҥȤäƤ櫓Ǥ顥ͤοʹ֤İʾ˰ۤʤäŪ˻ȤʬäƤȤҲ¤ˤ¿ޤƤǤϡߤǤ⡤轻̱θäƤͤ¿ޤȤФ줬ᥭä顤楫ȾΥޥͤϥޥȤƤޤᥭͤǤ顤ѸǤ륹ڥäʤФʤʤΤǤp. 50--51


ܿͤˤȤäʳ1İʾθ뤳ȤǤȤȤϡۤȤɤξ硤سؽη̤ȤƤơ̳ǤѸؽ1ĤȤäƤߤƤ⡤줬¿λ֤ϫϤפ뤫褯ΤäƤ롥äơͤ multilingual ȤȡǤγؽ̤ˤʤȻפǡò޻ΤǤ롥¿ multilingual ʸĿͤϡ"naturally and unselfconsciously" ʣθƤΤǤ롥ϤޤǤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤθ춦ƱΤ׵᤹ҲŪ1ĤȤʣθΤǤ롥Τ褦ʿ͡ϡ䤿Ƥ⤺äȼ̵ռ˸ؽƤޤ褦
ä multilingualism źθ춦ƱΤΥǥեȤǧȡष monolingualism פ֤Τ褦˸Ƥ롥˵䤷ʤȡȤ櫓ѸݤȤʤĤĤ븽θʤѸ monolingualism ϰ۾ǤȤո졤̤ȤƱѸȽlinguistic_imperialism ε򻲾ȡˤͥƥԡץ֥ native_speaker_problem) ʤ꤬ƤƤ롥#272. ݸȤƤαѸüԤʬ뿷ǥ ([2010-01-24-1]) ⡤¿Ѥ֤ǤꡤñѤ㳰ŪǤȤǧΤȤ󵯤줿ǥǤ롥

Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
Ƿؿ֤ȤСפβݳȡ١ҡ2012ǯ

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2013-05-29 Wed

#1493. Ѹʤ̱ [latin][borrowing][semantic_change][word_formation][sign][loan_translation][lexicology][terminology][neo-latin][morphology][romancisation][false_friend][waseieigo]

ε#1492. ֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫 ([2013-05-28-1]) ǡѸȸƤФˤĤ̻ŪŪξͻ¤ΤȤιͻϱѸäˤۤȤɤΤޤƤϤޤ롥ܸȱѸδطϱѸȥƥδط
ѸˤˤơǤĹؤäƤϥƥǤ롥Φˤäޥλƥ줫äѤƤűѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸˤƥƥѸäΰӤ뤲ʹߤϥꥷȤȤ˼Ȥ neo-classical compounding Ȥ̤ơѸä˱ƶڤܤ³Ƥ (##1437,32,120,1211,478γƵ򻲾) ơѸϤĹܿˤΤʤǡƥθ§򼫤η˼Ǥ[2013-02-08-1]ε#1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§סˡ
ơε (1) Ǥϡ˥ǥȤʤ signe ¸ߤĤ줬Ȥ줿ɤǡѸ줫Ѹ줫̤ȽҤ٤ƱȤϡѸȥƥˤĤƤ롥Ѹ줬ηϤⲽƥ쵬§˴Ťȼ˥ƥñ夲硤ϱǤ[2010-05-24-1]ε#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽פ򻲾ȡˡƥ˴¸Υǥ򻲾ȤƼϡƥѸǤ롥ξüδ֤Ūʥ졼󤬹äƤΤܸξƱͤǤ롥ܸξϡεǡֱѸ첣ʸʥʡ˸פȤ٥¨ʤ󼨤Ѹξ "Latinate word" ʥƥñˤȤѸ줬ѰդƤ롥ϱޤषƥѸޤषΤ狼ʤƥγäޤࡥ
ε (2) Ǥϡ֤¦̤顤ѸδĤƷ줿ܸñ4ĤʬषƱͤˡƥδĤƷ줿ñ4Ĥʬष褦

(a) ƥб signe ¸ߤ륿סʼѸŵŪ
(b) ƥб signifié ¸ߤ뤬 signifiant ϰۤʤ륿סѸŵŪ
(c) ƥб signifiant ¸ߤ뤬 signifié ϰۤʤ륿ס"false friends" 뤤 "faux amis" ŵŪ
(d) ƥб signe ¸ߤʤסʱŵŪ

Ѹ򤵤ʤƥüԤꤹȡüԤϱѸüԤˤäȯ줿 (c) (d) Τ褦ʸʹȡƬξ˥ϥƥʤ⤫֤ȤϡѸüԤѸʹȤƱȿǤ롥ѸˤƤ⡤Ѹ˰̣㤨Ƥ (c) Ǥ tradition ([2011-11-27-1]ε#944. ration reasonפ򻲾ȡˤ䡤(d) Ǥ antidisestablishmentarianism [2010-05-24-1]ε#392. antidisestablishmentarianism ˤߤѸΥޥ󥹸첽פ򻲾ȡˤΤ褦ʸä䤷Ƥ椯Ȥˤäơ˭ɽϤ˻äΤǤ롥
ܸꡥ¾줫θüѤŪǤˤäƤϡ(a)--(d) Τ٤ƤΥפ¿쾯ʤ츫ΤʤΤǤϤʤѸϡ̣򤽤ȥԥåȤƤФм夲뤬̸ŪˤϷ褷ðۤʸݤǤϤʤΤ

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2013-05-28 Tue

#1492. ֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫 [japanese][borrowing][semantic_change][word_formation][terminology][sign][loan_translation][lexicology][morphology][false_friend][waseieigo]

#1471. golden ߽ФѲ ([2013-05-07-1]) εǡ֥ǥ󥦥 (Golden Week) Ȥܸɽ˿줿ȤѸȤƾҲ𤷤ƱؤΥȤꡤѸ춵˴ؤͭȤIs ǥ󥦥 wasei-eigo?ȤؤΥ󥯤򤤤ʤ꤬ȤޤˡεˤȡGoogle Books Ngram Viewer (see [2010-12-25-1]) Ǹ򤫤ȡgolden week Ȥɽ1951ǯ˱Ѹ¸ߤȤȤ狼Υڡ򻲾ȡˡ[2010-12-25-1]εǽҤ٤褦ˡľΤȤ Google Books ΥѥȤƤɾϤˤȹͤƤ뤬ʤȤƱ¸ߤϻ¤ǤȼƤ褤Ѹ golden week ˡ緿Ϣ١פʤä櫓ǤϤʤޤǡ֡ʲΤ褦ˡ餷֡פۤɤΰ̣ѤƤ褦ơΤ褦ʾ˴դߤơϤܸΡ֥ǥ󥦥פѸȤߤʤƤ褤Τɤ
䤤ˤ͡¦̤Ȼפ뤬 (1) ̻֤¦̤ (2) ֤¦̤롥֥ǥ󥦥פѸ줫ɤȤ䤤ϡäѤ (1) λȯ䤤Ǥꡤܸûˤܸ츻ؤˤƤϽפ(2) λϤ䤤ϤޤܼŪǤϤʤΤΡŪܸŪꤲȤǤƱ餤̣ʲ (1) (2) Τ줾ˤĤƵ

(1) ̻֤¦
ܸѸȤѸθ̩ǤΤϤĤѸ켭ŵ򻲾ȤƤȽȤʤäѸŵȤƵ󤲤֥ʥס֥Хåߥ顼פΤ褦㤫餽ħФСֱѸͳˤηǤѸε§˳§äȤ߹碌뤳ȤˤäƷܸȤƤθפȤȤˤʤꤽϡ (signifiant) ܸηǹԤʤƤѸΥǥ򻲾ȤƤʤ˾ƤǤ롥ޤϡθ̣ѲɤѸصռѤ줿ɤʤɤθȯŸˤϸڤʤǤꡤäѤܤȤ롥
ѸΩϡ (borrowing) Ǥ롥Ѹ¦ΥǥȤʤ뵭 (signe) 򻲾ȤۤܤΤޤܸηϤΤʤ˼Ǥ롥
ơѸܸ礬ѸǤ뤫ѸѸǤ뤫ϡ¸αѸǥ򻲾ȤɤˤäƤ롥֥ǥ󥦥פǤСѸˤǤ¸ߤƤ餷ǥ golden week 򻲾ȤѤΤ뤤ϱѸ¦Υǥ̵ͭϤɤǤ졤Ȥܸȼ˺夲ΤʤΤѸ¦˥ǥ뤬ʾ塤򻲾ȤȹͤΤȻפ줫⤷ʤɬ⤽ȤϤʤnighter ʤɤηֵ§ΤޤΤȤϰۤʤꡤgolden week 쵬§ΤޤΤǤꡤΤ褦ŪɽѸ¦ܸ¦ΩȯǽϽʬˤ롥θó׿Ԥǥ¸ߤΤʤäȤǽΤƤʤΤǤϤʤɤΤȤؤϡθó׿ԤѸǥ¸ߤΤäƤꡤ򻲾ȤݤȤˤäƤΤǤꡤΤ뤳ȤŪˤ񤷤ʾ塤䤤ˤϡ֤狼ʤפȤ褦ʤˤСθó׿Ԥǥ¸ߤΤäƤ뤫ݤ⡤ºݤΤȤyes no ڤʬǤϤʤ⤷ʤѸ golden week ɤǸʹȤ褦ʡȤܤʵˤʤ⤷ʤ⤽ѸˤϤäȥǥ뤬ꤽȤФѸηƧڤˤϽʬʤΤǤ롥
츻ؾ塤֥ǥ󥦥פܸǤηȹͤ뤫Ѹ줫μѤӰ̣ü첽ȹͤ뤫礭ʰ㤤Ǥ롥츻˽񤯤٤ȤѤäƤ뤫Ѹ˥ǥ뤬¸ߤʤ֥ʥפΤ褦ˡ餫Ѹ㤬üˤ롥Ѳ狼äƤ֥ѥפΤ褦ˡ餫ʼѤ㤬¾üˤ롥ξüδ֤ˡŪ𤬤褯狼ʤ졼󤬹äƤꡤɿŪʸ츻ؼԤǤ̵ˤɤ餫˽°뤳ȤˤˡѸ줫Ѹؤ³Ϣ³ΤΤΤ˲٥ƤȤΤ1Ĥβˡˤʤ뤫⤷ʤǥ뻲Ȥ̵ͭˤ餺 signifiant ѸǤȤΤǡֱѸ첣ʸʥʡ˸פʤɤȤƤΤ̵񤫤⤷ʤ

(2) ֤¦
δ֥ǥ󥦥פͤȡҤȤϰäǽˤʤ롥ѸδĤƷ줿ϡ (signe) δ4ĤΥפʬव롥

(a) Ѹб signe ¸ߤ륿סʼѸŵŪ
(b) Ѹб signifié ¸ߤ뤬 signifiant ϰۤʤ륿סѸŵŪ
(c) Ѹб signifiant ¸ߤ뤬 signifié ϰۤʤ륿ס"false friends" 뤤 "faux amis" ŵŪ
(d) Ѹб signe ¸ߤʤסѸŵŪ

(c) "false friends" Ȥϡ춵ʤɤǻŦƤֽ֤ǡ֤б뤬̣ϰۤʤ뤿դפפǤ롥ԴʼѲ䡤Ѹ̣ѲˤäƤ⤿餵뤳Ȥ¿ǥ¸ߤ˵Ť˺줿ѸʤɤǤΥפ°Τ뤫⤷ʤ
ѸˤޤȤĤ᡼ȤơֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפ뤬ºݤˤϡֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפϡ(c) (d) ˶̤ªƤɬפ롥(c) ˤϡ֡ʼư֤Ρ˥ϥɥסȤ򥵥ܤΰդǤΡ֥פס˿ڤˤؤ֥եߥ˥ȡפʤɤ(d) ˤϡ֥꡼ޥס֥Хåס֥٥åɥס֥Сȡפʤɤꡤ̤ʤμۤʤ롥෿˽С֥ǥ󥦥פ (c) Ȥʤ෿ϤޤǶŪ෿Ǥꡤ(1) ǰä˽Ť֤̻ŪʴȤоȤդ줿

