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ε#2073. θѼ˺ѤῴϤȱϡ ([2014-12-30-1]) ǰѤ (204) ϡȯŸؤήʤɤޤܤΤȤФѲֱǥפƤ롥ɸ졦̸줬ĺˤꡤʻɽΡˤ˾夫ƶڤܤƤ뤬ɽ̤Τ餳Dzߤ˺ѤƤưɤδطˤ⤢롥 *
弫ȤΤȤФѤۤʬ䤹 (202--03)
ĤƤθѲΥǥñǡĺɸ졦̸줬־夫ѲפȤڤǤȡȤ館ƤܤǸ褦ˡ̱դΤȤФǻȤϤ褦ʡֲѲפˤ롥ȤǤޤ˿졤äƤΤϡΤؤɤǤȤФȤꤷƤ褦ʤΤǤ롥ΤȤФ⡤դäȤФȤƤϡΤؤ롥٤¾αƶΤ㤦Τϡ˿ȡ®ȵڤ뤳ȤǤ롥äȤФϥƥӤޥǻȤ뤳Ȥ٤Τ
Ȥǡαǥϡ餷Ƥ#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1]) ۵롥ޤ줿褦ˡܸȱѸνѼϤӤǤ롥ȡǥϡ⤷ȤΤޤαѸѼȤƤϳؤΤˤѤǤ뤫⤷ʤȤȯۤ⤫֡ǥγƽŬ˲ѤƱѸͤˤޤäƤߤ

Ѹˤܸζ̸Τ¸ߤʤθȤ⤤ WSSE (World Standard Spoken English) Ƥߤ (cf. wsse) ޤˤϡܤˤˤΤʤΤǡص塤ߺǤƶϤζȻפ American English ƤߤŪĺ WSSE αƶ϶⤷ʤΤؤΤ餳Ǥ٤礦ѸѼ郎ߤ˱ƶڤܤäƤ롥ˤäƤϡŪѼħΰꥫѸʤɤͭϤѼߡˤ쵤ȤȤ⤢뤫⤷ʤ夫ΰѤ⤸äɽȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
ĤƤθѲΥǥñǡĺɸ졦̸WSSE ־夫ѲפȤڤѸѼǤȡȤ館ƤܤǸ褦ˡ̱դΤȤФǻȤϤ褦ʡֲѲפˤ롥ȤǤޤ˿ѸѼ졤äƤΤϡΤؤɤǤȤФȤꤷƤ褦ʤΤǤ롥ΤȤꥫѸ⡤դäȤФȤƤϡΤؤ롥٤¾ѼαƶΤ㤦ΤϡꥫѸ˿ȡ®ȵڤ뤳ȤǤ롥ꥫѸäȤФϥƥӤޥͥåǻȤ뤳Ȥ٤Τ
WSSE American English ĺ˿ȤȤ϶Ǥ롥ǥ˹פˤϡѸѼϤޤʣܸѸѼΤ褦Ӥ뤳Ȥˤꡤƶ褦˻פݥȤϡ(1) ɸಽȤŪʵῴϤȡȤʬŪʱϤȤȤƯƤ뤳ȡ(2) ŪѼ狼濴ŪѼظबήߡˤ®ɸŪѼळȤȤȤ
ͺܸ쥦å١ȽŹҴȿӡ1999ǯ
#2028. ܤȥɤˤξ ([2014-11-15-1]) εǡܸ䥤ꥹѸϡ̸첽ɸ첽Ȥ˲ĤĤⴰ˼뤳Ȥʤषʤ餿ޤĤäƤȤͽ¬Ҳ𤷤ȯŸܤˤƤؼԤǤС̤˼ǽʤɹͤʤܸؤͼԤǡֿפ (143) ƱͤǤ롥
ȤФϰ躹ΩˤĤơȰʸ塤ޤƥڤΰȰʸˤäʬͤ뤬Ϥä㤦櫓ǤʤΤ⺣⡤ƱʬȤĤưΤ˶̸첽Ȥưʸ塤ƥڰʸ礭ʤäȤäơϰ躹߽ФʬưȤ櫓ǤϤʤ̸첽ʤʤ顤߽ФƤ롥ȤФϤĤͤѤΤʤΤϰ躹Ϥʤʤʤΰ̣ǤϡǤӤ뤳ȤϤʤ
ϥꥹαѸѼˤƤϤޤΤȻפ롥˲СαѸѼˤƤϤޤ뤳Ȥ⤷ʤرѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ104ֱϤȵῴϡ ɸؤܻؤϤῴϤȸƤ֤ȤСѼؤʬϤϱϤȸƤ٤롥2ĤϤϰ츫ȿΤΡ¸ǽष¸Բȹͤ롥ؤΥ٥ȥ뤬ȤƱͤˡʬĬή⡤츫Ωʤ˿ʹԤƤ롥 (142) θ褦ˡϺʤΤ³ȼѲƤΡפǤꡤɸ첽ζήΤʤˤäƤ⡤ѼϤ䤹ȼ褦ʾˤϤʤʤȤϤˤꡤѼˤꡤῴϤȱϤΤ줫ܤ˸ͥȤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢ˤϤλ¤ꤷƤ櫓ǤϤʤ
