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#924. ʣʬ ([2011-11-07-1]) ʣ (compound) ʬʣ̾˸¤ꡤỊ̇δʬहȡ(1) endocentric, (2) exocentric, (3) appositional, (4) dvandva 4ʬ롥Bauer (30--31) ˰͵ơ⤷褦
(1) endocentric compound nouns: beehive, armchair Τ褦ˡʣ̾줬ʸˡŪʼ (hive, chair) β̸ (hyponym) ȤʤäƤ㡥beehive hive ΰǤꡤarmchair chair ΰǤ롥
(2) exocentric compound nouns: redskin, highbrow Τ褦㡥(1) 褦ʣ̾줬ʸˡŪʼβ̸ˤʤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤredskin skin ΰǤϤʤhighbrow brow ΰǤϤʤषɽƤʤ̣ŪʼʤǤ "person" ۤɡˤβ̸ȤʤäƤΤħǤ롥äơmetaphor metonymy ͿΤ̤Ǥ롥ΥפϡSanskrit ʸˡѸȤäơbahuvrihi compound ȤƤФ롥
(3) appositional compound nouns: maidservant तʣ̾ϡ1Ǥβ̸Ǥ⤢ꡤ2Ǥβ̸Ǥ⤢롥maidservant maid ΰǤꡤservant ΰǤ⤢롥
(4) dvandva: Alsace-Lorraine, Rank-Hovis त줬ʸˡŪʼ줬ȽȤ2Ĥ蘆äΤؼΡʣ̾ϡǤβ̸ǤȤ⤤ʤdvandva Ȥ̾Τ Sanskrit ʸˡѸ줫Ƥ뤬ѸǤ 'copulative compound ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
George I ˤĤơ#2648. 17ȾθŪҤΥ֥른ﲽ ([2016-07-27-1])#2649. 奤ꥹäǤΰ ([2016-07-28-1]) ǿ줿ϡGeorge I οȤطʡŪʥѥȤˤĤƽҤ٤
Stuart ȤκǸηȤʤä Anne 1714ǯ¾ȡ̤ϥɥĤ Hanover (House of Hanover) George I (1660--1727) ˰ܤ뤳Ȥˤʤäꥹ˥ɥĿͤιޤȤΤ϶ä٤ȤΤ褦˻פ뤬ŪˤߤðۤʤȤǤϤʤäHanover īκǽιȤʤä George I James II ĹǤä̼ǡHanover ޤǤä Sophia George I Ǥ롥ǤСAnne θϡStuart ȤηͣΥץƥȤǤä Sophia ̤˽ͽäAnne ˴ʤäᡤĹˤ George I ̤ѤȤˤʤäΤǤ롥
George I ϲ̷ѾޤäƤ⡤ˤϥɥؤعԤʤäޤ벦ǤϤʤȤФƤ㥳ХȤˤŻײꤶƤǤ⾯٤̵˥ɥꤹȡղ¤Ԥʤۥå Charles Townshend (1674--1738), James Stanhope (1673--1721), Sir Robert Walpole (1676--1745) ѤȤ櫓 Walpole ˤο1717--21ǯδ֤ơ̳Ǥˤ#2649. 奤ꥹäǤΰ ([2016-07-28-1]) εǿ줿Ȥꡤ줬 Prime Minister λϤޤǤ롥
George I Τ褦Ū̵ؿäȤϡꥹ̱ФȿƤȤȴطStuart ȤΤäƤŪ̥ϤȤоŪˡGeorge I ϻŪǤʤդ礤ⰭȤƤɥĤޤäơѸޤäʤäȤȤ⡤ʤȤǤϤäꥹǤɾä
George I Ū̵ؿ˴ؤɾϤƤȤƤ⡤ꥹͤȿڤäй뤳ȤʤषȤϤФ Hanover ˰äơꥹ̳ͭǽ Walpole ǤäȤϡΥꥹȳˤȤäƤϹʷ̤⤿餷ǤϤäǤȤʤꡤΡַפɤפˤȤʤäƤä
̤ȤƤߤСѸäʤä George I ϡ18Ⱦ˥ꥹιϤ뤳ȤˤʤήοͻڤäΤǤ롥ȯŸȱѸŪڤȤδطθȡGeorge I Ѹäʤä¤⡤ʳ٤ɾ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥ʾ塤 (478--90) ȤƼɮ
رѹá16ǡ罤ۡ2000ǯ
ʸػˡʸˤǤϡ17꤫18 Augustan Period ˤơäˤȾϡǤʸΤޤ줿Ȥ롥18Ⱦ顤̣ʸΤ˰ꤺɼ깥ߤʸΤĩ魯ʸɮȤƤƥβ̥ϤѤ줺ɼꤵ꤬줿ΤοˤΤäʸ1ͤ Samuels Johnson Ǥ롥ळ18ȾФβߤνɽԤȤʤäȤȤ顤ʸΤĬήѲ "Johnson's Latinate Revival" Ȥ⤤롥

18ʸΤѤѲäȤϡ餫Ǥ롥Knowles (137) ˤС
The typical prose style of the period following the Restoration of the monarchy . . . was essentially unadorned. This plainness of style was a reaction to the taste of the preceding period. Early in the eighteenth century taste began to change again, and there are suggestions that ordinary language is not really sufficient for high literature. Addison in the Spectator (no. 285) argues: 'many an elegant phrase becomes improper for a poet or an orator, when it has been debased by common use.' By the middle of the century, Lord Chesterfield argues for a style raised from the ordinary; in a letter to his son he writes: 'Style is the dress of thoughts, and let them be ever so just, if your style is homely, coarse, and vulgar, they will appear to as much disadvantage, and be as ill-received as your person, though ever so well proportioned, would, if dressed in rags, dirt and tatters.' At this time, Johnson's dictionary appeared, followed by Lowth's grammar and Sheridan's lectures on elocution. By the 1760s, at the beginning of the reign of George III, the elevated style was back in fashion.
The new style is associated among others with Samuel Johnson. Johnson echoes Addison and Chesterfield: 'Language is the dress of thought . . . and the most splendid ideas drop their magnificence, if they are conveyed by words used commonly upon low and trivial occasions, debased by vulgar mouths, and contaminated by inelegant applications' . . . . This gives rise to the belief that the language of important texts must be elevated above normal language use. Whereas in the medieval period Latin was used as the language of record, in the late eighteenth century Latinate English was used for much the same purpose.
ǽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡAugustan Period ȾϼҲݼŪǤꡤ;ȤϸŪˤ餫Ǥ롥㤨СOED Ǥ¾λ٤ƿ줬ޤ긽Ƥʤcf. #1226. Ѹˤäǯʬۡ ([2012-09-04-1])#203. 1500--1900ǯˤѸäá ([2009-11-16-1])ˡAugustan periods θȾ18Ⱦˤ夫ȿưǡJohnson ɽʸˡήԤȤʤ˻롥2 "aureate diction" (cf. #292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1])) äΤƱͤˡ⤦1ƱήԤϤӤäΤǤ롥
ʸΤüѤ˴ؤ¤ꡤѸˤˤƤη֤ϲ٤ȤʤäƤ롥ϡ㤨ܤˤŻ뤹뷹ΥХХʤɤȻ褦ʻǤʤʤ
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
ε#2648. 17ȾθŪҤΥ֥른ﲽ ([2016-07-27-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡꥹ (Prime Minister) ϡѸäȤΤǤʤ George I ʺ߰1714--27ǯˤ̵ؿǡäβĤ˽ʤΤƤޤäˡκǹǤȤ֤줿ݥȤǤ롥ä Sir Robert Walpole ǤȤ롥
ʥꥹäȤ Theresa May ǤȤ⤢Τǡ奤ꥹäƤϢHPȤơPast Prime Ministers - GOV.UK List of Prime Ministers of Great Britain and the United Kingdom ⻲ȡ巯ˤĤƤϡ#2547. 奤ɷǯΰ ([2016-04-17-1]) ɤ
| ̾ǯ--ǯ | °̾ | Ǥ |
|---|---|---|
| Sir Robert Walpole (1676--1745) | Whig | 1721--42 |
| Earl of Wilmington (1673?--1743) | 1742--43 | |
| Henry Pelham (1696--1754) | 1743--54 | |
| Duke of Newcastle (1693--1768) | 1754--56 1 | |
| Duke of Devonshire (1720--64) | 1756--57 | |
| Duke of Newcastle (1693--1768) | 1757--62 2 | |
| Earl of Bute (1713--92) | 1762--63 | |
| George Grenville (1712--70) | 1763--65 | |
| Marquess of Rockingham (1730--82) | 1765--66 1 | |
| Earl of Chatham (1708--1778) | 1766--68 | |
| Duke of Grafton (1735--1811) | 1768--70 | |
| Lord North (1732--92) | Tory | 1770--82 |
| Marquess of Rockingham (1730--82) | Whig | 1782 2 |
| Earl of Shelburne (1737--1805) | Whig | 1782--83 |
| Duke of Portland (1738--1809) | Coalition | 1783 1 |
| William Pitt (1759--1806) | Tory | 1783--1801 1 |
| Henry Addington (1757--1844) | Tory | 1801--04 |
| William Pitt (1759--1806) | Tory | 1804--06 2 |
| Lord William Grenville (1759--1834) | Whig | 1806--07 |
| Duke of Portland (1738--1809) | Tory | 1807--09 2 |
| Spencer Perceval (1762--1812) | Tory | 1809--12 |
| Earl of Liverpool (1770--1828) | Tory | 1812--27 |
| George Canning (1770--1827) | Tory | 1827 |
| Viscount Goderich (1782--1859) | Tory | 1827--28 |
| Duke of Wellington (1769--1852) | Tory | 1828--30 1 |
| Earl Grey (1764--1845) | Whig | 1830--34 |
| Viscount Melbourne (1779--1848) | Whig | 1834 1 |
| Duke of Wellington (1769--1852) | 1834 2 | |
| Sir Robert Peel (1788--1850) | Tory | 1834--35 1 |
| Viscount Melbourne (1779--1848) | Whig | 1835--41 2 |
| Sir Robert Peel (1788--1850) | Tory | 1841--46 2 |
| Lord John Russell (1792--1878) | Whig | 1846--52 1 |
| Earl of Derby (1799--1869) | Tory | 1852 1 |
| Earl of Aberdeen (1784--1860) | Coalition | 1852--55 |
| Viscount Palmerston (1784--1865) | Liberal | 1855--58 1 |
| Earl of Derby (1799--1869) | Conservative | 1858--59 2 |
| Viscount Palmerston (1784--1865) | Liberal | 1859--65 2 |
| Earl Russell (1792--1878) | Liberal | 1865--66 2 |
| Earl of Derby (1799--1869) | Conservative | 1866--68 3 |
| Benjamin Disraeli (1804--81) | Conservative | 1868 1 |
| William Ewart Gladstone (1809--98) | Liberal | 1868--74 1 |
| Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield (1804--81) | Conservative | 1874--80 2 |
| William Ewart Gladstone (1809--98) | Liberal | 1880--85 2 |
| Marquess of Salisbury (1830--1903) | Conservative | 1885--86 1 |
| William Ewart Gladstone (1809--98) | Liberal | 1886 3 |
| Marquess of Salisbury (1830--1903) | Conservative | 1886--92 2 |
| William Ewart Gladstone (1809--98) | Liberal | 1892--94 4 |
| Earl of Rosebery (1847--1929) | Liberal | 1894--95 |
| Marquess of Salisbury (1830--1903) | Conservative | 1895--1902 3 |
| Arthur James Balfour (1848--1930) | 1902--05 | |
| Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1836--1908) | Liberal | 1905--08 |
| Herbert Henry Asquith (1852--1928) | Liberal+Coalition | 1908--16 |
| David Lloyd George (1863--1945) | Coalition | 1916--22 |
| Andrew Bonar Law (1858--1923) | Conservative | 1922--23 |
| Stanley Baldwin (1867--1947) | Conservative | 1923--24 1 |
| James Ramsay MacDonald (1866--1937) | Labour | 1924 1 |
| Stanley Baldwin (1867--1947) | Conservative | 1924--29 2 |
| James Ramsay MacDonald (1866--1937) | Labour+Coalition | 1929--35 2 |
| Stanley Baldwin (1867--1947) | Coalition | 1935--37 3 |
| Neville Chamberlain (1869--1940) | Coalition | 1937--40 |
| Winston Spencer Churchill (1874--1965) | Coalition | 1940--45 1 |
| Clement Richard Attlee (1883--1967) | Labour | 1945--51 |
| Sir Winston Spencer Churchill (1874--1965) | Conservative | 1951--55 2 |
| Sir Anthony Eden (1897--1977) | Conservative | 1955--57 |
| Harold Macmillan (1894--1986) | Conservative | 1957--63 |
| Sir Alec Frederick Douglas-Home (1903--95) | Conservative | 1963--64 |
| Harold Wilson (1916--95) | Labour | 1964--70 1 |
| Edward Heath (1916--2005) | Conservative | 1970--74 |
| Harold Wilson (1916--95) | Labour | 1974--76 2 |
| James Callaghan (1912--2005) | Labour | 1976--79 |
| Margaret Thatcher (1925--2013) | Conservative | 1979--90 |
| John Major (1943--) | Conservative | 1990--97 |
| Tony Blair (1953--) | Labour | 1997--2007 |
| Gordon Brown (1951--) | Labour | 2007--10 |
| David Cameron (1966--) | Conservative | 2010--16 |
| Theresa May (1956--) | Conservative | 2016--19 |
| Boris Johnson (1964--) | Conservative | 2019-- |
ѸˤơŪҤϤɤˤȹͤƤϡѸνȤʹߤλȤǰۤʤäƤ
Knowles (120) ˤСElizabeth īޤᡤʹߤ1ΤȷӤĤƤŪҤ17Ⱦ18ˤ滺ȷӤĤ褦ˤʤꡤߤˤޤ³ꥹˤ볬ȸѤ̩ܤʴطˤϤޤäȤ
In a hierarchical society, it must seem obvious that those at the top are in possession of the correct forms, while everybody else labours with the problems of corruption. The logical conclusion is that the highest authority is associated with the monarchy. In Elizabeth's time, the usage of the court was asserted as a model for the language as a whole. After the Restoration, Dryden gave credit for the improvement of English to Charles II and his court. It must be said that this became less and less credible after 1688. William III was a Dutchman. Queen Anne was not credited with any special relationship with the language, and Addison and Swift were rather less than explicit in defining the learned and polite persons, other than themselves, who had in their possession the perfect standard of English. Anne's successor was the German-speaking elector of Hanover, who became George I. After 1714, even the most skilled propagandist would have found it difficult to credit the king with any authority with regard to a language he did not speak. Nevertheless, the monarchy was once again associated with correct English when the popular image of the monarchy improved in the time of Victoria.
After 1714 writers continued to appeal to the nobility for support and to act as patrons to their work on language. Some writers, such as Lord Chesterfield, were themselves of high social status. Robert Lowth became bishop of London. But ascertaining the standard language essentially became a middle-class activity. The social value of variation in language is that 'correct' forms can be used as social symbols, and distinguish middle class people from those they regard as common and vulgar. The long-term effect of this is the development of a close connection in England between language and social class.
⤫ƤΤϡŪҤȸŪҤϢưǤ롥ŪʷˤƤϡλƳԤȤƤϰ̤ȡ餬äϰ̤ȤϢưƤϤǤ롥ŪŪϤäƤθФդθŵǤꡤϤǤꡤۤǤϤǤ롥18ʹߤ˷פꥹϡͤ William III äꡤɥĿͤ George I Ǥäȡ˱ѸäʤͤäΤǤʴϢơ#141. 18εϤѤ ([2009-09-15-1]) ⻲ȡˡ¬褦ˡꥹϼºݤ˥ꥹˤۤɴؿʤäΤǤꡤꥹ̱ˤäơŵסϡסۡפȤߤʤ櫓ʤä顤ȤĤ "Prime Minister" ʽ Sir Robert WalpoleˤФ졤ονƸߤ˻Τ顤ʤΤǤ롥ơŪҤϡͭϹ̱ɽԡ¼Ūˤ͵ʥ֥른ɽԤؤȰܹԤ
ʤ顤ϢươŪҤνߤ֥른ɽԤؤȡȤ櫓Фưռι⤤ʸϵҤؤȰܹԤơǤϤʤʬι⤤ܤΤ볬ɽԤѸᡤݤϤޤä21θոˤο "pundit" ⡤θѼԤ¾ʤʤ
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
ʸˡǡ֤Ӥä shouldס֤ä shouldס shouldפȤƤ̾ˡ롥It is surprising that she should love you. ʤɤˤ뽾° should ˡΤȤΤȤˡؤФ롥
ѸˤΩ줫餳θݤᤷ褦ȤԤˤȤäƤϡΤ褦ʸƾΤϤޤ˶ŪصŪʹ롥Τ̻ŪΩٹˤȤäơshould ΤˡФ͡ʸƾΤϵ˾褦Ǥ (309)
should ˮΡֲ褦ȤΤϤĤ褦ȤΤϤ䤵פʤɤΡ֤褦פ˴ޤޤƤŪյĤΤǤ롥椨ְճȤ̣ shouldס̣ shouldפʤɤ褦ʤΤƻǤǤ롥
ŪʥΩĻ伫Ȥ⡤ٹμĥˤϻƱ롥ΰѤüŪ˽Ҥ٤Ƥ뤬ݥȤϡĤƤ϶ɽ蘆Ƥˡʲˡ³ˡˤ˽ưѤ뱪ˡ֤줿ȤȿǤ should ѤƤ롤ȤȤ should ˡְճפˡʤɤȸƤ֤Ȥ϶Ūʥ硼ȥåȤˤŪʴϡֱŪ³ˡפ뤤ϡ³ˡαŪפȸƤ֤٤ΤǤ롥οϡСٹ (310) ۩֤ should ΰյϤȽǤʤ;ȤΤˤΤǡä¾ΰդϤʤפǤ롥
should ѤŵŪʹʸ It is strange that . . . should . . . . ʤɤѰۥѥ¿ٹ (310--13) ȤơѸ줫ΤĤʸ褦
It is right that a false Latin quantity should excite a smile in the House of Commons; but it is wrong that a false English meaning should not excite a frown.---Ruskin.
How almost impossible is it that good should come unmixed with evil!---Watts-Dunton.
That there should have been such a likeness is not strange.---Macaulay.
How very strange that you should have said so!---Hardy.
It is natural enough, Mr. Holgrave, that you should have ideas like these.---Hawthorne.
It is strange I should not have heard of you.---Wilkie Collins.
Is it not extraordinary that a burglar should deliberately break into a house at a time when he could see from the lights that two of the family were still afoot?---Doyle.
Is it possible, on such a sudden, you should fall into so strong a liking with old Sir Rowland's youngest son?---Shakespeare
It is impossible you should need any assistance.---Cowper.
I wonder you should ever have troubled yourself with Christ at all.---Borrow.
Now, I wonder a girl of your sense should waste a thought upon such a trumpery.---Goldsmith.
I am sorry that Murray should groan on my account.---Byron.
I lament that your father should be deceived.---Ainsworth.
I am content it should be in your keeping.---Scott.
O that men should take an enemy into their mouths to steal away their brains!---Shakespeare.
Oh, Henry, to think that you should have such a grief as this; your dear father's tomb violated!---Watts-Dunton.
ʸǤ should ѤƤ뤬ҤΤȤꡤŤ³ˡζޤѤƤѸǤޤޤϤĤäƤΤǡϵ롥
'Tis better that the enemy seek us.---Shakespeare
It is not proper that I be beholden to you for meat and drink.---George Borrow.
I am often ashamed lest this be selfish.--Miss Mulock.