ǤϡĤγ٤Ѹ¾θáʲˤŪ˰֤Ť褦ȻߤƤ˵ɬפѸפȤܼŪ (1) δ̾դ줿ѸǤ餷Ȥ狼äƤֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפȤϡ(2) °Ǥ롥ѸפȡֱѸǤ̤ʤΡפȤϡ̻֤ȶ֤ζ̤ƱͤˡäڤʬƵۤ褤ΤǤϤʤ
ϡϢѸ夲롥

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2013-05-27 Mon

#1491. diglossia borrowing δط [diglossia][borrowing][loan_word][register][synonym]

#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1]) ǼѡʸˤˤĤˤȤˡѸˤ illumination ? light purchase ? buy ˤߤóؤϡdiglossia ˤҲŪʾ岼ط (borrowing) Ȥʤ̤ơηϤˤ register ξ岼طⲽΤǤȻŦ
diglossia borrowing δطõ뤳ȤϼҲؤؤõȤȤˤĤʤꡤ礭ʸơޤȤʤꤦ뤬ˤĤ Hudson (56--57) Ūʸ򼨤Ƥ롥Hudson ϡѸǤ get Τˤ[2009-10-13-1]ε#169. get give Ϥʤ /g/ äƤΤפǼ褦˸ťΥɸ쵯Ȥ٤ˤȥƥͳ褹 obtain 夲󥰥ɤα diglossia μҲŪʾ岼طѤȤ̤ơѸ register ξ岼طƤ줿ȤƤª diglossia äˤӡobtain ƥͳǤȤüԤεޤꡤĤƤ diglossia ¸ߤ岼طκפŪ̮򼺤ʤ顤register ξ岼طȤƸηϤΤʤ夷Hudson (57) οޤ򻲹ͤˤʤ顤Τ褦ˤޤȤƤߤ

Diglossia and Borrowing

1ʳǤϡobtain get λȤʬϡdiglossia ȤΤ˶̤2֤ˤȤʬˤۤʤʤ2ʳǤϡƥ줫Ѹ obtain Ѥ졤obtain get λȤʬϱѸǤ register ˤȤʬȤʤ롥ʳǤϡobtain ΥƥȤηӤĤ⤤ޤƤ롥3ʳǤϡdiglossia ä졤obtain ΥƥȤηӤĤ˺Ƥ롥obtain get λȤʬϡ register κȤƱѸä夷ΤǤ롥

Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

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2013-05-26 Sun

#1490. diglossia ɸѼδطȤϰۤʤ [diglossia]

4֤ˤ錄äƼ夲Ƥ diglossia ϡ¤˳᤹СɸѼȤΤ¿θ춦ƱΤˤƤϤޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ɸѼ郎̤ˤ졤ǤʤƼ̤ˤ졤ξѼ郎ҲŪʾ˱ơ¿쾯ʤΤ˻Ȥʬ뤫
ޤdzᤷƤޤȡ춦ƱΤΥݥۤ褦Ȥ diglossia 󼨤 Ferguson ΰտޤޤǵ߼ʤȤˤʤ롥Ferguson (329) ϡ춦ƱΤˤ2Ѽ郎ʲ˵󤲤褦 domain ȤΤ˻ȤʬƤȤŵŪ diglossia ¸ߤƤȤߤʤΤǤ롥

 HL
Sermon in church or mosquex 
Instructions to servants, waiters, workmen, clerks x
Personal letterx 
Speech in parliament, political speechx 
University lecturex 
Conversation with family, friends, colleagues x
News broadcastx 
Radio "soap opera" x
Newspaper editorial, news story, caption on picturex 
Caption on political cartoon x
Poetryx 
Folk literature x


diglossia μҲǤϡŬڤ domain ŬڤѼȤʤȡüԤѤ򤫤뤤ϾˤäƤϴˤ餵뤳Ȥ餢롥
ǡߤΥꥹܤʤɤˤƤϤɤΤɸѼѼλȤʬˤϤ뤷Ŭڤ domain ŬڤѼȤʤѤ򤫤̤⤢ξѼκŪ礭üԤŪüԤȤFerguson ε󤲤ŵŪ diglossia ҲȤϰۤʤäƤ롥Ferguson ȤΤȤФڤС̤Ǥ롥

. . . diglossia differs from the more widespread standard-with-dialects in that no segment of the speech community in diglossia regularly uses H as a medium of ordinary conversation, and any attempt to do so is felt to be either pedantic and artificial (Arabic, Greek) or else in some sense disloyal to the community (Swiss German, Creole). In the more usual standard-with-dialects situation the standard is often similar to the variety of a certain region or social group (e.g. Tehran Persian, Calcutta Bengali) which is used in ordinary conversation more or less naturally by members of the group and as a superposed variety by others. (336--37)


Ferguson diglossia Ǥϡä˾ѼѤ뤳ȤϤʤѤͤϤʤߤΥꥹܤǤϡäɸѼѤ뤳ȤϤ뤷ѤͤϤ롥ΰ㤤Ǥ롥

Ferguson, C. A. "Diglossia." Word 15 (1959): 325--40.

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2013-05-25 Sat

#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸ󥰥ɤ triglossia [diglossia][latin][french][me][loan_word][borrowing][lexicology]

3֤ε ([2013-05-22-1], [2013-05-23-1], [2013-05-24-1]) ǡFerguson 󾧤 diglossia 夲Ƥdiglossia ȤҲŪɾˤĤ¿褬깭ƤεΤȤơ󥰥ɤΥʥߥåʸͤǡνפʴͿƤ줿ΤǤϤʤ
εǿ줿̤ꡤFerguson ȤϤβŪʸ diglossia Ʊ2ѼʻѾȶۤʤ2ˤĤƤϰʤȡʲΤ褦Ƥ롥

. . . no attempt is made in this paper to examine the analogous situation where two distinct (related or unrelated) languages are used side by side throughout a speech community, each with a clearly defined role. (325, fn. 2)


2ʤ뤤Ϥʾθˤδ֤ˤ "the analogous situation" ϳΤ˸졤Ferguson ¿ƤϤޤ롥ǰƬ֤ƤΤϡ󥰥ɤˤѸ졤ե󥹸졤ƥ triglossia Ǥ롥ʲǤϡFerguson diglossia ʸ˰͵򤷤󥰥ɤ triglossia 򤷤褦Ȥݤ˹θ٤2ĤŦ1Ĥϡ#1486. diglossia ФȽ ([2013-05-23-1]) Ǥ⿨줿 diglossia Ťưꡤ⤦1ĤϡѼ (H) Ѽ (L) ήѸǤ롥
Ferguson ϡ§Ȥ diglossia ŪʡꤷȤȤ館

It might be supposed that diglossia is highly unstable, tending to change into a more stable language situation. This is not so. Diglossia typically persists at least several centuries, and evidence in some cases seems to show that it can last well over a thousand years. (332)


ŪǧȽΤȤȤʤäΤFerguson diglossia ɤΤ褦ɤΤ褦˲Τ줦뤫ȤưŪ¦̵̤뤷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤϻŦƤɬפ롥

Diglossia is likely to come into being when the following three conditions hold in a given speech community: (1) There is a sizable body of literature in a language closely related to (or even identical with) the natural language of the community, and this literature embodies, whether as source (e.g. divine revelation) or reinforcement, some of the fundamental values of the community. (2) Literacy in the community is limited to a small elite. (3) A suitable period of time, on the order of several centuries, passes from the establishment of (1) and (2). (338)


Diglossia seems to be accepted and not regarded as a "problem" by the community in which it is in force, until certain trends appear in the community. These include trends toward (a) more widespread literacy (whether for economic, ideological or other reasons), (b) broader communication among different regional and social segments of the community (e.g. for economic, administrative, military, or ideological reasons), (c) desire for a full-fledged standard "national" language as an attribute of autonomy or of sovereignty. (338)


. . . we must remind ourselves that the situation may remain stable for long periods of time. But if the trends mentioned above do appear and become strong, change may take place. (339)


1ΰѤ3ϡ󥰥ɤˤơ˥ƥե󥹸줬Ѹ̤ѼȤ夷Ȥ triglossia ˤĤƤȲ򤹤뤳ȤǤ롥2ΰѤ3ϡѸˤơʥƥ̤Ȥơ˱Ѹȥե󥹸 diglossia ˲ΤƤ椯Ⱦ˸ڤƤɤ롥
ˡѸˤѸȤδϢǤϡFerguson ʸ鼨ŪʰѤ2ĵ󤲤褦

. . . a striking feature of diglossia is the existence of many paired items, one H one L, referring to fairly common concepts frequently used in both H and L, where the range of meaning of the two items is roughly the same, and the use of one or the other immediately stamps the utterance or written sequence as H or L. (334)


. . . the formal-informal dimension in languages like English is a continuum in which the boundary between the two items in different pairs may not come at the same point, e.g. illumination, purchase, and children are not fully parallel in their formal-informal range of use. (334)


2ĤΰѤ碌ɤȡѡʸˤ˴ؤ붽̣꤬롥diglossia ˤСѼʥե󥹸ˤȲѼʱѸˤϡҲŪˤĬܤΤ褦Τ˶̤롥ϡ§ȤơĬܤϢ³ܤȤưȤǤȤȤǤ롥Ȥdiglossia ȤҲŪüѤȤʤͳƱѸäΤʤⲽȡillumination ? light purchase ? buy ʤɤ register ˤ岼طϳΤ˻ۤ줳뤬ĬܤιϸġΩڥˤäưۤʤ롥ʩΩڥʤäΤ򲣤¤٤Ȥregister ξ岼طɽ魯ĬܤϡҲŪ diglossia ĬܤۤΤ˰ܤʤ櫓ǤϤʤΤȤϡdiglossia monoglossia ؤȲΤƤ椯Ȥdiglossia ¸ߤҲŪʾ岼طmonoglossia θäˤäѤŪⲽ¸ȤȤ̣ΤǤϤʤ

Ferguson, C. A. "Diglossia." Word 15 (1959): 325--40.

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2013-05-24 Fri

#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ [diglossia][elf]

2֤ε#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1]) ȡ#1487. diglossia ФȽ ([2013-05-23-1]) ǡdiglossia ˸ڤä˺εǤ̻ŪʻȽҲ𤷤̻ŪʻϡѸΥ󥰥ɤˤ diglossia Ȥθ diglossia βáˤ϶ѸʹߤοʼҲŪȯŸȤʥߥ򤹤ǤԲķǤ롥ҤƤϡҲˤ󥬡ե󥫤ȤƤαѸ (ELF) ɾݤˤ⡤diglossia Υʥߥå¿˻ͤˤʤ롥
Crystal (128) μ1ϡҲؤŪʤΤȤƤ줿 diglossia 򡤱ѸˤưŪȤߤΤʤ˻ʱɾ롥

The linguistic situation of Anglo-Norman England is, from a sociolinguistic point of view, very familiar. It is a situation of triglossia --- in which three languages have carved out for themselves different social functions, with one being a 'low-level' language, and the others being used for different 'high-level' purposes. A modern example is Tunisia, where French, Classical Arabic, and Colloquial Arabic evolved different social roles --- French as the language of (former) colonial administration, Classical Arabic primarily for religious expression, and Colloquial Arabic for everyday purposes. Eventually England would become a diglossic community, as French died out, leaving a 'two-language' situation, with Latin maintained as the medium of education and the Church . . . and English as the everyday language. And later still, the country would become monoglossic --- or monolingual, as it is usually expressed. But monolingualism is an unusual state, and in the twenty-first century there are clear signs of the reappearance of diglossia in English as it spreads around the world . . . .