Ϣơ#426. ѸѼΥԥߥåɥǥ ([2010-06-27-1])#1360. 21¿εƤϱѸХХˤ뤫 ([2013-01-16-1])#1521. ȷ ([2013-06-26-1]) ⻲ȡ
ͺܸ쥦å١ȽŹҴȿӡ1999ǯ
Ѹäع¤ˤĤơ#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1]) ʤɡ¿εǸڤƤ#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡäλع¤椨˱Ѹ̱ŪʸǤȤ뤳Ȥ뤬ѸäΤħϸˤäƤȤȤʤतΤΤǤ롥
Jespersen (121--39) Ƥ롥ޤĹ꤫顥
(1) ʩͳ褹줬¿Ȥˤꡤ̣ "subtle shades" ɽ褦ˤʤä
(2) ʸŪŪɽǽˤʤä
(3) ѸˤĹñ줬¿ΤǡȤüԤϹθΤλ֤ݤ뤳ȤǤ롥
(4) ƥѸˤôݤ롥
ޤ (1) (2) ϴϢƤꡤɽϤ礭ȤϳΤȤ٤ܤܸäλع¤ӤСɽԤˤȤäƤΥåȤϼ´褦ʹؽԤˤȤäƤħȤ⤤ϤޤŪʤΤǤȤȤ˺ƤϤʤʤ(3) Ϥ⤷ŦǤ롥üԤȤƱѸäݤˤϡߥñ̡ʡˤΤϤʻֲԤǤΩĤȤ롥ĹñǻֲԤȤΤϡˤ뤬άȤƤϳΤˤΤǤϤʤ(4) ϥƥѸǤϤʤꥷѸˤĤƤϢơ#512. ̾ ([2010-09-21-1]) #1694. ʳظäˤƥꥷǤ˱ɤͳ ([2013-12-16-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ˡJespersen Ƥû롥
(5) ɬסŬڤʥƥѸλѤˤꡤ̣ξܤ䤱뤳Ȥ롥
(6) ȯֻʤɤˤĤƵô롥㤨С#859. gaseous ȯ ([2011-09-03-1]) γƼΥꥨ#573. ̾ȷƻбطʣǤ3Ĥλ ([2010-11-21-1]) Ǥߤ labyrinth ƻʤɤǤ롥
(7) ʳؤﲽˤꡤϢäˤϹǤˤʬ䤹褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥㤨 insomnia sleeplessness Τۤʬ䤹ͭѤǤȤ롥
(8) ͳǤƳˤꡤ֤ζ֤꤬ (ex. Cánada vs Canádian)
(9) ƥʣ (ex. phenomena, nuclei) Ѹؤ⤽ΤޤۤʤɤŪ줿
(10) ä̱Ūˤʤä
ȤϥɽδطˤꡤŪȽǤϲˤȤ狼ɤΤȤѸθù¤켫ΤȤϡѼԤ˻ȤȤʤΤѸθù¤ϡƻθܿʤɤ߽ФƤ͡ʸûŪʪˤ켫ΤɤⰭʤäơ̱Ū뤤̱ŪȤ褦ɾäȤȤϡɾԤѸä뼫Ω֤ɽƤȤȤǤ롥Jespersen (139) ϼɾƤ롥
While the composite character of the language gives variety and to some extent precision to the style of the greatest masters, on the other hand it encourages an inflated turgidity of style. . . . [W]e shall probably be near the truth if we recognize in the latest influence from the classical languages 'something between a hindrance and a help'.