ʬ̤ꡤˡ should ϡ֤Ӥäס֤äפʤɤ̤ʥ٥ŽդΤդ路ˡȤϡñ˸Ťζޤˤ³ˡѤȤƤαŪ³ˡˡˤʤºݾ塤Ūˡ֤Ӥäס֤äפʤɤδްդȼȤ¿ΤϳΤshould ȡ֤Ӥäס֤äפȤľܤˤϷӤĤʤŪ˷ӤĤ븰ϡ³ˡεǽǤǰפȤ¾ʤǰפȤϰϤʤΤǤ뤫顤ʸ̮ˤäƤϡֶäפǤϤʤ¡סֵסִӡסƴȤǤʤΤǤ롥Τ褦ȡ should ˡŪˡ֤Ӥä shouldפȤȤ館⡤˺ݤƱϰϤʤϡ츽ݤ̻Ū˸뽬ΤĤƤѸˤ⤿餷Ƥηä1ĤǤ롥
ٹ ﵭرʸˡ3ǡʸƲ1926ǯ
ε#2645. 줫Ѥ줿ߤΤñ ([2016-07-24-1]) ڤӡ#148. եޥȥ ([2009-09-22-1])#149. եޥȱѸˡ ([2009-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ褦ˡȴϢѼʥեޥ졤ϥɥĸ졤եꥫʤɤޤߡȤȤˤ٤ƹ碌 "Low Dutch" ȸƤФˤѸäѸϰƳ¿Durkin ˤ OED3 ˤʬŪĴˤСθ줫μѸˤޤĤȾȤˤޤȤȡʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Durkin, p. 355 "Loanwords from Dutch, Low German, and Afrikaans, as reflected by OED3 (A--ALZ and M-RZZ)" ꤹɽƸ)

Ѹˤ̤ƤŪʿǤСLow Dutch μѸϡ¤˸ťΥɸ줫μѸ¿ȤΤϰճ⤷ʤ#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1]) ɽǤϡDutch/Flemish θŪƶ "minimal" ɽƤ뤬ºݤˤϤ⤦ɾɽǤäƤ褵ťΥɸۤɱѸδܸä˾Ϳ櫓ǤϤʤξӤ뤳ȤˤդʤФʤʤLow Dutch θüѤ˴ؤƸħȤơ鸽ޤڤ뤳Ȥʤä뤷ƤϻŦƤ
̤ˤߤȡѸпǤιפ϶ḽιפ뤬ȤƤä˸Ѹ˼ѤäȤ褯狼롥Ѹ Low Dutch μѸȤϸ츻ŪŪ˶̤ΤĤʤȤ¿ºݤˤϸűѸǤ⾯ʤ̼ѤäǽȡLow Dutch ѸΤıѸ˾ŪʰյϾʤ褦˻פ롥
Low Dutch ѸפˤĤơDurkin (356--57) ϼΤ褦˵Ƥ롥
The fullest study of words of Dutch or Low German origin in English remains that of Bense (1939), who drew his data chiefly from the first edition of the the (sic) OED. Bense's study groups loanwords from Dutch and Low German together under the collective heading 'Low Dutch', although at the level of individual word histories he frequently distinguishes between input from each language. His companion work, Bense (1925), provides a summary of the main historical contexts of contact. Bense discusses over 5,000 words, for most of which he considers Low Dutch origin at least plausible; this is thus much higher than the OED's etymologies suggest. His total includes some words ultimately of Dutch origin that have definitely entered English via other languages, e.g. plaque (from a French word that ultimately has a Dutch origin), and also many semantic loans; OED3 has over 150 of these in parts so far revised, e.g. household (a. 1399) or field-cornet (1800, after South African Dutch veldkornet). Nonetheless, Bense does make a case for direct borrowing from Dutch for many words for which the OED does not posit a Dutch etymon; even if one agrees with the OED's (generally more conservative) approach in all cases, Bense's suggestions are by no means absurd, and his work highlights very well the difficulty of being certain about the extent of the Dutch contribution to the lexis of English.
5000ĶȤ Bense λϤ緶ǤäƤ⡤ȤƤϼƤʤΤǤϤʤȤ Durkin ɾ⡤ʤʤŪǤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
Bense, J. F. Anglo-Dutch Relations from the Earliest Times to the Death of William the Third. Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff, 1925.
#148. եޥȥ ([2009-09-22-1])#149. եޥȱѸˡ ([2009-09-23-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡѸˤˤƥϤȤӤνˡصŪ˴ϢѼ Low Dutch ȤޤȤƻؼ뤳ȤˤθüѤϡѸ줫Ѹޤڤ뤳Ȥʤ³ƤǤ12--13ˤϡɤȥեɥȤηкѴطӤιȤȼ濴˱ɤƤꡤХ (75) θ褦ˡ֥Ȥȥ֥塼ȤϡɤȤӤ2Ĥ˼äס
ˤ⡤ͽ۰ʾᤤ饤ɤȥեɥ̾ϹԤʤƤǤ9ˡեå粦ϥեɥϤϻϼԥܡɥ2̼եꥹȷ뺧Ƥꥢϥܡɥ5̼ΥޥƥǤȷ뺧Ƥ롥ԤؤϡΥꥢ2ȥإ1ޤ©Ҥޤ졤˥إ1פѤ̤쥢ǥȤ̼ޤƤΤ褦˥ɤӤϡԤδ֤ǤⲦ²δ֤Ǥ⡤Ť̩ܤʴطݤäƤΤǤ롥
ѸˤӤν줫¿μѸ줬ήñΤʤˤϡѸȤƤܸȤƤ߿ΤʤʤʲΥѸĤƤߤ13ˡֿƬפΰդäƤ poll ϡ17ȯãĴפΰ̣Ǻ̤ѤƤ롥clock ϡɥ1ξեɥλͤˤꡤ14˥ɤˤ⤿餵줿Ҥʤμ顤pickle ⤿餵졤ӡ˷礫ʤ hop ѸäطǤϡ13 buoy , 14 rover, skipper Ѥ졤15 deck, freight, hose ⤿餵줿ȴطǤϡgroat, sled 14ˡguilder, mart 15äƤ롥¾13 snatch, tackle 14 lollard 15 loiter, luck, groove, snap 줾ѸäΰȤʤä
äפñ lollard ˤĤƿƤθϡ1300ǯ¿ͤϤ͡äƤΤؤƤ줬ΤƥդҤˤŬѤ褦ˤʤä餬Ӥ䵧äƾƤΤˤ̾ˤΤȤ⤵Ƥ롥ѸǤνϥɤˤФľ1395ǯǤ롥
ݡ롦Х ס رѸθá١ҡʸ˥ӡ1976ǯ
#2289. ̿ʸ˼줬ʤ ([2015-08-03-1]) κǸ˴ñ˿줿褦ˡѸǤΰΥݥ饤ȥͥȥƥȤƤϡShakespeare ѽФ褦ˡI pray you/thee, prithee, I beseech you, I require that, I would that ʤɤ褯Ѥ줿Ѹˤʤȡä˸Τˤƿष17껶ȯŪ˸ϤƤ please (< if you please < if (it) please you) ͥȤʤäƤѤɽΤ褦ѲƤطʤˤϡäΤ
εˤĤƤϡplease Ω˴ؤʸˡȤƸŪ˹ͻ褦ȤΩ줬ǡҲʸ˳ؤ˸δܤȤΩ⤢롥ԤΩ줫ϡ㤨С19 pray 촶ȤƶŪʴްդĤ褦ˤʤäˡ̾ΰɽȤƤϤդ路ʤȴ褦ˤʤäȤƤ롥
Busse ˸Ω줫餳Ѳܶᤷλ˾ä꤫ʹؤȰܤȤݥ饤ȥͥȥƥžäΤǤϤʤȿ¬Ƥ롥Ť I pray you ΥפŬ (felicity condition) ϡä꤬ʹˡƤ餤ȻפäƤפȤǤΤФơ (if you) please ΥפǤϡä꤬ʹˡ褦Ȥտޤ뤫ɤ֤ͤפȤǤȤ㤤롥ԤŬϡCan/could you pass the salt? Τ褦ʵηѤˤ⸫ΤǤꡤΤ I pray you ʤɤ⸽Ūʶ롥
Busse (31--32) Ϥο¬Τ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
Pragmatically, the redressed command and the question have in common that they ask for the willingness of the listener to do X (willingness on the part of the hearer being a felicity condition for imperatives to be successful). Yet, indirect requests with pray/prithee put the focus on the speaker and assert his/her sincerity: Speaker sincerely wants X to be done.
The diachronic comparison of requests with pray to those with please on the basis of the OED and the Shakespeare Corpus has led me to the assumption that the disappearance of pray in polite requests and the subsequent rise of please as a concomitant can be explained pragmatically. This is to say that at least in colloquial speech a shift in polite requests has taken place from requests that assert the sincerity of the speaker (I pray you, beseech you, etc.) to those that question the willingness of the listener to perform the request (please). . . .However, in more formal types of dialogue, verbs that express the speaker's sincere wish that something be done, such as I beseech, entreat, implore, importune, solicit, urge, etc. you still persist.
⤷ѲѸ줫ˤƤΥݥ饤ȥͥȥƥ礭ʿܡä꤫ʹؤξΰܹԡƤȤСϱѸ˼ҲΰȤʤ
Busse, Ulrich. "Changing Politeness Strategies in English Requests --- A Diachronic Investigation." Studies in English Historical Linguistics and Philology: A Festschrift for Akio Oizumi. Ed. Jacek Fisiak. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2002. 17--35.
rise -- mount -- ascend ask -- question -- interrogate ʤɤαѸäˤع¤ˤĤƤϡ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1]) Ϥᡤlexical_stratification γƵǰäƤؤ졤ؤΥե졤ؤΥƥȤʬۤϳΤ˴ѻ뤷Ūˤ⥤ɤˤ3μҲŪϰ̤Ȥ줤ϢưƤ뤿ˡѸˤǤϳʤȥԥåȤ˾롥
ĤǤ⤳Τ褦ˤ줤ʬۤѻȤϸ¤餺嵭λع¤ϤޤǷȤƤȤ館Ƥ٤Ǥ롥Ǥˡ#2279. Ѹäεžع¤ ([2015-07-24-1]) Ǥ⼨褦ˡȥեѸ¤٤ȤˡǤ̡פǡŪפѤΤեѸΤۤǤ褦ʥ롥Baugh and Cable (182) ϡѸäεҤˤƻع¤Ū줹Ƥ븽˷پĤ餷Ƥ롥
. . . such contrasts [between the English element and the Latin and French element] ignore the many hundreds of words from French that are equally simple and as capable of conveying a vivid image, idea, or emotion---nouns like bar, beak, cell, cry, fool, frown, fury, glory, guile, gullet, horror, humor, isle, pity, river, rock, ruin, stain, stuff, touch, and wreck, or adjectives such as calm, clear, cruel, eager, fierce, gay, mean, rude, safe, and tender, to take examples almost at random. The truth is that many of the most vivid and forceful words in English are French, and even where the French and Latin words are more literary or learned, as indeed they often are, they are no less valuable and important. . . . The difference in tone between the English and the French words is often slight; the Latin word is generally more bookish. However, it is more important to recognize the distinctive uses of each than to form prejudices in favor of one group above another.