Υޥ󡦥󥯥Ȱʹߡ21˻Ѹˤ-glossia ȤάҤС(1) Ѹ줬ѼǤ triglossia(2) Ѹ줬ѼǤ diglossia(3) monoglossia(4) Ѹ줬ѼǤ diglossia ؤƤȤˤʤ롥
ְסֻ³פˤ꤬ȤϤΤΡdiglossia ˤΤ褦ɽޤ뤳ȤˤϡΤ˰´Ĥ롥

Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.

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2013-05-23 Thu

#1487. diglossia ФȽ [diglossia]

ε#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1]) ǡdiglossia ˤĤƲ⤷diglossia ϸź˹ѻ졤ʸݤǤϤʤȤ⤢ꡤγǰѸϳس˻ä
Ferguson Ƥ diglossia ϡ˳򾷤褦ˤʤäҤ٤̤ꡤ diglossia 12Ѽδ֤ˤߤ岼طؤΤäFishman (Sociolinguistics 75) ϰۤʤ2δ֤ˤߤ´ط diglossia Ȥߤʤˤꡤ㤨Хѥ饰ˤ Spanish Guaraní Τ褦˷Ūˤ̵طθɤδط⡤diglossia Ƥ˴ޤ줿ޤ󥰥ɤˤ Norman French English δط diglossia ȤƸڤǤ褦ˤʤädiglossia γǰγϡդޤǤǤСޤͭݤäƤ褦˻פ롥
Ȥdiglossia ϡ2Ѽ濫뤤3ѼʻѾؤˤȤɤޤ餺10ʻѤ20ʻѤȤäۤȤ̵̣ʺʬα¿ȤʤäƤä٤Ƥθ춦ƱΤˤϳƼ (dialects) Ѱ (registers) ꡤѼ (varieties) ȤߤʤΤǤСɤζƱΤ¿쾯ʤ diglossic ȤȤˤʤäƤޤFerguson ϸ춦ƱΤ෿Τ diglossia ȤǰƤΤΰտޤ߼줺ˡǰ̵̣ʤޤǤ˳礵Ƥޤäꥹ䥢ꥫΤ褦ʣμҲʻѾȤʤäƤΤǤСdiglossia ȤΤ礲Ǥꡤ"social-dialectia" ۤɤǤ褤ΤǤϤʤ (Hudson 51)
diglossia ˴ؤ⤦1ĤϡFerguson ˤ Fishman ˤ衤diglossia ŪʸȤƤȤ館Ƥʤˤ롥ʤΤ褦ʸΤȤưŪ̻ŪʼιͻȴƤ롥 Ferguson ˤ "a relatively stable language situation" Ȥ뤷Fishman ("Prefatory Note" 3) Ǥϡ"an enduring societal arrangement, extending at least beyond a three generation period" Ȥꡤ³ŪŪʼҲŪȤƤ롥󥰥ɤˤĤƤߤ褦 diglossia ˤ줦ΤǤ롥ɤΤ褦 diglossia ξꡤɤΤ褦˻³ɤΤ褦˲äΤȤ̻Ūʻʤ¤ꡤФе쿢̱ϤˤƾѼƤ衼åѽθȡϤβѼθȤξ岼طŪʤΤǤꡤäʤΤǤȤǥĹ줫ͤʤĤޤꡤdiglossia ְŪפɽ뤳ȤϡǤˤΥǥȤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ʤȤ⡤diglossia ä褦ȱưƤҲ׼ԤˤȤäơdiglossia ˡְפֻ³פȤɽޤΤϲʤʤȤ (68) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Τ褦ˡȤǰ᤿Ȥϡ줬줿˾λˤä褦ʰݤ롥եꥫΩˡ¿ιʣʸľ̤ƤǤ¿¾Ǥϵ콡θθŪ¦̤ˤ̻ͥۤǤ롥ŪȤߤͿ뤦ǡϡǰꤷΤȤƾҲ𤵤뷹ˤꡤ줬ߤ褹ʶ߾äơѤʤȤȤ򤢤̣뷹ˤäʼºݡ̱ϻۤæΤۤȤɤˤƵäȤǤäˡΤ褦ʳȥǥȤδطϡʤ뤳ȤǤϤʤ


Fishman, J. Sociolinguistics: A Brief Introduction. Rowley: Newbury House, 1971.
Fishman, J. "Prefatory Note." Languages in Contact and Conflict, XI. Ed. P. H. Nelde. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1980.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
륤᥸󡦥ˡ ˡؼҲء١ҡ2002ǯ

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2013-05-22 Wed

#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer [sociolinguistics][bilingualism][me][terminology][chaucer][reestablishment_of_english][diglossia]

#661. 12󥰥ɿͤäդȽ񤭸ա ([2011-02-17-1]) ǡѸΥ󥰥ɤˤ diglossia ȤƸڤؤν񤭸դ˥ƥե󥹸줬ؤäդ˱Ѹ줬ѤȤλȤʬΤʸǤ롥3줬ؤäƤΤ triglossia ȸƤ֤ΤΤ⤷ʤ
diglossia ȤǰѸǽƳΤϡҲؼ Ferguson Ǥ롥Ferguson (336) ˤѤ褦

DIGLOSSIA is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation.


ˤȤꡤFerguson diglossia 12Ѽ狼ʤ岼طȰ֤ŤƤȤơŵӥӥ졤ɸɥĸȥɥĸ졤襮ꥷ̱ꥷ ([2013-04-20-1]ε#1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡפ򻲾ȡˡե󥹸ȥϥ쥪4󤲤
diglossia γǰ᤿ˡ12Ѽ狼ʤ岼طˤȤɤޤ餺ۤʤ2줫ʤ岼طޤ diglossia γǥ뤬 Fishman ˤäƼȡ碌ƹ褦ˤʤäѸΥ󥰥ɤˤ diglossia ϡγ diglossia ȤȤˤʤ롥
ơŵŪ diglossia ˤƤϡⶵֵ⡤ǥʸؤˤƾѼ (high variety) Ѥ졤ϫƯԤ侤ȤؤλؼФǤβá̱Ūʥ饸ȡ̡衤̱¯ʸؤˤƲѼ (low variety) ѤȤ롥⤷üԤλȤʬ餺դ路ʤǤդ路ʤѼѤȡˤϰ´Τߤʤ餺ˤäƤϴ롥󥰥ɤˤƤδ򤢤˯Chaucer äѼǤѸǡϾѼʬäʸؤ񤤤ΤǤ롥Wardhaugh (86) ϡChaucer diglossia ˤˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

You do not use an H variety in circumstances calling for an L variety, e.g., for addressing a servant; nor do you usually use an L variety when an H is called for, e.g., for writing a 'serious' work of literature. You may indeed do the latter, but it may be a risky endeavor; it is the kind of thing that Chaucer did for the English of his day, and it requires a certain willingness, on the part of both the writer and others, to break away from a diglossic situation by extending the L variety into functions normally associated only with the H. For about three centuries after the Norman Conquest of 1066, English and Norman French coexisted in England in a diglossic situation with Norman French the H variety and English the L. However, gradually the L variety assumed more and more functions associated with the H so that by Chaucer's time it had become possible to use the L variety for a major literary work.


Τˤ Chaucer Ϥ diglossia ˤäȤϡChaucer λޤǤˡdiglossia ˤ줦ޤǤ˱Ѹ줬̱ĤĤä򤹤Τ
ʤdiglossia ˴ؤƤϡ1960--90ǯˤ3000ʸ蘆줿ȤسȤƤϲŪʳǰäȤʥp. 31ˡ

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Ferguson, C. A. "Diglossia." Word 15 (1959): 325--40.
륤᥸󡦥ˡ ԡˡظȤϲ١ҡ2000ǯ

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2013-05-21 Tue

#1485. ȼҲδط˴ؤ4Ĥβ [sapir-whorf_hypothesis][linguistic_relativism]

ε#1484. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ([2013-05-20-1]) ǸԥᥦդβϸʸʼҲˤδط˴ؤǤͭ̾ʲȼҲδ֤ˤɤΤ褦ʴطꤦ뤫Ȥ䤤Фǽϡۤˤ⤢롥Ҳȸδ֤ƯƤƶθ̵ͭˤꡤŪˤ4Ĥβǽ롥

(1) Ҳ񤬸˱ƶͿƤʼ夤ԥᥦդβ⡤
(2) 줬Ҳ˱ƶͿƤʶԥᥦդβ⡤
(3) ȼҲδ֤ˤαƶ۾ˡŪ
(4) ȼҲδ֤ˤϱƶطϤʤ

(1), (2) ˤĤƤϺεǥС(3) ϡȼҲξԤ䤨֤ʤƶڤܤäƤȤǤ롥ߴطˤʪŪʾ郎פ̤Ƥȹͤޥ륯Ūʲ (3) ΰ
(4) ϰ츫ȶüʲ˻פ뤫⤷ʤChomsky Pinker ʤʸˡԤμΩǤ롥ΤˤСChomsky ʤɤϼҲȸδ֤˴طʤȤϸڤäƤ餺ȼҲΤ줾ˤĤƤޤμ­Ƥ븽ˤäơƶ̵ͭΤϻȤո
ȼҲδ֤αƶȤäƤ⡤Ūʱƶ⤢ꤦ뤷ñȿǤȤǤƤۤ褤餤μ夤ƶ⤢ꤦ롥ʲϡΤ褦٤θơ(1)--(4) ޼Ҳ񤬸ͿƶXˡ줬ҲͿƶYˤȤäΤǤ롥¤ϤΥץåȾΤɤդˤΤ

Relationship between Language and Society

Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.

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2013-05-20 Mon

#1484. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis [sapir-whorf_hypothesis][linguistic_relativism]

ԥᥦդβ (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ sapir-whorf_hypothesis εǿۤɿƤ⤽ΤΤξҲϤޤäΤǡʲ˶ʽŪʵҤܤ
ԥᥦդβϡʸδطˤ벾Ǥꡤι¤üԤѤ˱ƶͿƤȼĥ롥βˤϡȼ夤ΤΤꡤԤ (linguistic determinism) Ԥ (linguistic relativity) ȸƤФ롥ϡüԤθˡ뤤˷ꤹΤΤǤꡤ鼫ͳˤʤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ뤤񤷤ȼĥ롥夤ϡʸϸꤹȤϤʤޤǤ⡤ʬŪ˸ξȿǤȤȤϤȼĥ롥
ʸδطˤĤƤϡ᤯19˥ɥĤ Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767--1835) ѡ򾧤Ƥå (32) ˤСHumboldt ˤȤäơȤϡ֤̱²ǡ¤ȯϪ줿ΡפǡפγŪɽǤꡤˤĤƤθ WeltanschauungˤȿǤΤǤ롥ԥᥦդβϡΤ Humboldt Ρѡȿ⤤ȤΩƥꥫϤȯΤǤ롥̾Ȥꡤβϥꥫ2ͤθؼ Edward Sapir (1884--1939) Ȥ櫓 Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897--1943) ȶӤĤ뤳ȤȤʤä
ޤϡSapir μĥ򸫤Ƥߤ褦Sapir μĥǤΤ˸ƤսȤơWardhaugh (230) ѤƤʸϤ¹롥

Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the 'real world' is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group. . . . We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir 207)


Sapir ϡϤΤβ򤢤 "predispose" ȽҤ٤ˤȤɤޤꡤŤ (determine) ȤޤǤϸäƤʤҤ Whorf μĥϤ궯ؤƧ߹Ǥ롥ƤӡWardhaugh (231) ¹

. . . the background linguistic system (in other words, the grammar) of each language is not merely a reproducing instrument for voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper of ideas, the program and guide for the individual's mental activity, for his analysis of impressions, for his synthesis of his mental stock in trade. Formulation of ideas is not an independent process, strictly rational in the old sense, but is part of a particular grammar, and differs, from slightly to greatly, between different grammars. We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds --- and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds. We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way --- an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language. The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory; we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees. (cited in Wardhaugh 231 from Carroll 212--14)