ع¤ΡֿáפȤޤǸäƤޤȸΤ餤뤬ä˥եѸ줬ФƱ餤㤤ؤ˰֤Ť¤ΤäƤƤ褤
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
Ϣ Hockett ˸Ѹ˴ؤʸѡȤƤ뤬ƱʸѲμ (kinds) ȻȤ (mechanism) ζ̤ˤĤ Hockett θ
ŪʸѲλȤơ[f] [v] ΩβDz夲褦űѸǤξ1Ĥβ /f/ ΰ۲ˤʤäѸǤϸƬʤɤ [v] ĥեñμѤʤɤ̤ /f/ /v/ ǤȤƤΩ褦ˤʤä
ѲˤĤơɤΤ褦ȤŪʲˤϰڿ줺ˡλ¤٤СϡֲѲפǤɽǤ롥֤ѲǤʤСѲäѲǤʤѲǤȤ롥ϡѲμ (kind) ˤĤƤθȤ֡졤äʤɤ̤1Ĥθ˴ŤʬǤ뤫顤θ˰¸ĤߤȤäƤ褤ȤѤС˱ѲμʬѤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ѲλȤ (mechanism) Ȥϡ[v] βDzǤСŪˤɤΤ褦ʲơ۲ [v] /f/ Ω /v/ βǤϰ̤ΤȤξܺ٤ΤȤǤ롥ΥޥäơѸ줬 [v] Ƭʤɤˤĥեñܿ˵ڤǡƬ [f] ĸȤκǾФΩ[v] βDzΩȤȤǤʤβDzμºݤξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ#1222. ե줬ѸβǤͿʱƶ ([2012-08-31-1])#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1]) ʤɤεȡˡȤߤˤ͡ʤΤ̤뤬㤨вѲ (sound change) (analogy) (borrowing) 3Ĥζ̤ꤹȤΥǼȤƴͿƤȤߤϡѤȤʤĤλȤߤꤹ뤫ˤĤƤŪ¿ͤΩ줬ꤦΤǡ¸αĤߤǤϤ롥
ѲμȻȤߤ̤٤ǤȤ Hockett μĥϡѲΥӥեȥե2üδطʬह뤳Ȥȡ2üδ֤ǺѤᥫ˥餫ˤ뤳ȤȤۤʤĤߤǤȤȤơαĤߤˤĤưȤγǰѸΥåȤƤ٤Ǥꡤ2ĤΤΤƱƤϤʤʤHockett (72) ۩
My last terminological recommendation, then, is that any individual scholar who has occasion to talk about historical linguistics, be it in an elementary class or textbook or in a more advanced class or book about some specific language, distinguish clearly between kinds and mechanisms. We must allow for differences of opinion as to how many kinds there are, and as to how many mechanisms there are---this is an issue which will work itself out in the future. But we can at least insist on the main point made here.
ϢơHockett (73) ϡѲλȤ (mechanism) ȸ (cause) ȤѸˤĤƤ⡤դƤ롥
'Mechanism' and 'cause' should not be confused. The term 'cause' is perhaps best used of specific sequences of historical events; a mechanism is then, so to speak, a kind of cause. One might wish to say that the 'cause' of the phonologization of the voiced-voiceless opposition for English spirants was the Norman invasion, or the failure of the British to repel it, or the drives which led the Normans to invade, or the like. We can speak with some sureness about the mechanism called borrowing; discussion of causes is fraught with peril.
Hockett εϡѲ what (= kind) how (= mechanism) why (= cause) Ѹ츯ˤĤƲƹͤƤ뵡Ȥʤä
Hockett, Charles F. "The Terminology of Historical Linguistics." Studies in Linguistics 12.3--4 (1957): 57--73.
ε#2640. Ѹˤλʬ ([2016-07-19-1]) ǡѲϾˤ褽®٤Ѳ³Ȥ Hockett Ѳ®٤ȤˤĤƤĹ餯ؿƤꡤܥ֥Ǥ speed_of_change, , lexical_diffusion ʤɤ¿εǰŪŪ˼夲Ƥ
¿αѸ˸ԤϡФиѲ®٤ˤŪ˷㤷ȴˤ䤫ʻ뤳ȤȤƤ㤨С#795. ͥåȻϸѲβžΨκǤ® ([2011-07-01-1])#386. Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭 ([2010-05-18-1]) εǾҲ𤷤褦ˡѲ®٤Ȥߤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ޤѲñ̤μˤäѲ®٤Ū®ä٤äꤹȤȤ⡤#621. ʸˡѲοʹԤα߳ꤵ®١ ([2011-01-08-1])#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ʤɤȤƤ롥ˡóȻǤϡѲʳ˱ƳȻδ˵ޤڤؤ뤳ȤȤƤ롥Τ褦˸ƤȡѲθˤƤϡѲ®٤ϡ§ȤưǤϤʤषѲΤȤԤϤäƤ褦˻פ롥ǤϡHockett Τ褦ΩʬHockett (63) θʬϼ̤Ǥ롥
Since we find it almost impossible to measure the rate of linguistic change with any accuracy, obviously we cannot flatly assert that it is constant; if, in fact, it is variable, then one can identify relatively slow change with stability, and relatively rapid change with transition. I think we can with confidence assert that the variation in rate cannot be very large. For this belief there is descriptive evidence. Currently we are obtaining dozens of reports of language all over the world, based on direct observation. If there were any really sharp dichotomy between 'stability' and 'transition', then our field reports would reveal the fact: they would fall into two fairly distinct types. Such is not the case, so that contrapositively the assumption is shown to be false.
Hockett (58) ̤βսǤ⡤Ѳ®٤¬뤳ȤˤĤƲŪ٤ɽƤ롥
Can we speak, with any precision at all, about the rate of linguistic change? I think that precision and significance of judgments or measurements in this connection are related as inverse functions. We can be precise by being superficial, say in measuring the rate of replacement in basic vocabulary; but when we turn to deeper aspects of language design, the most we can at present hope for is to attain some rough 'feel' for rate of change.
Hockett θʬޤȤСä䲻ʸˡʤɤ˴ؤ̤θѲˤĤƤϡñ̤˶ŪѲ®٤¬ʤѰդƤꡤºݤ˷¬ƤߤŪ˵ޤʻˤ䤫ʻ̤뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤηϤΤȤѲ®٤ȤŪˤʤȡΤˤ¬ʤϤʤȤäƤ褯ɤΤȤԲΤȤۤʤȤʤСȿФξڵʤʾ塤Ѳ®٤Ϥ褽ǤȤƤΤ̵
Τˡ̤θѲȤɽŪˤĤƹͤȡηϤȤƤѲȤŪξˤϡƱ®١פȤϤۤʤ밷ɬפˤʤäƤϢơ#1551. óȻSؤȽ ([2013-07-26-1])#1569. óȻSؤȽ (2) ([2013-08-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
˽Ҥ٤ηϤȤƤѲȤŪ⡤˰Ūʥ٥ˤʲ®٤ˤĤƤϡ˰ۤʤɬפȤʤ뤫⤷ʤˤĤƤϡ#1397. ³ʿեǥ ([2013-02-22-1])#1749. οʲŤΥԡɡ ([2014-02-09-1])#1755. οʲŤΥԡ (2) ([2014-02-15-1]) ȡ
Hockett, Charles F. "The Terminology of Historical Linguistics." Studies in Linguistics 12.3--4 (1957): 57--73.
#2628. Hockett ˤѸνդäդδطɽ魯ľ ([2016-07-07-1]) ʵڤŪˡ#2629. Curzan ˤѸνդäդδطˡ ([2016-07-08-1])ˤεǡHockett (65) "Timeline of Written and Spoken English" οޤ Curzan ͳǺƸơΰ̣ͤθ塤Hockett θŵdzսäƤߤȡHockett ȤϡդäդεΥˤȤ⡤षäդˤѲƤȤ¤ˤäȤǧơHockett Τˤλ¤ĴäȤȡͰŪߤ줿Ѹ˾λʬ (periodisation) մ뤿äΤǤ롥
űѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸʤɤλʬȤƱѸˤϤȡؼԤϡڤ줿ƻǤϸѲʾʤȤϡƤʤΤ褦˸롥űѸϿˤ錄äѲ˳ͤθǤꡤ줬11˵ѲħŤְܹԴפФȡƤ夤ѸȸƤФ褦ˤʤ롤
ϸѲѤǤ롥ºݤˤϡűѸǤ⡤ְܹԴפǤ⡤ѸǤ⡤ѲήϤǡۤ纹ʤ®٤Ǿ³Ƥ롥Τ褦ˡ褽®٤ѲƤ뤳Ȥɽ魯ľ Hockett οޤǤȤαľˤβˤơͰŪ˻ڤľζƤޤȡؼԤƬΤʤǤϿľĤ졤Ѳ֤볬ʷΥ֤Ƥޤ줬롥
Hockett (62--63) ȤθդǡʬδˤĤƸäƤ餪
Once upon a time there was a language which we call Old English. It was spoken for a certain number of centuries, including Alfred's times. It was a consistent and coherent language, which survived essentially unchanged for its period. After a while, though, the language began to disintegrate, or to decay, or to break up---or, at the very least, to change. This period of relatively rapid change led in due time to the emergence of a new well-rounded and coherent language, which we label Middle English; Middle English differed from Old English precisely by virtue of the extensive restructuring which had taken place during the period of transition. Middle English, in its turn, endured for several centuries, but finally it also was broken up and reorganized, the eventual result being Modern English, which is what we still speak.
One can ring various changes on this misunderstanding; for example, the periods of stability can be pictured as relatively short and the periods of transition relatively long, or the other way round. It does not occur to the layman, however, to doubt that in general a period of stability and a period of transition can be distinguished; it does not occur to him that every stage in the history of a language is perhaps at one and the same time one of stability and also one of transition. We find the contrast between relative stability and relatively rapid transition in the history of other social institutions---one need only think of the political and cultural history of our own country. It is very hard for the layman to accept the notion that in linguistic history we are not at all sure that the distinction can be made.
Hockett ϡˤˤʬˤϻȤؤۤͭϤʤǤʤ顤ȤؤȤȤʤФष Alfred, Ælfric, Chaucer, Caxton ʤɤ̾̾ꤹۤΤˤ褤ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ζʬѸѤ뤳Ȥ⸶§ȤƻʬΰյϤ褽Ȥؤ¸ˤʤȹͤƤ롥Ǥ˴٤ꤽˤʤä顤 Hockett οޤαľפФ褦ˤ
ʬˤĤƤ periodisation γƵѲ®٤ˤĤƤ speed_of_change γƵȤ줿Ȥ櫓ѲʬۤȤˤĤƤϡ#1397. ³ʿեǥ ([2013-02-22-1])#1749. οʲŤΥԡɡ ([2014-02-09-1])#1755. οʲŤΥԡ (2) ([2014-02-15-1]) εȡ
Hockett, Charles F. "The Terminology of Historical Linguistics." Studies in Linguistics 12.3--4 (1957): 57--73.
Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.
#2496. metaphor metonymy ([2016-02-26-1])#2632. metaphor metonymy (2) ([2016-07-11-1]) 2ĤβΰƱˤĤƹͤ#2196. ޥåȤγˤ metaphor metonymy Ʊ ([2015-05-02-1]) ǤξʤŪѤƤݽѺʤᤷƱξʤƱ路Ƥ륤ȤΤΡֻ (Grim Reaper) 褦鷺Ȥ줿ޥȤꡤˤΥǤ롥

Lakoff and Johnson (251) ϡֻפեȥȥ˥ߡʣޤ줿ʪ (composition) ȤƵƤ롥
In the classic figure of the Grim Reaper, there is such a composition. The term "reaper" is based on the metaphor of People as Plants: just as a reaper cuts down wheat with a scythe before it has gone through its life cycle, so the Grim Reaper comes with his scythe indicating a premature death. The metaphor of Death as Departure is also part of the myth of the Grim Reaper. In the myth, the Reaper comes to the door and the deceased departs with him.
The figure of the Reaper is also based on two conceptual metonymies. The Reaper takes the form of a skeleton---the form of the body after it has decayed, a form which metonymically symbolizes death. The Reaper also wears a cowl, the clothing of monks who presided over funerals at the time the figure of the Reaper became popular. Further, in the myth the Reaper is in control, presiding over the departure of the deceased from this life. Thus, the myth of the Grim Reaper is the result of two metaphors and two metonymies having been put together with precision.
ʣγǰեȳǰȥ˥ߡ̩˹פơ1ĤʣǤʤʪȤƤΡֻפΩƤȤȤаǧȤ٥ˤơŵŪʥκˤϡ߹äȥå¸ߤƤΤǤ롥
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1980.
Ƭ dis- ˤĤơμݤμ䤬줿ưղä줿 disable ƻղä줿 dishonest ʤɤˤߤ褦ˡdis- ȿẓ̌뤳Ȥ¿solve ФƬղä줿 dissolve ˤϤΤ褦ʴްդʤΤϤʤʤΤΤˡΤθϸ츻ҤȤФ켫ΤϲפäΤǤꡤdis- ղäΰ̣ˤȿžδްդϤʤ
ޤܼΰ̣ˤĤȤ٤Ȥϡ̾ñƱͤ¿ΤΤ¿ (polysemy) ͭƤȤȤơƤ¿1Ĥθ̣Ÿ̤Ǥ롥Ƭ dis- ˤĤƤСΤ˼פʰ̣ϡȿžספۤɤȻפ뤬ǤƥʤӥꥷˤǤƱƬθϡ2ĤءפۤɤǤ롥츻Ūˤϥƥ duo (two) ȴϢθŤ *dvis äꤵ롥Ĥޤꡤ2ĤؤΡʬΥפǤ롥discern, disrupt, dissent, divide ʤɤˤΰ̣Ƽ뤳ȤǤƬλҲϡΤȤ³ˤüѷꤹ뤳Ȥˡס̡פΰ̣ȯŸdijudicate, dinumerate ʤɤʬΥפåסַǡפΤϼǤꡤˤסȿСפΰ̣ȯŸȤ⡤礭ǤϤʤ disjoin, displease, dissociate, dissuade ʤɤ줿
˹ͤ٤ϡҤƬΰ̣ϡΤΰ̣Ȥδطˤޤ뤳ȤȤȤȤȴΤˡʬΥספʤɤΰ̣ޤޤƤˤϡƬϻ¾夽ΡֶĴפɽ魯ΤȤƵǽ롥dissolve ϤǤꡤϾʤ disannul, disembowel ʤɤ⤢롥Τΰ̣Ĵ¤СƬΰֶ̣ĴפȤʤΤϡdis- ˸¤ʤ
ǸˡƬηֻ֤ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤѸäˤ dis- ϡĶ˱ƻҲä di- ȤʤäƸ뤳Ȥ⤢Сƥ̤Ƭ de- ȹή de- Ǹ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ޤեͳΤ des- ȤʤäƤΤ⤢ (cf. #2071. <dispatch> vs <despatch> ([2014-12-28-1])) Ϣơ츻Ūˤ̤Ƭƥ䥮ꥷγؽŪʷϵ⤹ dys- ʤȤ dis- ֤ˡϡµסɡסְ۾פްդȤ dysfunction, dysphemism ʤɤ롥
ʲˡWeb3 Ƭ dis- εҤƤ
1dis- prefix [ME dis-, des-, fr. OF & L; OF des-, dis-, fr. L dis-, lit., apart, to pieces; akin to OE te- apart, to pieces, OHG zi-, ze-, Goth dis- apart, Gk dia through, Alb tsh- apart, L duo two] 1 a : do the opposite of : reverse <a specified action) <disjoin> <disestablish> <disown> <disqualify> b : deprive of (a specified character, quality, or rank) <disable> <disprince> : deprive of (a specified object) <disfrock> c : exclude or expel from <disbar> <discastle> 2 : opposite of : contrary of : absence of <disunion> <disaffection> 3 : not <dishonest> <disloyal> 4 : completely <disannul> 5 [by folk etymology]: DYS- <disfunction> <distrophy>
#1276. hereby, hereof, thereto, therewith, etc. ([2012-10-24-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡhere/there/where + ֻפȤʣϡޤä쥸ǡֻ + this/that/it/which פȥѥե졼ۤɤΰ̣ɽ魯ʣ2Ǥ֤ŤѸŪ (synthesis) ȴطƤ롤ȤȤϸȤƤ⡤ʤ̾Ѥ *thisby, *thatwith, *whichfore ʤɤȤʤ餺Ѥ hereby, therewith, wherefore ȤʤΤ
ŪˤСhere, there, where ʤɤȤƤǤϤʤ "this/that/which place" ۤɤž̾ȤƵǽƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥̻ŪˤϤɤΤ褦ΤOED Ĵ٤ȡȤ߹碌ֻˤäƤǯϰۤʤ뤬ᤤΤϸűѸ줫鸽Ƥ롥here, adv. and n. θФʣ˴ؤ츻ŪˡΤ褦ˤä
here- in combination with adverbs and prepositions.
871--89 Charter of Ælfred in Old Eng. Texts 452 þas gewriotu þe herbeufan awreotene stondað.
1646 Youths Behaviour (1663) 32 As hath been said here above.
[These originated, as in the other Germanic languages, in the juxtaposition of here and another adverb qualifying the same verb. Thus, in 805--31 at HEREBEFORE adv. 1 hær beforan = here (in this document), before (i.e. at an earlier place). Compare herein before, herein after at HEREIN adv. 4, in which herein is similarly used. But as many adverbs were identical in form with prepositions, and there was little or no practical difference between 'here, at an earlier place' and 'before or at an earlier place than this', the adverb came to be felt as a preposition governing here (= this place); and, on the analogy of this, new combinations were freely formed of here (there, where) with prepositions which had never been adverbs, as herefor, hereto, hereon, herewith.]
פˡʣȤʤˤϡhere (= in this document) before (at an earlier place) ʤɤΩȤƤޤ֤ƤˤʤäȤhere "this place (in the document)" Ȳᤵ졤before ֻȤƲᤵȡԤϸԤŪǤʬϤ졤"before this place (in the document)" ۤɤǤǧ˻äΤȤĤޤꡤhere ΰ̣Ѳ before ʻžʸ̮Ϣư̤κʬ (reanalysis) ˤۤʤʤθϡäθΥѥǤȡ¾졦ֻˤ⼫ͳ˰ܿƤä
͡ʣνǯįƤߤȡűѸ줫ѸФƸѸ˻ޤ³Ū˥ѥѥȸƤꡤä˿郎쵤äȤݤϤʤѸǤϤǤ¿μबѤƤȤ狼롥
ʤOED there, adv. (adj. and n.) ˤСμʣθŤᤫˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ƤˡΧդθոȤưʳǤϡǤˡԸšդΥ졼٥뤬ŽƵפȤ
'the compounds of there meaning that, and of here meaning this, have been for some time passing out of use, and are no longer found in elegant writings, or in any other than formulary pieces' (Todd's Johnson 1818, at Therewithall).[ | ѥڡ ]
2֤εʡ#2634. 衼åѤˤ뱪λϰ (1) ([2016-07-13-1]) ȡ#2635. 衼åѤˤ뱪λϰ (2) ([2016-07-14-1])ˤǡλ졦̣ϰŪȻ (areal diffusion) ˤĤơDrinka ͤ夲Drinka ϰ̤ˤμθϰŪȻ̤νǤꡤܿ˵٤ѲͽۤʾˤǤȹͤƤ롥Drinka ϤΩΩäҤǤꡤ#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1]) ̤ͤѤ褦ˡѲˤܿΰյ϶ĥƤ롥¾ҤȤơLuraghi (#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])) ⻲ȡ
λʸκǸǤ⡤Drinka (28) ϺǸϰŪȻΰŪĴƤ롥
With regard to larger implications, the role of areal diffusion turns out to be essential in the development of the periphrastic perfect in Europe, throughout its history. The statement of Dahl on the role of areal phenomena is apt here:
Man kann wohl sagen, dass Sprachbundphänomene in Grammatikalisierungsproessen eher die Regel als eine Ausnahme sind---solche Prozesse verbreiten sich oft zu mehreren benachbarten Sprachen und schaffen dadurch Grammfamilien. (Dahl 1996:363)
Not only are areally-determined distributions frequent and widespread, but they constitute the essential explanation for the introduction of innovation in many cases.
Τ褦ϰŪȻȤϡ (linguistic_area) ȤǰȤ̩ܤʴطˤ롥ä˱λΤ褦Ūʼ (syntactic borrowing) ˤĤƤϡ#1503. 졤áȯμҲŪ ([2013-06-08-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡҲķɸ (the marker of cohesion in society) ªǽŦƤꡤҲؤˤʲͽ롥
ʤŪװȸ쳰Ūװϡܥ֥Ǥ¿夲Ƥ#2589. ѲưΤϷǽ (2) ([2016-05-29-1]) ˴ϢؤΥƤΤǡȤ줿
Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.
ε ([2016-07-13-1]) ǡ衼å¦νǶ̤ have ˤ뱪ŪλΤϡȤȥꥷȯѥ˥ƥ蘆졤˸˽ϰŪ˳Ȼ (areal diffusion) ƤäǤȤ Drinka Ҳ𤷤ε (3) Ȥƿ줿⤦1ĤδϢĥ롥֥եɥĸʤɤǡλεǽεǽؤѲΤϡŪǶνǤꡤȵڤεϥѥΥեäפȤĥǤ롥
ǤϡޤѥΥեDZŪλδλεǽȤƤǤϤʤεǽȤѤ褦ˤʤäȤĥƤ롥Drinka (22--24) ˤСѥΥեǤϡǤ12ޤǤˡǽȤƤˡԤʤƤȤ
It is here, then, in Parisian French, that I would claim the innovation actually began. In the 12th century, the OF periphrastic perfect generally had an anterior meaning, but a past sense was already evident in vernacular Parisian French in the 12th and 13th c., connected with more vivid and emphatic usage, similar to the historical present . . . . During the 16th c., perfects had already begun to emerge in French literature in their new function as pasts, and during the 17th and 18th centuries, the past meaning came to replace the anterior meaning completely in the language of the French petite bourgeoisie . . . .
¾Υޥ٤Ƥή˾äȻȤϡɤζۤƥɥĸˤääʸкѥȤȯŸɥԻԤ Augsburg Nürnberg Ǥϡ1516ˤơλ®֤Ƥä¤ŦƤ (Drinka 25) ե˶ᤤ Cologne Trier ʤɤԻԤǤϡ12--14ȤᤤʳǡλȤѤФƤȤڵ⤢ (Drinka 26)
⤷Υʥꥪ¤ʤСҿ12ΥѥΥե줬λβǽȤƤˡήԤȤƶ٤θ졦ŤƤäȤȤˤʤϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ΰȤʤꤦ롥
Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.
Ѹޤ衼åѽǤϡhave be ưưβʬȤ߹碌ơִλפ뤳Ȥ롥衼åǤΤθϰŪʬۤϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) Ω줫ĴơȯȳŪ餫ˤ褦ȤʸĤ
Ԥ Drinka ϡޤ衼åѤθϿޤϤǡ(1) have ˤ봰λȯãΤ¦Ǥꡤ¦Ǥ be ͥǤ뤳ȤŦˡ(2) ¦ have λȯȡʬưŪʰ̣ǽưŪʰ̣ؤȺƲᤵ줿εϡȤ˸奮ꥷ̤ꡤƥ줬ȤˤꡤΥޥ䤽¾θؤäƤäȵƤ롥Ǹˡ(3) եɥĸʤɤǡλεǽεǽؤѲΤϡŪǶνǤꡤȵڤεϥѥΥեäƤ롥
(2) ˤĤơ⤦Ҥ٤褦ꥷǤϸ衤Ūλϡbe ܴλʬפǺäƤhave + ʬפζȤ˴λ˶ᤤ̣ɽ魯ȤäˡʸˡΥ롼Ȥ˾äƤä5ޤǤˤϡhave +ꥹʬפȤ졤ޤǤϹʸʤä¾ư⻲ۤɤδˤƥ¦θˤȤäƤϡΥꥷǤǤʸˡƤhave + ʬפΥѥʸ٥оݤȤʤäȤhave λθǤŪޤʹ¤Ǥ뤳Ȥͤȡƥʤ䤽¾¦θˤΩȯȹͤϡꥷȤܿˤΤȹͤۤȽҤ٤Ƥ (16) Drinka (20) have λΥꥷ쵯ˤĤưʲΤ褦Ƥ롥
My claim, then, is that the actual concept of HAVE periphrasis owes its existence largely to the Greek model, that the development of the HAVE perfect in Latin is tied closely to that of Greek, that it arose especially in literary contexts and in the language of educated speakers, and continued to be connected to the formal register in its later history. As a result of this learned calquing of the HAVE perfect from Greek into Latin, including ecclesiastical Latin, the Western European languages were, in turn, given a model to aspire to, a more elaborate temporal-aspectual system to imitate. The Romance languages, of course, all inherited these perfect structures, and, as I will argue elsewhere, most of the Germanic languages appear to have developed their HAVE perfect categories on the basis of this elaborated model, as well . . . . What is particularly fascinating to note is that the western languages have preserved and innovated upon this pattern to different extents, but continually show patterns of areal diffusion as these innovations spread from one language to another.
ѸˤȤδϢǵˤʤΤϡѸ have ˤ뱪ŪλεȯŸˤĤơDrinka ŪˤϤۤȤɽҤ٤ƤʤȤǤ롥Drinka ϡѸǤ⡤衼å¦ΡϰŪʳȻ (areal diffusion) ΰĤȸƤΤȤȡȤϰۤʤ롤ʤʲȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹ˾δϢȤƤϡ#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã ([2016-02-20-1]) ȡ#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޤεǤϡƥ줬ˡꥷ줫ּѡפȤǤϤʤ"model" Ȥפ˶ᤤѸ줬ѤƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1]) ε⻲ͤˤ줿
Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.
#2492. ɽ魯ȴλΡԡ˶ ([2016-02-22-1]) Ǽ夲 Present Perfect Puzzle ȸƤФʸˡ꤬롥褯ΤƤ褦ˡߴλϲλؤȤ϶Ǥʤ㤨 Chris has left York. ȤʸˡŪʸˤơChris York ȯäΤϲΤϤΤؤ *Yesterday at ten, Chris has left York ȤʸˡŪȤʤäƤޤ "past-adverb constraint" ʤݤƤΤ뤳Ȥ"puzzle" ȤƤΤ
1ĤβˡȤƤƤΤ"scope solution" Ǥ롥ߴλư have ߤؤƤȤˡؤκѰ (scope) ʬޤˤϡξͤȤͤľΤ褦˸뤬Ĥ롥㤨СChris claims to have left York yesterday. Ǥϡ yesterday λѰ to have left York ޤǤޤǤꡤǤʸξλѰȰ㤤ʤ褦˻פ뤬ºݤˤϵƤΤǤ롥ޤǤϡߴλϡɤߤλؤȤⶦʤȤ뤳ȤǤʤĤޤꡤ*Chris has been in Pontefract last year. ʸǤǡ*Chris has been in Pontefract at present. ʸǤ뤳ȤǤʤ
ˡٻƤ뤤Ȥ "current relevance solution" 롥ߴλȤϡߤȤδϢɸʤǤȤͤޤDz鸽ߤؤη³Τ礿뵡ǽʤΤǤ뤫顤ȤζϵʤȤ롥üԤľˤ礦Ȥ뤬ȸߤδϢϡ¤ϲˤäɽ魯ȤǤǤϤʤȤȿ롥㤨СWhy is Chris so cheerful these days? --- Well, he won a million in the lottery. ǤϡߤȲδϢʤȤϸʤޤȸߤδϢ餫ǤäƤ⡤*Chris has been dead. ϵ줺Chris was dead. ϵ롥
Klein (546) Ͻ2ĤȽơŪʴ餳äTT (= "topic time" = "the time for which, on some occasion, a claim is made" (535)) TSit (= time of situation) Ȥ2λֻؼƳơ1ĤȯäΤʤǡTT TSit ɽȤΩƲŪʻ (p-definite (= point-definite)) ƤϤʤʤȲꤷ
P-DEFINITENESS CONSTRAINT
In an utterance, the expression of TT and the expression of TSit cannot both be independently p-definite.
Klein ε٤Ƹ뤳ȤϤǤʤĥ Present Perfect Puzzle ϡˤϤʤˤȤȤ˵ƤʸϡŪ꤬ΤǤϤʤŪ˥ʥϤƤΤǤ롥"p-definite constraint" ϡΥѥȤǤǤϤʤ㤨 *Today, four times four makes sixteen. ʤƤʤΤʤ뤤ϥʥˤǤ롥Ǥϡư makes (TT) Today (TSit) ξΩơߤλɽ路Ƥ (p-definite) ˡŪʸȤʤΤȤ
"p-definiteness constraint" ϡ⤦1ĤΥѥβƤǤ롥
Klein, Wolfgang. "The Present Perfect Puzzle." Language 68 (1992): 525--52.
metaphor metonymy ˤĤơ#2187. ΰ̣եǤ ([2015-04-23-1])#2406. metonymy ([2015-11-28-1])#2196. ޥåȤγˤ metaphor metonymy Ʊ ([2015-05-02-1])#2496. metaphor metonymy ([2016-02-26-1]) ˤƤ⡤ξԤδطˤĤƹͤƤߤ
2Ĥʸͤ褦
(1) Metonymy: San Francisco is a half hour from Berkeley.
(2) Metaphor: Chanukah is close to Christmas.
(1) a half hour ϡŪʳ֤̣Ƥʤ顤Ʊˤλ֤־εΥɽ路Ƥ롥30ʬ֤ιǿʤळȤΤǤΥɽ路ƤȤǡ̴طѤȥ˥ߡȤ츫Ȼ֤ȶ֤2ĤΥɥᥤؤäƤ褦ˤߤ뤬ιȤ1ĤΥɥᥤΤʤݤȹͤ롥ʸμϡ֤ȶ֤δطΤΤǤ롥
(2) close to ϡŪ˴ֶǤ뤳ȤŪʶᤵȤƤ롥Ǥϻ֤ȶ֤Ȥۤʤ2ĤΥɥᥤͿƤꡤեѤƤ롥ʸμϡޤǻ֤Ǥ롥֤ϡǤ֤ˤĤƸʤˤʤ
Lakoff and Johnson (266--67) ϡ2ĤʸˤĤƹͻեȥȥ˥ߡħκŪΤƤ롥
When distinguishing metaphor and metonymy, one must not look only at the meanings of a single linguistic expression and whether there are two domains involved. Instead, one must determine how the expression is used. Do the two domains from a single, complex subject matter in use with a single mapping? If so, you have metonymy. Or, can the domains be separate in use, with a number of mappings and with one of the domains forming the subject matter (the target domain), while the other domain (the source) is the basis of significant inference and a number of linguistic expressions? If this is the case, then you have metaphor.
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1980.