"largely" 2ѤƤΤߤȡWhorf ϸ줬׹ִͤˡ׷ꤹȤޤǤϸäƤʤ"the shaper of ideas", "along lines laid down by our native languages", "absolutely obligatory" ʤɤȡʤ궯ɽ¤ǤΤ¤Ǥ롥
ԥᥦդβϤޤƤʤȤƤ뤫Τ褦ʸ⾯ʤʤ㤨С椯ȤơۤʤϰۤʤѤǤФΤǤ뤫ȼĥ롥̤ɽ魯äűѤ뤳Ȥˤäơ̤λۤʤʤϤ롥ʳŪˤޤƤ餺줦Τɤ¿ԤĤƤޤʤǤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥

Sapir, E. "The Status of Linguistics as a Science." Language 5 (1929): 207--14.
Carroll, J. B., ed. Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, MA: MIT P, 1956.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ߥ륫å Ρ ͺ ظؤή١ߤ˼1974ǯ

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2013-05-19 Sun

#1483. taboo ŪȤʤͳ [taboo][sociolinguistics][sign][euphemism]

taboo ʶشˤϡҲˤƵꤵ줿֤٤餺פǤꡤ񤤡ոˤΤǤ롥դȤƤΥ֡ϡ俶񤤤ȤƤΥ֡Ʊ󤢤뤤ϱĹȹͤ졤ؤȤƤϤޤǼŪʤΤª뤫⤷ʤդȤƤΥ֡ϡ̤˻פƤʾ˸ŪʸݤǤ롥
ޤդȤƤΥ֡ϡ쵭 (signe) ηȤäƤ롥򤵤Τϡsignifiant signifié η«椽ΤΤǤȤȤ㤨С֡뤵䤹̣ΰȤʸˤ뤬ѸǤϡˤĤˤ뤳Ȥϥ֡ǤϤʤintercourse ʤɤθˤ뤳Ȥ⥿֡ǤϤʤȤ̾ f---ck ϶򤵤롥֡ signifié ΤߤʤΤǤϤʤ signifiant ʬӤĤ signe Ȥñ̤ˤꡤʤƸŪʸݤǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ˡ줬֡ˤʤȡնŪظ줬Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ¤롥Ū drag chain ȤǤƤ٤븽ݤ֡ϡʸνи˹׸ȤǡΤ˸ŪʥѥȤͭŪʸݤȤȤˤʤ롥㤨СPapua New Guinea Kabana Ǥϡʤɰ̴طˤԤ̾ˤ뤳Ȥϥ֡ȤƤ롥θʸˤƿ̾ŵŪ̾̾Ǥ롥ȡ㤨а̴طˤԤεɽ魯 urae Ȥˤʤ Urae ȤȤ̾ľ硤̾ȤƤ urae ˤ뤳ȤǤʤʤäƤޤǤؤʤΤǡˤεؼȤƥ̣ moi Ѥ롤Ȥä (Wardhaugh 249)
̤ȤƤϡ#1362. ʤˤ˽Τ --- ֡ ([2013-01-18-1]) ǿ줿롼 (Zulu) 㤬롥롼ǤϡʤȤη̾Ƥ֤Ȥϸʤʥ֡Ǥꡤ̾˻䡤̾˴ޤޤβ򤷤ʤФʤʤ㤨С/z/ 򤵤벻Ȥʤȡamanzi ʿˤȤ򤵤ͤФʤ餺ɽ魯ظȤ amandabi ʤɤѤ (Trudgill 67)
ϡʸ°ʤԤˤȤäƤϼ¤˶ΰԹʴ˻פ뤬⤽⥿֡Ȥݤϡ줾ʸȼλ׹ͤ˴ŤǤꡤʳŪǤ뤳Ȥ¿ƬǤʳŪȤ狼äƤƤ⡤տŪ˼Ȥ񤷤Τ֡Ǥ롥
Ǹˡ֡θ̤ϸޤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥轻̱ Nootka ȤϡѸäȤ such ȤʤȤͳϡNootka ǤϤ줬 "vagina" ɽ魯Ǥ (Trudgill 20) ƱͤˡOklahoma 轻̱ˤäƹԤʤƤ Creek üԤϡfákki (soil), apíswa (meat)apíssi (fat) ʤɤȯѸˤ륿֡۵Ȥͳǡ򤱤Ȥ (Wardhaugh 250)
֡ϡʸȸδطͤǡפǤ롥

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.

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2013-05-18 Sat

#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) [preterite][verb][suppletion][accommodation_theory][functionalism][function_of_language][sobokunagimon]

#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1]) ˴ؤƼ䤬󤻤줿ǡƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ롥go went δطˤȤɤޤ餺깭ˤϤĤΤԵ§ʤ¸ߤΤȤ礭˴ؤͻǤ롥
ʤ go β went ȤʤäΤȤȡʤޤ went ΤޤޤǤ *goed ȤʤʤΤȤȤ̤Ǥ롥ԤˤĤƤϤƤȤơԤˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦ѸȤƽҶϡʳ˱ went -> *goed -> went Ȥϩ̲᤹Ȥֵ§§ä *goed ʳ٤ϷФˤ⤫餺㳰ʤǽŪˤ went 夯ȤΤ̣ʤˤ⻺Фˤ䤵Ϥ *goed ˤơwent Ѥ˻Τεǽ (functionalism) Ȥ뤫ꡤϲ򤱤ʤ
went ȤԵ§ʤȤ櫓Ե§ٹ礤ζ佼ˤ夷ƤװȤơФФθǤζü٤ι⤵Ŧ롥٤ι⤤ζ޷ϡֵ§Фˡľܤη֤إۤŪǤȤ롥be ưζ޷ΰ۾Ե§ʤɤ⡤ˤä
ֹٸ̯ʿ񤤡פϡΤ1ĤǤϤҲؤδ顤̤ζ̣󵯤Ƥ롥Ҳؤθ1ĤˡüԤϽ°붦ƱΤظŪʶ (conformity) 򼨤ȤΤ롥Ҳؤγ路 Hudson (12) ϡ conformity ˤĤƿ줿ǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Perhaps the show-piece for the triumph of conformity over efficient communication is the area of irregular morphology, where the existence of irregular verbs or nouns in a language like English has no pay-off from the point of view of communication (it makes life easier for neither the speaker nor the hearer, nor even for the language learner). The only explanation for the continued existence of such irregularities must be the need for each of us to be seen to be conforming to the same rules, in detail, as those we take as models. As is well known, children tend to use regular forms (such as goed for went), but later abandon these forms simply in order to conform with older people.


ޤHudson (233--34) ̤βսǤ⡤ͤˤä˹碌褦ȤռƯƤȤ accommodation theory ˸ڤʤ顤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

The ideas behind accommodation theory are important for theory because they contradict a theoretical claim which is widely held among linguists, called 'functionalism'. This is the idea that the structure of language can be explained by the communicative functions that it has to perform --- the conveying of information in the most efficient way possible. Structural gaps like the lack of I aren't and irregular morphology such as went are completely dysfunctional, and should have been eliminated by functional pressures if functionalism was right.


"conformity", "accommodation theory" ȰۤʤѸѤƤ뤬2ĤΰѤϤȤˡΥɺŬεǽ⡤μҲŪʼ«ŪǽܤơԵ§ʷ֤¸³Ť褦ȤƤ롥ϡgo β went Ǥͳľܤ櫓ǤϤʤεǽȤ1ĤƶͿΤǤϤ

Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

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2013-05-17 Fri

#1481. ʥˤߤҲϰεեԥߥå [sociolinguistics][variation][dialect][map]

[2013-01-15-1]ε#1359. ϰѰۤȼҲѰۡפǿ줿 Karnataka 濴Ѥ Dravida ɤ° Kannada ˤϡҲϰ˴ؤƼפʱѸҲ˸ΤȤϵդΥѥ󤬴ѻ (Trudgill 25--26)
ޤ Kannada ˤĤƳ⤷ƤȡKarnataka θѸǤꡤEthnologue Kannada ξˤ3700ͤۤɤüԿ͸ؤǤ롥üԿ͸ǤС29̤Ȥ֤Ťʥ󥭥ɽϡ[2010-05-29-1]ε#397. üԿˤȥå25פΥHTML򻲾ȡˡKanarese ʥʥˤȤƤФ롥ɤθϿޤˤĤƤϡLinguistic Map of India 򻲾ȡʲȤʤ롤Karnataka Ǹߤ400Υ줿 Bangalore Dharwar Ūʴطϰʲ̤ꡥ

Map of Karnataka

ơȴ֤μҲŪʶ̤ΤǤ륤ɤˤäƤϡȴ֤θŪʶ̤ͽۤȤϥȤ˴ŤҲ (social dialect) ȯãƤȤȤϰ (regional dialect) ¸ߤ롥ǡTrudgill (26) ϡȺǹ̤ǤХ (Brahmin) ѼХ (non-Brahmin) ѼȤҲŪѰۤθĤġBangalore Dharwar 2ԻԤϰŪѰۤθơĤθܤˤĤƷ֤ΰƱ

Brahminnon-Brahmin
DharwarBangaloreDharwarBangalore
(1)'it is'ədəideaytiayti
(2)'inside'-olage-alli-āga-āga
(3)infinitive affix-likke-ōk-āk-āk
(4)participle affix
(5)'sit'kūt-kūt-kunt-kunt-
(6)reflexivekont-kont-


(4)--(6) ˤĤƤϡξԻԤȤ Brahmin non-Brahmin μҲŪʶ̤ΤǤ롥ǤϡϰϤʤäѤҲƤ롥Ȥ(1)--(3) ˤĤƤϡnon-Brahmin Ǥϰ躹ϤʤBrahmin Ǥϰ躹ǧ롥ĤޤꡤǤϰŪװΤۤҲŪװ⶯ŪѰۤ⤿餷ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
(1)--(3) ˤߤ뤳ξϡѸܸ˸ϰȼҲδطȤϰۤʤäƤꡤۤ˱Ǥ뤫⤷ʤפʱѸҲˤơ뤤ܤˤơɸ䶦̸ȤƸڤҲŪ˰ҿΤѼ֤ (superposed dialect) ȤƤФ褦ˡϰʤ蘆褦ˤƹԤʤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤϰ˰¸ʤҲŪ˾̤ѼǤ롥Ҥ Kannada ˤƤϤС̥Ȥ Brahmin ѤѼ盧ϰ˰¸˰Ūʷ֤򼨤̤ non-Brahmin Ѽ盧ϰˤäѰۤ򼨤ϤǤϤʤͽۤ롥Ȥ¤ϤषդǤ롥ayti, -āga, -āk ʤɤϡ夫ǤϤʤ餫֤äƤֵդ֤פη֤ȤǤƤӤʤΤǤ롥
춦ƱΤˤäƤϡҲϰδطˤ͡ʥѥ󤬸Ȥ

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-06-09-1]

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2013-05-16 Thu

#1480. ʱѸ˼Ҳسν [bibliography][sociolinguistics][hel_education][link]

#1445. Ѹ˳ν ([2013-04-11-1]) ƱͤμݤǡʱѸ˼ҲؤγŪʻͿ޽ΥꥹȤ
ǯʱѸ˼ҲؤȯŸϰϤˤʤäƤƤ뤬ʲǤϡʱѸ˼Ҳؤ˴ؤ복Ūʿ޽ȥե󥹤ΤꥹȤǤʡäˤΤΡˡΤۤˤ⡤ƿ޽δ˷ǺܤƤ뻲ʸꥹȤ䡤饤Ǥ O'Grady et al. θΥѥ˥󥵥֤ƤPDFλʸꥹ׻ȡޤܥ֥ǤҲؤ¿äƤΤǡȤ櫓 sociolinguistics γƵ򻲾Ȥ줿
ʲƱƤΰѤPDFɤ

γܸˡ

󡡡ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
סؤȤФʸ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1973ǯ
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1981ǯ
ҡˡؼҲؤؤξԡ١ߥͥ˼1996ǯ
ּҲءסرѸ6ѸؤδϢʬ١ʼë , ͳͺ, ˡ罤۽Ź, 1989ǯ365--495ǡ
ë ҡˡؤϤƳؤּҲء١ߥͥ˼2011ǯ
륤᥸󡦥ˡ ˡؼҲء١ҡ2002ǯ

γʱѸˡ

Fasold, Ralph. The Sociolinguistics of Language. Oxford: Blackwell, 1990.
Holmes, Janet. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.