ε#2630. ϼѸˡʵҡˤ礹뤳ȤˤĤơ ([2016-07-09-1]) ǡCurzan ˤ뿷Ѹ˴ѤҲ𤷤ϼѸ˵Ҥη礯٤餶ǤȤƤȤ館ϡäȶĴƤ褤 Curzan "the power of prescriptivism, regardless of its specific aims and desired outcomes, to shape the English language and the sociolinguistic contexts in which the English language is written and spoken" (3--4) Ŧǡˡϼɤˤʤ館뽨ȤƤ롥ŤȤ⤤¸ߤƤꡤ#449. Vendryes ۩ָǤס ([2010-07-20-1])#1722. Pisani ۩ָϤǤס ([2014-01-13-1])#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ̤Curzan ȤϽΤΤȤϻۤʤäƤ롥
An analogy may be useful here. If we imagine a living language as a river, constantly in motion, prescriptivism is often framed as the attempt to construct a dam that will stop the river in its tracks. But, linguists point out, the river is too wide and strong, too creative and ever changing, and it runs over any such dam. However, if we imagine prescriptivism as building not just dams but also embankments or levees along the sides of the river to control water levels and breakwaters that attempt to redirect the flow of the river, it becomes easier to see how prescriptivism may be able to affect how the language changes. The river may flood the embankment or spill over the breakwater, but that motion will be different due to the sheer presence of the barriers. And even if prescriptivism is seen as only the dam, which is then overwhelmed by the power of the river, the sheer presence of the dam affects the flow of the river. In this way, the consciously created structures around or in the river, like prescriptive language efforts, constitute one of many factors that must be accounted for to understand the patterns of the river's movement --- or of a language's development over time. (Curzan 4)
ȤǤ뤫顤ɤޤǤѤΤǤϤʤ㤨СȤƤޤȡˤüԤ¸ߤ䤬ʤʤäƤޤˤüԤϡǤвΤޤѸȤ1ĤǤϤʤȤդɬפǤ롥Ǥϡ¿λήƱήƤʣŪϤۤʡ#1722. Pisani ۩ָϤǤס ([2014-01-13-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
ɤबήˤɤٱƶͿΤϡλˤäưۤʤɤबޤäʤ٤Сθ̤˾ΤǤ졤ʤˤήϰۤʤϤεŤοΤ褦˻פ롥
Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.
Curzan ˤ Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History ɤǤ롥ϡѸεϼ (prescriptivism) ˤˤĤƤŪʱѸˤΤ꤫ƤŪȤƤɤ롥
αѸ˵ҤǤϡϼ18ʹߤαѸˤ˼Ҳؤ̣ḁ̈Ūʥѥ餤ΰäƱΤθФ1Ĥ٤ȤƤεϼϡ켫ΤѲεϡ®١˱ƶڤܤװǤ⤢롥ξˡʱѸˤҤ뤳ȤǤ뤷ɬפΤǤϤʤԤ϶⤯μĥϡȤ櫓2 "Prescriptivism's lessons: scope and 'the history of English'" Dz٤Ȥʤ֤Ƥ롥Τ1սѤ褦
When I began this project, I was not expecting to end up asking one of the most fundamental scholarly questions one can ask in the field of history of English studies. But examining prescriptivism as a real sociolinguistic factor in the history of English raises the question: What does it mean to tell the "linguistic history" of "the English language"? Or, to put it more prescriptively, what should it mean to tell the history of the English language? Attention to prescriptivism in the telling of language history gives significant weight to writing, ideologies, and consciously implemented language change. In so doing, it highlights some inconsistencies within the field about the focus of study, about what falls within the scope of "linguistic" history.
Re-examining the scope of the linguistic history of English encompasses at least three major issues . . .: the relative importance of language attitudes and ideologies in understanding a language's history; the relative importance of the written and spoken versions of the language in constituting "the English language" whose history is being told; and the relative importance of change above and below speakers' conscious awareness (to use standard terminology in the field) in constituting language change. (42--43)
Curzan (48) ϡ2ˤ3ĤδΤ褦˴ʤ顤Ѹ˵ҤμȤƤƤ롥
The history of the English language encompasses metalinguistic discussions about language, which potentially have real effects on language use.
The history of the English language encompasses the development of both the written and the spoken language, as well as their relationship to each other.
The history of the English language encompasses linguistic developments occurring both below the level of speakers' conscious awareness --- what is sometimes called "naturally" --- and above the level of speakers' conscious awareness.
1ܤΡϼºݤθѲ˱ƶͿȤŦˤĤƤϡΤˤ̤ȻפäƤ롥Ѹ˸ԤϤ˿˸礦ɬפȤĥˤϡ礭ʤǤ롥
Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.
ε#2628. Hockett ˤѸνդäդδطɽ魯ľ ([2016-07-07-1]) Ǽ褦ˡѸνդøդδ֤εΥϡޤˡ־梪碪ʡˡפɽǤѥǿܤƤ餿ȡ̤Ǥ롥
դäդεΥϡűѸ줫ѸˤƤŪޤޤˤȤɤޤäƤͥζѸȽդɸಽ (standardisation) ʤȤ⤢äơξΤЪΥϳƤѸˤʤꡤŪǤդˤή褦ˤʤ (= colloquialisation) ξԤεΥϺƤʬŪ˶ޤäƤƤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ξΤάˤĤƤϡCurzan (54--55) εҤŪΤǤ롥
The fluctuating distance between written and spoken registers provides one fascinating lens through which to tell the history of English. For the Old English and Middle English periods, scholars assume a much closer correspondence between the written and spoken, with the recognition that the record does not preserve very informal registers of the written. While there were some local written standards, these periods predate widespread language standardization, and spelling and morphosyntactic differences by region suggest that scribes saw the written language as in some way capturing their individual or local pronunciation and grammar. The prevalence of coordinated or paratactic clause structures in these periods is more reflective of the spoken language than the highly subordinated clause structures that come to characterize high written prose in the Renaissance. . . . The Renaissance witnesses a growing chasm between the spoken and written, with the rise of language standardization and the spread of English to more scientific, legal, and other genres that had been formerly written in Latin. To this day, written academic, legal, and medical registers are marked by stark differences from spoken language, from the prevalence of nominalization (e.g., when the verb enhance becomes the noun enhancement) to the relative paucity of first-person pronouns to highly subordinated sentence structures.
At the turn of the millennium something interestingly cyclical appears to be happening online, in journalistic prose, and in other registers, where the written language is creeping back toward patterns more characteristic of the spoken language --- a process referred to as colloquialization . . . . In other words, the distance between the structure and style of spoken and written language that has characterized much of the modern period is narrowing, a least in some registers. Current colloquialization of written prose includes the rise of features such as semi-modals (e.g., have to), contractions, and the progressive.
ϡդäդδطȤߤ⤦1ĤθʱѸ˵ҤȻפ
Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.
Curzan εϼ˴ؤɤǤơѸˤˤդøդεΥˤĤƤ Hockett (1957) ιͻҲ𤵤Ƥ (Hockett, Charles F. "The Terminology of Historical Linguistics." Studies in Linguistics 12 (1957: 3--4): 57--73.) ʲοޤϡCurzan (55) ˷ǺܤƤޤ˼äΤʤΤǡHockett ΥꥸʥȤ¿Ȥۤʤ뤫⤷ʤޤ³ơƱ Curzan (55--56) ¹Hockett դѤ롥

With Alfred, the 'writing' line begins to slope downwards more gently, becoming further and further removed from the 'speech' line. This is because Alfred's highly prestigious writings set an orthographic and stylistic habit, which tended to persist in the face of changing habits of speech. The Norman Conquest leads rather quickly to an end of this older orthographic practice; the new 'writing' line which begins approximately at this time represents the rather drastically altered orthographic habits developed under the influence of the French-trained scribes. I have begun this line somewhat closer to the 'speech' line at the time, on the assumption --- of which I am not certain --- that the rather radical change in writing habits led, at least at first, to a somewhat closer matching of contemporary speech. From this time until Caxton and printing, the 'writing' line follows more or less inadequately the changing pattern of speech, never getting very close to it, yet constantly being modified in the direction of it. But with Caxton, and the introduction of printing, there soon comes about the real deep-freeze on English spelling-habits which has persisted to our own day. (Hockett 65--66)
οޤȲϡ20ȾФޤǤСƤˤʤθ塤20θȾ鸽ߤˤƤϡषդ colloquialisation (cf. #625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹 ([2011-01-12-1])) ФƤȤˤꡤʤȤ⤢ѰˤơξΤεΥϽ̤ޤäƤƤ褦ˤפ롥äơ2ܤΤ褦ʼݤDZĹƤߤȤ⤷⤷ʤ
դäդεΥȤˤĤƤϡ#2292. ֻȯϥפǤĤʤ줿2ۤΥܡȡ ([2015-08-06-1]) #15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) οޤ⻲Ȥ줿
Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.
ˤ륢ȡʶˤˤĤơ̸ŪΩ줫顤#926. Ūǽ ([2011-11-09-1]) #1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1]) dz⤷Ϣơƣ (109) ȤͿƤΤǡȤʲʬޤ

ޤκ鱦ؤȸƤȡΡ֥ȡפϡͭ¤ΤĤΥѥ֤ɤפ֤Ȥ֥ȡȡ֤ɤפۤ뤫˴ؤ붹Τ֥ȡ2ʬ롥֥ȡϡѥŬѤñ̤ñ̤ññ̤ˤäʬ졤˺ʬ뤳ȤǤ뤬ΤȤƤϹ̣ǡ֥ԥåȡפ°롥
ޤβΡ֥ȡϡȤ֥ԥåȡסʶˤȶȤ֥ȥ쥹ȡפʬ롥줾礭ʬȤƤϡ֥ԥåȡפȡ֥ȡפ°롥
Ѹʬ˼㴳䤳Ȥ뤬ȤθޤȤƲƤ
ƣ ˡܸ첻ٲǡƲ2013ǯ
Ѹˤ礭Ĭή1Ĥˡɸθݤ롥ĬήϡޥĸΤ鸽ѸˤĹ³Ƥ뷹Ǥꡤdrift ήˤȤƾΤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬Ȥ櫓ʹԤΤϸűѸ줫ѸˤƤλǤ롥Baugh and Cable (154--55) βüŪƤս
Decay of Inflectional Endings. The changes in English grammar may be described as a general reduction of inflections. Endings of the noun and adjective marking distinctions of number and case and often of gender were so altered in pronunciation as to lose their distinctive form and hence their usefulness. To some extent, the same thing is true of the verb. This leveling of inflectional endings was due partly to phonetic changes, partly to the operation of analogy. The phonetic changes were simple but far-reaching. The earliest seems to have been the change of final -m to -n wherever it occurred---that is, in the dative plural of nouns and adjectives and in the dative singular (masculine and neuter) of adjectives when inflected according to the strong declension. Thus mūðum (to the mouths) > mūðun, gōdum > gōdun. This -n, along with the -n of the other inflectional endings, was then dropped (*mūðu, *gōdu). At the same time, the vowels a, o, u, e in inflectional endings were obscured to a sound, the so-called "indeterminate vowel," which came to be written e (less often i, y, u, depending on place and date). As a result, a number of originally distinct endings such as -a, -u, -e, -an, -um were reduced generally to a uniform -e, and such grammatical distinctions as they formerly expressed were no longer conveyed. Traces of these changes have been found in Old English manuscripts as early as the tenth century. By the end of the twelfth century they seem to have been generally carried out. The leveling is somewhat obscured in the written language by the tendency of scribes to preserve the traditional spelling, and in some places the final n was retained even in the spoken language, especially as a sign of the plural.