ΡʱѸ˼ҲؤλͿ޽

ж ϺԡˡظѸؼŵ١Ʋ1973ǯ
⿮ ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
߷ ˧ͺԡˡرѸ׸켭ŵ١ҡ2002ǯ
ϲ ͭӾ ɧ ˮɧԡˡ罤۱Ѹػŵ١罤۽Ź1983ǯ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 2nd ed. 2003.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 2nd ed. 2003.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-03-10-1]

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2013-05-15 Wed

#1479. his °ʤο [genitive][clitic][synthesis_to_analysis][syntax][metanalysis]

his °ʤˤĤƤϡ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1]) Ǽ夲αѸ˾ν#1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])
ԤǤϡJanda Allen θΰ㤤˸ڤJanda ܸ̾ (enclitic) ȤƤ -'s ȯã޲𤷤¤Ȥơhis °ʤ򤪤ɾΤФơAllen Ū -es °ʤŪʬ (metanalysis) ˤ꽽ʬȤơhis °ʤδͿɾʤξԤεˤϰĹû뤬his °ʤѤ褦ˤʤäʳǰʬϤȤȤϴְ㤤ʤ
his °ʤνиȯãˤĤƤϤ˵ɬפhis °ʤοˤĤƤϤޤܤʤhis °ʤϡűѸѸ˨꤬졤15ʹߤˤʤꡤ17ޤ¸³18溢ޤǤˤѤ줿ѤȤʤäطʤˤϲäΤ
Janda (247--48) ϡΤ褦Ƥ롥

Though 'very rare in the North and infrequent in the rest of the country, [it] gains ground considerably in the 15th century and remains a popular means of expression right down to the 17th' (M:161). 'The use of his . . . as a sign of the genitive . . . had its widest currency in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries' (P:196). Use of the construction declined gradually thereafter, so that it was virtually lost by the mid-eighteenth century. It has been conjectured that '[t]he pronoun form dropped out partly perhaps because of the antipathy of most stylists from the sixteenth century on to "pleonastic" or repetitive pronouns' (T:125)--and, in general, to any analyticity (periphrasis) in English where it diverged from Latin syntheticity. (247--48)


Ĥޤꡤ16ʹߤʸԤ (1) his °ʤΤľĹ(2) ƥΤ֤ѸʬäǤϤʤȤޤJanda ̤βս (250) ǡ-'s Ȥɽδ㤬ΩȡǽŪˤ⡤h 첻μ岽ˤ벻ξṳ̈ơ˲Ūˤ his °ʤʬŪ˲᤹ʤʤäΤǤϤʤȤݤΤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ʸŪӲŪʾȤ߹碌ˤꡤhis °ʤ -'s ΤۤŪ˹ޤ褦ˤʤäȤȤβ뤿ˤϡξˤĤƤܺ٤ʸڤɬפ

Janda, Richard. "On the Decline of Declensional Systems: The Overall Loss of OE Nominal Case Inflections and the ME Reanalysis of -es as his." Papers from the Fourth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Ed. Elizabeth C. Traugott, Rebecca Labrum, and Susan Shepherd. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1980. 243--52.
Allen, Cynthia L. "The Origins of the 'Group Genitive' in English." Transactions of the Philological Society 95 (1997): 111--31.

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2013-05-14 Tue

#1478. Ƭ [affix][prefix][suffix][word_formation][morphology][lexicology][statistics][derivation]

ϸѸܼź (affixation) ˴ؤŪꡥѸθˤѤ礿Ƭ (prefix) (suffix) Quirk et al. (1539--58) ˤƬν󤹤롥ʲΥꥹȤǤϡƱܼΰ۷̡֤˵󤲤Ƥ뤬ƬȤˤ褽50Ĥ롥

A-, AN-, ANTI-, ARCH-, AUTO-, BE-, BI-, CO-, CONTRA-, COUNTER-, DE-, DEMI-, DI-, DIS-, EM-, EN-, EX-, EXTRA-, FORE-, HYPER-, IN-, INTER-, MAL-, MINI-, MIS-, MONO-, MULTI-, NEO-, NON-, OUT-, OVER-, PALEO-, PAN-, POLY-, POST-, PRE-, PRO-, PROTO-, PSEUDO-, RE-, SEMI-, SUB-, SUPER-, SUR-, TELE-, TRANS-, TRI-, ULTRA-, UN-, UNDER-, UNI-, VICE-


-(I)AN, -ABLE, -AGE, -AL, -ANT, -ATE, -ATION, -DOM, -ED, -EE, -EER, -EN, -ER, -ERY, -ESE, -ESQUE, -ESS, -ETTE, -FUL, -FY, -HOOD, -IAL, -IC, -ICAL, -IFY, -ING, -IOUS, -ISH, -ISM, -IST, -ITE, -ITY, -IVE, -IZE (-ISE), -LESS, -LET, -LIKE, -LING, -LY, -MENT, -NESS, -OCRACY, -OR, -OUS, -RY, -SHIP, -STER, -WARD(S), -WISE, -Y


Ʊ Quirk et al. ˤ̣䵡ǽˤ뤳ܼ绨Ĥʬ̥ڡ˼Τǡ⻲ȡ
Crystal (150) ˤСOED ˤ븫Ф쥵ץĴη̡100򾯤ĶۤɤƬΤ줫ѸΤ40--50%˸ȤܼźäѸομ礿ʤǤ뤳Ȥϡ#873. ѸοˤʣΥХ󥹡 ([2011-09-17-1])#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1])#878. Algeo Bauer ο쥽Ĵӡ([2011-09-22-1])#879. Algeo ο쥽Ĵ鼨̻Ū([2011-09-23-1]) ʤɤǺƻƤŪѤƤѸΤߤƤ⡤Ϥܼźä礭ȤȤ狼롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-02-08-1]

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2013-05-13 Mon

#1477. The Salamanca Corpus --- Ѹѥ [corpus][emode][dialect][dialectology][caxton][popular_passage]

ѸˤǤϡѸѸϤۤȤɿʤǤʤ#1430. ѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳ (2) ([2013-03-27-1]) Ǥ⿨줿̤ꡤѸϱѸ줬ɸಽϲƤäǤꡤ˿ʱƶڤܤƤɸѸȤΩäƱѸˤ򸦵椷褦ȤȡɤƤɸѼˤɤȤ쿴Ƥޤ餫⤷ʤη̤뤤ϸѸƥȤμۤȤɿʤǤʤǤ롥ѸΤξ󸻤ϡޤ#869. Wright's English Dialect Dictionary ([2011-09-13-1]) Ǥꡤ#868. EDD Online ([2011-09-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤΥ饤ǤѤǤ褦ˤʤäȤϤޤޤǤ롥
2011ǯꡤUniversity of Salamanca ʬοŸ¥ȡѸ (c.1500--c.1950) ƥȤμȥǥ벽ʤƤ롥The Salamanca Corpus: Digital Archive of English Dialect Texts ϡϿƥȤƤƤꡤ塤Ťʾ󸻤ȤʤäƤ椯⤷ʤ
ѥȤŻҥƥȽȤκۤιϰʲ̤Ǥ롥ޤ̤ DIALECT LITERATURE LITERARY DIALECTS ̤롥Ԥǽ񤫤줿ƥȡԤˤĤƸڤΤƥȤǤ롥ˡƥȤǯˤ1500--1700ǯ, 1700--1800ǯ, 1800--1950ǯؤ礭3ʬ졤˽̤̤λʬʤƤ롥
ѥ˼ϿƤǤᤤϡLITERARY DIALECTS -> 1500--1700ǯ -> The Northern Counties -> Prose ɤäƤäȤ˸Ĥ William Caxton ˤ Eneydos "Prologue"1490ǯˤƥȤ221ˤʤΥڡͳǼ롥[2010-03-30-1]ε#337. egges or eyrenפǰѤᤰᤰäޤʬǤ롥侮ܲǤ롥Caxton θѤΤ뤿ˤϡ[2010-03-30-1]εǰѤʸ̮פʤΤǡҰɤ

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2013-05-12 Sun

#1476. Fennell ˤѲθ [language_change][causation][variation][contact][systemic_regulation]

Fennell αѸ˳Ƭ˶ᤤ1.2 Language Change (pp. 3--7) ܸ󤹤뵡񤬤äѲθˤĤƤγǤ롥äʤΤǡܥ֥ˤǺܤƤ

ʤ줬ѲΤͳ͡Ǥ롥1ˡưŪŪ¤ͭƤꡤŪʸѲ롥2ˡϡܿȼظ̤ʤɤȤƸ롤üԤԴʽ椨Ѳ롥
ˡʤ͡ϤĤƱä򤹤櫓ǤϤʤΤȤ䤤롥ؼԤϡ٤ƤλҶ콬˴ؤʿǤꡤɤθǤ⽬ǤǽϤäƤ뤳ȡޤƱĴﴱˤƱθ첻ȯǽϤäƤ뤳ȤȤƤ롥ȯˤϤ鷺ѰۤĤǤ¸ߤΤǤ롥`sh' `th' ˶ᤤȤȯΤ⤤С`r' `w' `l' ˶ᤤȤȯΤ⤤롥ޤĿͤθߤƤߤȡռˤ褷ʤˤ衤Ȥ櫓ꡤѤꡤ̤Ѥꤹ롥θĿŪѰۤѲμʤΤǤ롥⤷ȡȯˡҿäƤꡤ֤üԤ餯̵ռˤΰҿäѤȤȤ뤫⤷ʤ䤿ϤߤʡäϢӤ򶯤褦Ȼפ˹碌ä򤹤뤷Υ֤ȻפäˤΥ֤ΤǤ롥ҲؤǤϤָŪפȸƤǤ뤬줬ĿŪǰŪʸݤǤϤʤŪˤŪˤȤСѲؤȯŸ
줬Ѳ⤦1ĤͳϡüԤ̱ʤɤ̤¾üԤܿ뤫Ǥ롥ˤäƤϡȤθ줬Ԥθ˶ִפ뤳Ȥ뤫⤷ʤ뤤ϡ¸ȤƤξԤδ֤Ūʽ󤬤Ǥ뤫⤷ʤξĤ̩ܿƤΤǤС֤αƶ礭ǽ롥ȿФˡξĤʸŪʪŪʬΥƤСߤθŪƶϤۤȤɤʤ
ŪʸȤʳθȤδ֤ܿϤ뤬Ūʶ̹बʤˤϡ¤Τܿ줬ȯã뤫⤷ʤθϡϴά줿ηϤĤˤѰۤ䤹ɬ⤹٤ƤΥߥ˥εǽ̤ʤʳθԥȸƤ֡Υԥ줬夫Ʒ֤ȵǽư˸ȤѤ褦ˤʤȡ쥪ȸƤФʳȯŸȤˤʤ롥Τ褦ʸϡҲꤷήɼҲθϤޤˤĤơФлŪʸΤۤܶᤷƤ椭̤Ȥƥݥȡ쥪Ϣ³ΤȸƤФѼϢ³Τ뤳Ȥ¿ǤϡŪñ㲽ޤޤΡֲءѼŪʸ˶ᤤءѼˡ־ءѼ郎¸Ƥ뤬ѼǤɸѼȤϰۤʤħƤ뤳Ȥդ
ܿϡĤѲɬ׾濫뤤ϽʬǤȤϤʤषʬΥ뤳ȤˤäƸѲ뤳Ȥ¿㤨СѸ줬17˥ꥫˤ⤿餵ȡĤͳǥꥹѸ줫ʬƤäޤ⤿餵줿Ѹϡʣΰ̱ȤˤäơʣȤƤ⤿餵줿Ǥ롥ˡ֤ο͏͡ʸȤܿˤꡤѲ뤲ˡä˥ꥫΩΤȤꥹѸδȤϰۤʤظŪʬФơꥫˤͣθ쵬Ϥʤäˡ줾ϰ˰ҿΤѼ郎ޤ줿ΤǤ롥
嵭Τ褦ʸѲˤñ㲽Τ餤뤳Ȥդ줿¿θѲˤϡ¿ͤͳΤǤ롥㤨СꥫѸ줬ꥹѸ줫ʬͳˤϡ¾Ȥܿ⤢ꡤͱѸ (AAVE) ǤϤʬ٤礭ɸѸˤƤϡ¾줫αƶŪϾǤꡤ͸ùܤ˸¤롥
ޤǽҤ٤ƤѲװϸ쳰ŪʤΤäŪװ⤢褦1ĤϡѸ줬ʸˡǽ̤Τ˷־θ˰¸Ūʸ줫顤˰¸ʬŪʸذܹԤǤ롥¤ŪˤϡϱѸˤˤѲѲͳϸŪǤ롥ǤϸΤɤˤǤ1褦ˤʤꡤ޸ۣ沽ȾüΤǤ롥ʸˡǽ϶޸礬ô褦ˤʤꡤ嵭෿ŪѲä⤽⶯ѲΤʤΤ쳰ŪͳäΤïˤ狼ʤäѲäȤϡϰϢŪѲΤǤ롥
ŪѲ̤ȤơI饦ȤȸƤФűѸޤޥ췲Ѳ롥ޥĸǶ˸³̵ [i] [j] ä硤첻ꤢ뤤ϹˤʤȤѲǤ롥beran bireþmūus mys 򻲾ȡѲθ⡤ŪװʳˤϹͤʤ
ŪѲΤ⤦1Ĥϡ1500ǯʹߤ do ΰư줫ưؤѲѲˤꡤdo ϸ򼺤ʸʸȤʸˡŪʵǽؤȯŸΤ褦ѲϡʸˡפȸƤФ롥
do ѲϡŪˤ빽¤ȷӤĤƤǽ̤ι¤ȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäȤ̣ǡֺʬϡפȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤѸηǤϡʬϤβ̶ʬȤƤΡְʬϡפ㤬˭٤Ǥ롥㤨Сnaddre, napron, noumpere ϡ֤괧 an Ȥδ֤ǰʬϤ̡adder, apron, umpire θޤ줿ȿФˡan ewt a newt ȰʬϤ줿Ȥ褦⤢롥ŪѲȤ
ѲθޤȤȡ(1) ŪʬΥܿ(2) νݡʼҲĶˤܿ(3) Դʽ(4) ظ̡(5) ҲŪʰҿװ롥
ŪװȤƤϡ(1) Ĵưײ(2) ѡ(3) ʬϡ(4) 롥


Fennell ϸѲθȤơŪװȸ쳰Ūװ̤Ƥ뤬ΤʤѰ (variation) ε򺹤Ǥ롥碌ȡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ǸѲ3ȤƸڤ (1) variation, (2) systemic regulation, (3) contact Ǥ·äȤˤʤ롥Fennell ϡҲŪʱѸˤäƤΤǡʤ variation contact Ȥ櫓Ż뤹뤬ŪˤϤ3åȤDZѸˤˤѲ褦ȤƤȤ

Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2013-09-13-1]

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2013-05-11 Sat

#1475. Ѹȸ˴ؤϿޤΥ [internet][link][timeline][hel_education][map][global_language][elf][vexillology]

Map of the World Ȥ͡Ͽޤ󶡤ɥȤ򸫤ĤõƤߤȡѸ䤽¾θ˴ؤϿޤ奢ˤ˭٤ǡܥ֥ȤƾҲ𤹤ͤȻפäΤǡʲ˥󥯤ĥäƤϿޤΰŪӤˤ˻Ȥ롥

English Language --- Facts & Infographic: ѸħѸˤ绨Ĥ˲⡥Τʤ English Speaking Countries Ͽޤͭѡ
Should English Be The Official Language Of The World --- Facts & Infographic: ȤƤθѸϰ̤ҴŪ˵ҡǡŵϤ狼ʤ The Web of Words Ǥϡ־ΥƥĤαѸΨ56%ʰŪ̡ˡ־Υߥ˥αѸΨ26.8%ˤĤ2̡ˤȤʤäƤ롥Ѹ줬ѸȤʤäƤ56ιƤ롥ե٥åȽ˵󤲤ȡAntigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Cameroon, Canada, Dominica, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, India, Ireland, Jamaica, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Namibia, Nauru, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Solomon Islands, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Zambia, ZimbabweϢơ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1]) #376. ˤѸιϿޤǤߤ ([2010-05-08-1]) ⻲ȡ
Top Ten English Speaking Countries: ϿޤDZѸüԡüԤȤϸ¤ʤ˿͸ȥå10ι񤬼Ƥ롥ǡ뤬ե٥åȽ˵󤲤ȡAustralia, Canada, France, Germany, India, Italy, Nigeria, Philippines, United Kingdom, United States
Top Ten Daily Newspapers in English: ϿޤǼ뤬ƤȥɤΤߡ1ʿȯˡThe Sun (UK), USA Today (USA), The Daily Mail (UK), The Mirror (UK), Times of India (India), Wall Street Journal (USA), New York Times (USA), The Daily Telegraph (UK), Daily Express (UK), Los Angeles Times (USA)

Language Map of the World: 25Ȥ¾ȤǿʬϿޤ롥

UK Map --- United Kingdom: ꥹϿޤ򤶤äȼȤ˻Ȥ롥Physical Map   *  
USA Map: ꥫϿޤ򤶤äȼȤ˻Ȥ롥Physical Map   *  
Europe Map: 衼åϿޤ򤶤äȼȤ˻Ȥ롥Physical Map   *  
Map of the World: Ͽޤ򤶤äȼȤ˻Ȥ롥  *  *  *

ۤ˥饤θϿޤȤƤϡ#715. Britannica Online ǻȤǤϿޡ ([2011-04-12-1]) ĥä󥯤䡤Ethnologue Browse by Map Title 򻲾ȡ

Referrer (Inside): [2014-02-07-1]

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2013-05-10 Fri

#1474. Romance Stress Rule [stress][gsr][rsr]

ε#1473. Germanic Stress Rule ([2013-05-09-1]) ˰³ Romance Stress Rule (RSR) Ҳ𤹤롥Lass (Vol. 3, p. 57) ˤСѸˤƥޥ󥹷ϼѸȤȤˤ⤿餵ȯŸ RSR ϼΤ褦꼰롥

Beginning at the right-hand edge of the word, select as word-head the syllable specified as follows:
A (i) If the final syllable is (a) heavy, or (b) the only syllable, assign S and construct a foot:
      S               S       S       S
σ̆ σ̄     σ̄σ̆σ̄      σ̄      σ̆
deface    vndertake    twelfth    twig

(ii) If the final syllable is light, go back to the penult.
B (i) If the penult is (a) heavy, or (b) the only other syllable, assign S and construct a foot:
       S   W              S  W     S  W
σ̆ σ̄ σ̆    σ̆σ̆σ̄σ̆    σ̆σ̆
 vnable    occidental    shouel

(ii) I the penult is light, go back to the antepenult.
C Assign S to the antepenult regardless of weight, and construct a foot:
              S   W  W         S  W  W
σ̄σ̆σ̆σ̆σ̆σ̆    σ̆σ̄σ̆σ̆
   histori ographer    industri ouse


RSR ħ3ǼСñαϤʱˡŪߴǡνŤˤʲṽ¤ҴˤȤȤǤ롥GSR ȿФȤȤ狼ѸʹߤαѸζ§ϡ(1) (2) ֹ¤Ȳṽ¤ΤɤŻ뤹뤫Ȥ2äơ԰褹롥̤ȤƤߤСѸˤ RSR Ϥ򶯤ƤäΤRSR GSR ֤ȸڤΤɬʤRSR GSR ߹ȤݤȤ̯ʤξԤʬ줹뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ롥
ξ§٤ȳΤȿФʤΤºݤθŬѤ줿̤٤ȡ¿ξ硤̤ƱǤ롥ñ writ, write ʤɤϤɤζ§˾Ȥ餷Ƥ⶯֤Ϥβʤ2 wríter, wrítten, belíeve ˤƤƱͤ3 cráftily, sórrier ˤƤ̤ȤƤƱ˶롥ĤޤꡤGSR RSR ϡʤ١Ʊ̤ΤǤ롥
ξԤ礹륱ϻĤ롥㤨Ƭղä줿ڤ2ϡGSR Ǥ϶2뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬RSR Ǥ1˶뤳Ȥˤʤ (ex. begín but not *bégin) ޤ/-VCC/ νŤĸϡGSR Ǥ϶ʤRSR ǤϤ˶뤳Ȥˤʤ (ex. sínging but not *singíng) Τ褦ʥǤϡξ§ζη̤Ȥơ԰ variation ¸ߤ뤳Ȥˤʤäˤ԰ variation ͡ʥޥʡ§߽ФȤʤꡤѸζϸߤ˻ޤʣ³ƤΤǤ롥
GSR RSR ζˤˤĤƤϡLass (Vol. 2, pp. 85--90) Lass (Vol. 3, pp. 125--28) ȤǤ롥

Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 23--154.
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-06-20-1]

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2013-05-09 Thu

#1473. Germanic Stress Rule [stress][gsr][rsr]

Ѹˤޤ³Ƥȹͤ붯§1 Germanic Stress Rule (GSR) ˤĤƤϡȿ⤦1Ĥζ§ Romance Stress Rule (RSR) Ȥǡ#200. Ȥΰ֤襤 --- ޥϤޥ󥹷Ϥ ([2009-11-13-1]) #718. ѸζѥѸѼ ([2011-04-15-1]) #861. Ѹθ춯ΰ֤˴ؤ3ס ([2011-09-05-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥϡ⤦ܤ GSR ˤĤƸƤߤ褦
GSR ϥޥħŤ붯§ǡüŪˤȡָ촴1˶פȤ§Ǥ (##182,857,187) űѸǤϤε§Ϥܴۤ˵ǽƤꡤͣΤΤäѸ줢뤤ϽѸʹߤϡƬƤ RSR ȶ礷ʤ鸽ߤ˻äƤ롥GSR Lass (126) ˽ä꼰ȼ̤ꡥ

(i) Starting at the left-hand word-edge, ignore any prefixes (except those specified as stressable), and assign stress to the first syllable of the lexical root, regardless of weight.
(ii) Construct a (maximally trisyllabic) foot to the right:
  S       S  W 
rætt'rat'    wrīt-an'to write'
     S W     S W W 
ge-writen'written'    bæcere'baker'


GSR ħ3ǼСñκϤʺˡƬȸ캬ζ̤ˤ뤵ʷŪҴˤνŤˤϤʤʲṽ¤ߴˤȤȤǤ롥ĸλˤϸζ֤ϼͳäޥɤʬƤ椯ݤˤζ§ä줿ȹͤ롥̤ȤơűѸζ⾯㳰Ƥñʶ§˻ۤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
ȤѸˤ¿Υե󥹸ƥ줫μѸ줬ѸäήƤ˵ڤӡĹ餯Фä GSR ưɤϤ롥ޥ󥹷Ϥθͭ Romance Stress Rule (RSR) GSR ʤ蘆ꡤݤ߹⤦ȤΤǤ롥Ѹ줫Ѹˤơ¤ˡRSR ĹƤ椯ȤˤʤäRSR ˤĤƤϡεǡ

Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.