ѸʸˡηϤ¿ʱƶͿǤꡤαѸ˾ȵڸ̤ȥ꤬ʤۤɤָ캬פȯʡ#655. ޤο캬ξ ([2011-02-11-1])ˡ礫ʬϤؤĬή (synthesis_to_analysis)ƻޤξü (ilame) -e (final_e) ʤɡѸ˾¿طʤˡֶοפؤäƤ롥θݤθ̤ǫСDZѸ̻ˤٵҤȤˤʤΤǤϤʤȤ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
ťΥɸ줫μѸˤϡŪŪʸä¿ޤޤƤ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥#340. ťΥɸ줬ѸͿƶ Jespersen ɾ ([2010-04-02-1]) Ǥϡλ¤Ūɽ Jespersen ʸϤѤ
ϡѸδøäƤȤߤʤȤΤǤťΥɸ줫μѸ褦ǤִøáפȤϡDurkin (213) "we can identify fairly impressionistically the following items as belonging to contemporary everyday vocabulary, familiar to the average speaker of modern English" ȽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡѸüԤľŪ˴ŪǧƤäΤȤǤ롥
pronouns: they, them, their
other function words: both, though, (probably) till; (archaic or regional) fro, (regional) mun
verbs that realize very basic meanings: die, get, give, hit, seem, take, want
other familiar items of everyday vocabulary (impressionistically assessed): anger, awe, awkward, axle, bait, bank (of earth), bask, bleak, bloom, bond, boon, booth, boulder, bound (for), brink, bulk, cake, calf (of the leg), call, cast, clip (= cut), club (= stick), cog, crawl, dank, daze, dirt, down (= feathers), dregs, droop, dump, egg, to egg (on), fellow, flat, flaw, fling, flit, gap, gape, gasp, gaze, gear, gift, gill, glitter, grime, guest, guild, hail (= greet), husband, ill, kettle, kid, law, leg, lift, link, loan, loose, low, lug, meek, mire, muck, odd, race (= rush, running), raft, rag, raise, ransack, rift, root, rotten, rug, rump, same, scab, scalp, scant, scare, score, scowl, scrap, scrape, scuffle, seat, sister, skill, skin, skirt, skulk, skull, sky, slant, slug, sly, snare, stack, steak, thrive, thrust, (perhaps) Thursday, thwart, ugly, wand, weak, whisk, window, wing, wisp, (perhaps) wrong.
ʤΰǤ Durkin (213) ǤդƤ"Of course, it must be remembered that in many of these cases it is probable that a native cognate has been directly replaced by a very similar-sounding Scandinavian form and we may only wish to see this as lexical borrowing in a rather limited sense."
ťΥɸ줫μѸϡФбѸȸťΥɸθܿθðΤȤƾҲ𤵤뤬ܿΩ줫ϡۤðۤǤϤʤȤ⤢롥ԤˤĤƤϡ#1182. ťΥɸȤθܿϤǤϤʤ ([2012-07-22-1])#1183. ťΥɸαƶɾܻؤơ ([2012-07-23-1])#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) Ȥ줿
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ꥹEUαΥæ̱ɼǰͭ̾ˤʤä Brexit Ȥñ줬롥鷺Τ줿 Britain + exit κ (blend) Ǥ롥ΥæȤɼ̤ơΥæɤΰˤϼޤɼưԤ⸽Ƥ褦ǡBregret (Britain + regret) Regrexit (regret + exit) ʤ뺮®ڤƤƤȤ
ŪŪΩ줫ϡ嵭Τκ⡤Ȥʤ21 polylectic ʥפκǤ (cf. #893. shortening ʬ (1) ([2011-10-07-1])) Brexit ǤϡBritain θƬҲ (onset) 졤 exit ά줺³Ƥ륿פBregret ǤϡƱƬҲ r ʬ regret θƬŤͤʤ顤2줬Τȷ礷Ƥ륿פȯ⡤1 /brɪ/ ξǶͭƤꡤԹ礬褤Regrexit ϡregret ʬ褫Ĥġ2첻 (nucleus) exit θƬ첻˳Ѥ뤳Ȥ2礷Ƥ륿פ3ĤοϡֲŪˤϤ㴳ۤʤ륿פκȤȤˤʤ롥
(blending) Ȥϡ#631. blending γ ([2011-01-18-1])#876. Ѹˤ뤫Ф˹⤤ ([2011-09-20-1])#940. ¤ ([2011-11-23-1]) Ǹ褦ˡѸˤʤ뤤¤ˤǤ롥ʣθ줫ʤ (phrase) ȡŪʲ̣ްդʬŪŪˤʤäƤޤȤ¿ǰŹݤϤʤΤΡ1Ĥθ˰̤뤳Ȥˤäơdenotation connotation ѥåȤΤħΤ褦˻פ롥ϡŪʵФǤȤǡȤ櫓ˤ⥪ꥸʥƥ븽ˤƽʤǤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
;ư (impersonal_verb) Ѥ;ιʸ (impersonal construction) ˤĤƤϡ#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1]) ¾εǼ夲ƤѸʹߡ;ιʸϤͿ;ιʸؤȿܤʹߤˤϤۤȤɸʤʤäΡ;ιʸο;βפϡѸˤˤ礭ȤƤθˤĤƤϡ̾Τ褦Ƥ롥
Ѹ;ư like(n) ˼ưϸǤϡֹפȤ;Ūˡ̣äƤꡤI like thee. Τ褦ˡΤ I ǡоݤгʡŪʡ you ɽ蘆롥ѸˤϡʰϽѸǤˡư;Ūˡ̣äƤ Me liketh thee. Τ褦ˡΤͿ Me ǡоݤг thee ɽ蘆줿ʤСֻˤȤäơʤסֻˤȤäƤϡʤϹޤפۤɤΤ̾Ǥгʤޤˤ줿̾ǤмʤͿʤζ̤ϤǤˤĤʤʤäƤΤǡۣ롥㤨СGod liketh thy requeste, (Chaucer, Second Nun's Tale 239) ǤϡGod ŪˤͿʤäƤȹͤ뤬ʹˤϼʤȤƲ뤫⤷ʤξ硤ʹ liketh ;ưȤƺʬ (reanalysis) Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥;ưΤʤˤϡȤűѸ;ưȤƤѤΤ¿äΤǡ;βΥץΤȤϴʤäΤ⤷ʤShakespeare Ǥϡư like ϤޤξͤѤƤꡤWhether it like me or no, I am a courtier. (The Winters Tale 4.4.730) Ȥ뤫ȻפСI like your work, (Timon of Athens 1.1.160) ߤʰʾ塤ƣp. 106--08 ˡ
ʾ夬;ιʸο;β˴ؤ붵ʽŪŪˡѸʹߤ٤Ƥιʸˤƿ;ιʸ礷ͤɬפ롥 (155--56) 3ĤװŦƤ롥
(a) SVOȤ礬ΩOEư֤֤뤳Ȥ¿äַиԡפɽ魯Ū줬Ȳ褦ˤʤäˤOEǤǤ̾μʤгʤʤꤷФƱǤäȤ¡LOEϤޤäܼοʿˤꡤͿʡгʤȼʤƱȤʤä¤ʤƤ롥;ιʸˤƤϡַиԡפɽŪ줬̾Ǥ뤳Ȥ⤢ΤǤξˤŪʡͿʡгʡˤȼʤϷۤʤäƤ뤫顤־ΤޤȤϹͤˤΤǤ;βθǤϤʤǤ
(b) ܼοʿˤꡤưιͿʤʤŪʤΤߤˤʤäȤʤηϤѲäᡥʤ̣ΰ㤤˴ŤƼʡгʡ°ʡͿʤȤʤͿƤΤ٤ʸι¤˴ŤƼʤŪʤͿȤѤäΤַиԡפŪȯŪͿԤȤɽ˳ʤȤʤѤ;ιʸ¤ȤȤԲǽˤʤä
(c) OE¿ư¾ư쵡ǽȯãƤäФͿʡгʡ̾ȼ¾ư;ư⤳¾ư첽Ѳˤäƽ¾ưѲη̤ȤƼ;Τ it ǤϤʤͤޤϤ˽ऺټԼȤ褦ˤʤä
(c) ˤĤƤϡ#2318. Ѹˤˤ¾ưá ([2015-09-01-1]) ⻲ȡ
ƣ ͺرѸ硡ʸˡΥ롼Ĥõ١ҡ2002ǯ106--08.
ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
#2612. 14˥եǤϤʤѸǽȤ櫓 ([2016-06-21-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡѸˤϥɿͤΥեѤϸäƤä1415ȤηϤޤޤޤꡤեŪѤȶʸȤϡʸήԤħ볰Ȥǧ褦ˤʤäƤäեϡ礦ɸܤˤѸΤ褦ʰ֤ŤˤäΤ
15Ƭ John Barton եؽ˴ؤ Donet François ȤƤꡤɿͤեؤͳ3ĤȻŦƤ롥1ܤϡեͤȰջ̤Ǥ褦ˤʤ뤫顤ȤͳǤ롥ʤɿͤδ֤ǤŪʥߥ˥Τ˥եؤ֤٤ȤڤϡɤˤʤԤӤǤΥեѤϤǤ˼ƤȹͤƤ褤
2ܤϡޤˡΧ褽եǽƤǤ롥3ܤϡ»νʽϥեǼ礦Τˤ֤ǤϤʤäǤ롥
2ܤ3ܤͳϸˤϼѤʤää3ܤͳ˿ǻ֥եʸήԤθפΥΤΤ¸³եΤ̤Ǥΰҿϡ18˺ǹĬã;ϸߤ©ŤƤȸäƤ褤եѸä˽ɤäƤ륪ʴްդޤäơѸüԡˤˤȤäƤΥեΥϡ礭ѲƤʤΤǤ롥ʾ塤Baugh and Cable (147) Ȥ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.
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