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2013-05-08 Wed

#1472. ͥ󥹴θŪ [bible][renaissance][emode][methodology][reformation]

#1427. פʱ˴ؤǯɽ ([2013-03-24-1]) 餫ʤ褦ˡ16͡ȯŪ˽Ǥ줿äʤ⤦1Ĥȯ20ˡϽפλǤꡤ͡ʥꥹȶɤ¸ߡŵ줫ĹǤθκʤɽǤ߹礤ۤʤǤνи¥ʤ顤ǤȼŪռäƤꡤŪˤƤȼΤäƤǤϡλȤؿ󤻤ƤŪȤϡŪˤɤΤ褦ʤΤäΤGörlach (5) ˤСʲ4Ǥ롥

1. Should a translator use the Latin or Greek/Hebrew sources?
2. Should translational equivalents be fixed, or varying renderings be permitted according to context? (cf. penitentia = penance, penitence, amendment)
3. To what extent should foreign words be permitted or English equivalents be used, whether existing lexemes or new coinages (cf. Cheke's practice)?
4. How popular should the translator's language be? There was a notable contrast between the Protestant tradition (demanding that the Bible should be accessible to all) and the Catholic (claiming that even translated Bibles needed authentic interpretation by the priest). Note also that dependence on earlier versions increased the conservative, or even archaic character of biblical diction from the sixteenth century on


줾䤤ؤϡȤˤäưۤʤäƤꡤ줬ۤʤνǤĹޤäƱǤϤʤˤ衤20--21ˤƤ2ܤǤȯˤƤ⡤ƤϤޤΤǤϤʤ
ơѸˤθǤϡۤʤαӤȤˡФѤƤǤΥƥȤΰƱطʤ˾Τ褦ͿƤȤϵαƤ٤Ǥ롥ʣǤΤñӤͭǤϤʤǽ뤫Görlach (6) ˤСŪʴ顤֤ñӤΩʤȤƼ4󤲤Ƥ롥

1. the translators used different sources;
2. older translations were used for comparison;
3. the source was misunderstood or interpreted differently;
4. concepts and contexts were absent from the translator's language and culture.


͡ʱ¸ߤѸ˸˵Ťʻ󶡤Ƥ줿Ȥϴְ㤤ʤѸ˸ˡȤߤȡʣ󼨤ƤƤ뤳ȤΤǤ롥

Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-10-22-1] [2017-05-28-1]

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2013-05-07 Tue

#1471. golden ߽ФѲ [i-mutation][analogy][phonetics][analogy][suffix][waseieigo]

ǯ⥴ǥ󥦥äܸȤƤΡ֥ǥ󥦥פϡ1951ǯϢ٤˾Ǥ줿Dz褬ߤζԤҥåȤȤˤʤDzȳȯѸǤ롥GW Ȥάˡ⤹ä̲롥
ơѸ golden ϡ̾ gold ηƻȤǧΤƤ롥gold ΤƻŪѤ졤 golden Ϥɤ餫ȤŪ뤤ʸŪѤ뤳Ȥ¿a gold coin ʶߡˤФgolden opportunity 乥εˤǡǤ롥ѸǤϤ뤬Ҥ Golden Week Ūˡ
ѸǺɽ魯ƻ -en ϡƥ -īnusꥷ -inos󥹥åȸ -īna ʤɤθŵˤƱߤۤɤθŤ16ʹߡ嵭Τ褦˴Τ̾줬Τޤ޷ƻȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤꡤߤǤΩʤȤʤäƤ롥㤨Сearthen, wheaten, woolen ʤɤϷߤglassen, oaken, silken, silvern, tinnen ʤɤϸŤᤫʸŪǤ롥
űѸ gylden (golden), stǣnen (of stone) Ȥ֤̤ꡤϤΩĻˤϹ첻 i äƤꡤľβ첻 i-mutation Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ줬ѸˤƴΤ gold, stone ȤβŪѤˤ첻ִ golden, stonen ߽ФϡѲˤΤκä󳫤ΤΡŪѤˤƤӷ֤̤äƤȤѲˤ˴ѻιʤѤФä gilden 16ѸȤʤäȴϢ̤ȯŸˤư gild ʶä򤹤ˤϡߤޤǻĤäƤ롥
ơűѸ gylden i-mutation κѤջȡΤȤƤ̾ gulden ȤʤϤűѸǤ gold Ǥ롥ϡűѸΥޥˡŪ u o ؤȾ夲βФǤ롥β n 첻³ˤ˻ߤ줿ϡűѸζѲưIIIˤơbunden Ǥ u ݤƤ뤬holpen Ǥ o ؾ夲Ȥʤɤ (Hamer 14--15) ˤűѸ̾ gold Фƻ gylden (< *guldin) 򤵤褦

Hamer, R. F. S. Old English Sound Changes for Beginners. Oxford: Blackwell, 1967.

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2013-05-06 Mon

#1470. macaronic lyric [me][literature][style][bilingualism][register][latin][french][code-switching]

Ѹνˤϡ"macaronic lyric" ȸƤФΤ롥macaronic ȤϡOALD7 ڤ "(technical) relating to language, especially in poetry, that includes words and expressions from another language" ȤꡤֳƼκä¯ΤΡפʤɤ̣롥macaronic lyric ϡΥ󥰥ɤˤŪˤϱѸ줬Ǥϥե󥹸줬Ǥϥƥ줬ʿŪ˹ԤʤƤ¿ѤξߤȤ˱ǤФʸغʤǤ롥ȤơGreentree (396) ˰ѤƤޥꥢؤλΤ1󤲤ʹ Brown 26--27 ˴ŤˡϡѸȥƥ줬ؤ13 macaronic lyric Ǥ롥

Of on that is so fayr and bright
      velud maris stella
Brighter than the day-is light
      parens & puella
Ic crie to the, thou se to me,
Leuedy, preye thi sone for me
      tam pia,
that ic mote come to the
      maria


츫ñʤѺߤΤؤܻˤ⸫뤬Greentree Ϥޥꥢؤο̩ʰʱѸˤˤȸʤʿġʥƥˤˤȤ̯ΥХ󥹤ȿǤΤȤɾ롥ʤѸȵŪʥƥθؤϡΤޤ13쿮ĤħŪʿ̩ȷɰդκɽ魯ȤҲؤ bilingual code-switching ʸؤؤαѤȤ
2ϡGreentree (395--96) ˰ѤƤ De amico ad amicam ̾դ줿֥쥿αȡResponcio ̾դ줿ؤǤ롥Ѹ졤ե󥹸졤ƥ줬ܤޤ뤷ؤ롥

A celuy que pluys eyme en mounde
Of alle tho that I have found
        Carissima
Saluz ottreye amour,
With grace and joye alle honoure
        Dulcissima


A soun treschere et special
Fer and her and overal
        In mundo,
Que soy ou saltz et gré
With mouth, word and herte free
        Jocundo


ǤϡѸDZΤʤɽ졤ե󥹸ǴŪǵŪʰҤ٤졤ƥǷٶδʷˤƹߤʥե졼ޤƤ롥
伫Ȥˤϡ macaronic lyric äʸ̤Ŭڤ̣臘ȤǤʤդȾʬθͷӤȹ⤤ʸȤζ̤Ĥ뤳ȤǤʤbilingual ǤϤʤԤ code-switching ε򤷤ˤΤƱ褦ʤΤ⤷ʤ㤨ܸǤҤ餬ʡʡ޻ʤɤ򿥤򤼤뤳Ȥʷϵΰ㤤ɽ魯ƤߤȡѸ macaronic lyric ˾ܶǤʵ⤹롥Greentree (396) ϼΤ褦ɾ᤯äƤ롥

Fluent harmony is an enjoyable and consistent characteristic of the macaronic lyrics. They seem paradoxically unforced, moving easily between languages in common use, to exploit particular characteristics for effect.


ʤȯŸ뤳Ȥˤʤ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1]) ϡ̣Ǥ macaronic lyric Ʊ褦ѺΤषƥ줫֤ʸΤɽۤŬڤ⤷ʤ

Greentree, Rosemary. "Lyric." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 387--405.
Brown, Carleton, ed. English Lyrics of the XIIIth Century. Oxford: Clarendon, 1832.

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2013-05-05 Sun

#1469. Хȡ᥹ָɡʰ² [indo-european][family_tree][balto-slavic][slavic][indo-european_sub-family][map]

²θɲ⥷꡼ (see indo-european_sub-family) 6ƤǡBaugh and Cable (30--32) ˤꡤХȡ᥹ָ (Balto-Slavic or Balto-Slavonic) ˤĤƲ⤹롥
θɤϡ衼åʤɤǤ롥̾μȤХȸ췲 (the Baltic subfamily) ȥָ췲 (the Slavic subfamily) ̤뤬ߤ¿ζ̤ħͭƤꡤ¾θɤ٤ζϹ⤤
Хȸ췲ˤϡOld Prussian, Latvian, Lithuanian 3줬°롥Old Prussian 17˥ɥĸˤäִ졤ߤǤϻȤʤäƤ롥Latvia ϥȥӥ¹200ͤθ졤Lithuanian ϥȥ˥¹300ͤθȤƷߤǤ롥ĥƸ뤳ȤȤ櫓 Lithuanian ϸŤˡ褯ݤäƤꡤȥ˥פñ Sanskrit θ򤹤뤳ȤǤȤ
ˡָ췲˰ܤָ췲ν7--8ޤǤϤ褽ͤäꤵƤ롥ָ췲˴ؤǤŤʸϡ9˷붵 Cyril (827--69) Methodius (825?--84) ˤä줿ΰȵʸ˻ĤƤ롥θָ췲°Old Church Slavonic Old Bulgarian ȤƸڤ뤬ָ췲ζ̤ĸˤʤᤤȤ롥˻ޤθȤƸҤݤäƤ
ָ췲礭 East Slavic, West Slavic, South Slavic 3ʬ롥East Slavic °פʸϡRussian, Belorussian, Ukrainian Ǥ롥Russian 17500ͤäƤǡθѸ졤ʸظǤ롥Belorussian ϥ٥롼ܤݡɤϰ900ͤääǤ롥Ukrainian ϥ饤ʤ5000ͤˤääƤǤŪ˰ҿΤȶ礷Ƥꡤ̱²Ūʱưˤ줫ζ̲ܻؤƤ롥
West Slavic ˤϡ4Ĥμפʸ줬°롥Polish ϸ췲ǺüԤͭƤ롥üԤϥݡɹ3600ͤˤȤɤޤ餺ƹ񤽤¾ذ̱500ͰʾޤࡥˡCzech Slovak Ϥ줾100͡500ͤۤɤüԤͭߤǽǤ롥ǸˡSorbian ϥɥĤ Dresden Ȥ¤줿10ͤۤɤˤääƤ뾮Ǥ롥
East Slavic West Slavic ŪϢ³ʬۤƤ뤬South Slavic ϰϥåɤ Romanian ² Hungarian ˤä¾ΥָɤʬǤƤ롥ޤSouth Slavic ϵ桼ӥνȤơʬʹߡߤʣʼҲŪ褷Ƥ롥South Slavic °פʸ Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Slovene, Macedonian ʸޥɥ˥ȷŪ˶̤븽ޥɥ˥ˤǤ롥Bulgarian ŪˤϥХ륫ȾäƤǡϤ¾̱²줿ˤ⤫äԤθĤäǤ롥ȤƤθ֥륬ꥢϥȥ륳줫¿μѸޤǤ뤬ʸظȤƤѼϥ˶ᤤSerbian Croatian ϸߤʸηϤϰۤʤäƤΤθŪˤƱǤꡤŪʬˤ Serbo-Croatian Ȱ礷ƸƾΤƤˡ̱²ŪΩˤꡤϤŪˤϤۤƱ Bosnian ̤褦ˤʤäƤSlovenia ϡ٥˥150ͤˤääƤ롥
ָ췲ʬۿޤϡDistribution of the Slavic languages in Europe 򻲾ȡ  *

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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2013-05-04 Sat

#1468. dollar θ츻 [etymology][clipping]

̲ñ̡֥ɥפθ츻ˤĤơBohemia Joachimst(h)al ȤĮ롥Į1519ǯ˽¤줿ʾϡɥĸĤ Joachimst(ha)aler ȸƤФ졤䤬ƤǤ clipping ѤڤΤƤ졤T(h)aler ̾Τ褦ˤʤäʱѸǡëפɽ魯dale ƱˡΥɥĸ̾ϥɥĸ줢뤤 daler, daller ȤƼѤ졤16ˤϱѸؤäƤαñϡ16--19ѤƤɥĶߤɽ路ڥʾ peso Ū̾ (=Spanish dollar) ȤƤѤ褦ˤʤäƹΩ1782ǯThomas Jefferson ƹ̲ߤȤƱѹ̲ߤκѤǤ˹ѤƤ Spanish dollar ƹ̲ߤȤƺѤ뤳ȤҤ١dollar ϸߤΰ̣βƤιŪʷкѳưʪ츻Ȥ1785ǯˤΦĤˤꡤƹ̲̾ȤƺѤ줿ºݤή̤Τ¤꤬줿1792ǯǤ롥

1785 Resol. Continent. Congress U.S. 6 July, Resolved, that the money unit of the United States of America be one dollar.


ߤֻ dollar 17ǡ¾ˤ daleir, daler, dal(l)or, dalder, doler, dolor, daller, doller, dollor ʤֻ͡ѤƤ
ʤɥ뵭 $ ͳϡˤСڥ̲ peso 8 reals 뤳Ȥ8פ夨ǤϤʤȤ뤤ϡpeso p s ŤͤްƤȤ⡤ζ solidus Ƭʸ s ΤȤ⤤롥
ܤϡ߷ˤ֥֡ɥפϤȤȥܥإߥΤä!? ? dollar θ츻򻲾ȡ

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2013-05-03 Fri

#1467. åɡʰ² [indo-european][family_tree][italic][latin][indo-european_sub-family][map]

²θɲ⥷꡼ (see indo-european_sub-family) 5ƤȤơBaugh and Cable (28--30) Fennell (28--29) ˤꡤʥå (Italic Albanian) 夲롥
θɤ˾äȤפʸϡޤǤʤƥ (Latin) ƥ줬˾ƬƤΥꥢˤʬۤ򤵤äƤ600ǯޤǤϡ² EtruscanԾܤ Ligurian ʤ줬ԤʤƤǤ VeneticǤ Messapian äƤꡤϡ#1457. Х˥ɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-23-1]) ǿ줿 Illyrian ο̤Ȥ⤤롥ȥꥢϥꥷ㿢̱Ϥǥꥷ줬äƤΤ褦ʰ졦ΤΤĤܤΤʤǡLatium ˤƥƥ줬Ϥ򿭤ФƤ
ƥϸ̩ˤ Latin-Feliscan 췲ʬɤǤ롥θ췲ȻطˤΤOscan-Umbrian 췲ǡԤ Samnium ȾǡԤ Latium θ¤줿ϰǹԤʤƤƥοĥˤꡤο̽ϱƤᡤ䤬֤ƤäγȤȤ˥ƥϥꥢȾˤȤɤޤ餺Corsica Sardinia 򵪸231ǯˡSpain 򵪸197ǯˡProvence 򵪸121ǯˡDacia 򵪸107ǯ˿̱ϤȤƥ򹭤᤿ơ֥ƥإƥ줬ƱͤˤäΤ⵪1ΤȤä
衼åѳϤسȻƥϡۤʤΰۤʤѼȤƻޤ줿Ȥ˲äϤδظαƶ⤢äơȼθŪȯã뤲뤳ȤȤʤäΥƥ줫췲 Romance ȸƤǤ롥ꥢ˺դȯŸե󥹸 (French) ϡˤ Norman, Picard, Burgundian, Ile-de-France (Paris) ʬƤڡī (987--1328) γΩˤꡤIle-de-France (Paris) Ѹ졤ʸظȤͥȤʤꡤ13ʹߤϤɸե󥹸ƱˤʤäեǤ langue d'oïl Υե󥹸Ȥϰ褹 langue d'oc Provançal äƤ롥Provançal ϡ11ʸڤ뤬Ȥ櫓12--13˥ȥХɥθȤƱɤʹߡProvançal ̤Υե󥹸˲졤ߤǤϰ̤˴Ť󤸤Ƥ롥
٥ꥢȾǤϡڥ (Spanish) ȥݥȥ (Portuguese) Ūᤤطݤʤ鸽ߤޤǹԤʤƤ롥2ϸꥫؿʽФˤ礭̤Ƥ롥ä˥ڥϡ11ʸڤƤ뤬ߡѸ򤷤Τ2̤üԿ͸ͭĶǤ[2010-05-29-1]ε#397. üԿˤȥå25פ򻲾ȡˡꥢȾǹԤʤƤꥢ (Italian) ϡäդȤƤΥƥ줬ľܤ˼ѤƤȤäơ¾Υޥ󥹸ĹˤݤäƤ롥ꥢ10ʸڤ졤ɸѼȤʤä Florentine Italian ˤ Dante (1265--1321), Petrarch (1304--74), Boccaccio (1313--75) ʸؤ路ͥ󥹴ˤϥ衼å˰ҿؤä롼ޥ˥ (Romanian) ϥޥ󥹽ΤʤǤϺǤ˰֤뤬޷ϤȤĹ֡ޤȴطݤäǸŤʸ16ȿ
2ǽҤ٤ޥ󥹷ϼ6Τۤˤ⡤٤졦¸ߤ롥٥ꥢ Corsica ˤʬۤ Catalan ¿ʸؤġ¾ϡ٥ꥢ Galician Tyrol ˹Ԥʤ Rhaeto-Romanic 췲 Romansch٥륮ä Walloon ʤɤ󤲤Ƥ
ʤ˵󤲤ޥ󥹽ϡCicero (106--43 B. C.) Virgil (70--19 B. C.) ɽ路 Classical Latin ǤϤʤ̱θѼ Vulgar Latin ΤǤ롥
åɤʬۿޤϡDistribution of Romance languages in Europe 򻲾ȡ  *

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2017-05-24-1]

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2013-05-02 Thu

#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 [language_change][causation][variation][contact][systemic_regulation]

Glasgow ؤ Jeremy Smith ĤҤ٤Ƥ롤Ѳ3ʳ3ˤĤơ
ޤ3ʳ顥ɤθѲɬФ3ʳ롥#275. Ѹλ;ñ̾ ([2010-01-27-1]) Ǿ줿Τ (1) potential for change, (2) implementation, (3) diffusion Ǥ롥塼ؤΩ줫鸷̩ˤС(1) ϸѲʳǤꡤ(2) ʳǽơָѲפȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥Smith ľܸäƤ餦 (7)

The distinction may be made between potential for change, implementation (itself including triggering or actuation) and diffusion. The potential for change exists when a particular speaker or group of speakers makes a particular linguistic choice at a particular time; implementation takes place when that choice becomes selected as part of a linguistic system; and diffusion takes place when the change is imitated beyond its site of origin, whether in terms of geographical or of social distribution. Strictly speaking, the first of these phenomena is not to be included as part of the typology of change. The continual flux of living languages means that new variant forms are constantly being created in a given linguistic state. However, these variants are not themselves linguistic changes; rather, they constitute the raw material which is a prerequisite for linguistic change. A linguistic change happens only when a particular variable is selected and a systemic development follows. In that sense, language change begins with implementation; when implementation of potential for change is for some reason triggered in a linguistic system, then we can speak of a linguistic change. The diffusion of the phenomenon within a particular speech-community is, it is held here, a further process which can be counted as part of the particular change involved; it may, of course, itself have further effects.


ˡѲ3ϸѲ3򤷤Ƥ褤(1) variation, (2) systemic regulation, (3) contact 3ĤǤ롥(1) variation ϡ֡졤̣ʤɤܤˤʣ variants ѰդƤꡤ¸ΤϤΤ줫ǤȤͤ˴ŤƤ롥variants ΤμϰϤ variational space ȸƤФ졤μ¸ϤϰϤΤʤǰۤʤꤦ롥̵¤˰ۤʤꤦ櫓ǤϤʤˤ (2) systemic regulation ηϤεƯƤꡤ¤ߤƤΤǤ롥(1) (2) Ǥ٤ƤĴۤɡñʤΤǤϤʤʶƱΡˤϿˤ¸ߤϤθʶƱΡˤȤδؤΤʤ¸ߤƤ롥ɬŪ (3) contact ξΤǤꡤŪηϤˤȤɤޤäƤϤʤ
ʾ3ߴطʣSmith ΤȤФǤޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ (49)

The three mechanisms of linguistic change distinguished above --- variation, systemic regulation, contact --- are not to be taken as totally separate causes of the phenomenon; rather, they interact in complex and, except in the most general terms, practically unpredictable ways to produce dynamic change in the history of a given language. To sum up the argument so far: new variants are produced, and are imitated through contact; but they are constrained by the changing intra- and extralinguistic systems of which the are a part.


ǶϸѲ͡Ω줫͡Ȥߤ󼨤Ƥ뤬Smith ϡñ㲽ƤΤΡñ㲽Ƥ뤫顩ˡ褯ޤȤޤäƤȻפ

Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.

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2013-05-01 Wed

#1465. Marr Υӥȸ [history_of_linguistics][origin_of_language][comparative_linguistics][contact][sociolinguistics][etruscan]

ػˤˤư̾⤤ɡӥȸؤµ Nikolaj Jakovlevič Marr (1864--1934) γȤΥѥȤˤĤơå (72--76) (196--212) ˵äƹͤƤߤ褦
Marr Τޤ˸Ūʸؤϡ른¿βޤäȤĶȥޥ륯Τʤ˿Ȥ֤Ȥˤʤäаޤ˵㤭 Marr λܤ뤳ȤǻɷεߴطˤĤƹͤ餻褦ˤʤäMarr γκʤΤϡ층ȯǤ롥Marr ϡ٤Ƥθ sal, ber, jon, roš Ȥ4ĤβǤȤ߹碌ˤȤ롤̵Τʵ򾧤äơ٤Ƥθϻ֤ȤȤʳŪ˹̤ؤȯŸƤ椯Ȥʳ (stadialism) 򾧤ȯŸʳκǹ̤ãΤ²䥻߸²Ǥꡤ°ʽʥХ졤ȥꥢ졤֥륷㥹ʤɤޤߡMarr ϥΥΥڥƤˤʤߥեȸ²ȸƤˤϲ̤ʳˤȤɤޤäƤȤˡ1924ǯ˥ޥ륯ȡMarr ϸ줬ŪͭҲŪкŪ¤ǤȤο󼨤ơMarr äʸء̾եƥɸءˤȯŸˤäƽǤޤǡ30ǯۤɤδ֡ӥȸؤ򸣰뤳Ȥˤʤä
Marr ϡƤμήɸؼԤˤϼʤ򼡡󼨤οŪϡӸؤˤäȤ褦ˤʤäη²ĸ졤ˡ§ȤäǰǤȤˤäѸ˽ɤäƤ̱²ѤʤäΤǤ롥Marr ϡʳŪȯŸϡθ򺵡ˤäƤꤨʤȹͤƤˤλۤä Marr ϡϢˤ륨ڥȸ챿ưʸԤȤƤ
1950ǯľ˸ؤ˲ơƻޥؤ顤ӸؤȤ벤Ƥʸؤؤᤷ̾θػˤǤϡMarr λ˥ӥȸؤ϶ˤäɾƤ롥 Marr 򤳤ɾƤ褦̱²ŰŪꤷ Marr ٤Ȥˤ뺬ܻۤϡγؤȤƤΡʼҲ˸ؤܻؤȤȰפ롤ȡ
γؤȤˤĤƤϡ#1381. "interventionist" sociolinguistics ([2013-02-06-1]) 򻲾ȡ

ߥ륫å Ρ ͺ ظؤή١ߤ˼1974ǯ
ɧظؤȤϲ١ȽŹҴȿӡ1993ǯ

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