ܸˤ̤줿ʥץ˴20ˤ⤿餵줿ʸˤ⡤褦ɾä뤳ȤǤʡ#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1]) Ȥĥäȡˡ
ѸȤ̱̱ȤˤĤƤϡ#134. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2009-09-08-1])#1366. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ ([2013-01-22-1])#1845. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ (2) ([2014-05-16-1]) Ǽ夲Τǡ⻲Ȥ줿ޤѸäΥޥ (romancisation) ˴ؤɾˤĤƤϡ#153. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset ([2009-09-27-1]) #395. ѸΥޥ첽ˤĤƤɾ ([2010-05-27-1]) ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
ɸθֻϡԤ <dispatch> ɸŪȤ뤬ä˥ꥹѸǤϸԤ <despatch> Ѥ롥ǤξܤƤΤ̤ǡԤäɸŪǤȤҤϤʤϲȤΤʤˤϸԤ츻Ūʴ⤢褦ˤĤ Horobin (230--31) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The preference for dispatch over despatch is similarly debatable, given that despatch is recorded as an alternative spelling for dispatch by the OED. The spelling dispatch is certainly to be preferred on etymological grounds, since its prefix derives from Latin dis-; the despatch spelling first appeared by mistake in Johnson's Dictionary. However, since the nineteenth century despatch has been in regular usage and continues to be widely employed today. Given this, why should despatch not be used in The Guardian? In fact, a search of this newspaper's online publication shows that occurrences of despatch do sneak into the paper: while dispatch is clearly the more frequent spelling (almost 14,000 occurrences when I carried out the search), there were almost 2,000 instances of the proscribed spelling despatch.
ѤˤȤꡤȯü Johnson μεҤ餷Τ Johnson ϸФȤ <despatch> ǤƤꡤ츻Ǥϥե depescher ȤƤ롥Ƭ첻ϥޥǤ <i> <e> ɤƤΤǤꡤJohnson <e> κѤ츻˾Ȥ餷 "mistake" ȸƤ٤뤫ɤϵǤ롥ȤȥƥǤϤθʸڤƤʤꥢǤ dispaccioեǤ despeechier ʤɤֻԤƤѸֻݤˤɤθ츻Ȥ줿ǤꡤǤϤʤޤJohnson ϼʳμˤƤϰӤ <dispatch> ѤƤꡤŴ֤äȤƤ
<despatch> γطʤ Johnson μäȤȤϡ¾ڤ뤳ȤΤΡʬˤꤽѸ쥳ѥ CLMET3.0 70ǯȤ˶ڤä3ˤξֻ٤äƤߤȡΤ褦˽Ф
| Period (subcorpus size) | <dispatch> etc. | <despatch> etc. |
|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 (10,480,431 words) | 403 | 354 |
| 1780--1850 (11,285,587) | 145 | 267 |
| 1850--1920 (12,620,207) | 67 | 263 |
[2012-06-10-1] [2012-06-11-1] ˰³Ƥꡥ[2012-06-11-1] ε Jakobson Τ˰͵ƤĴǡ Murdock ΤΤǤ롥Murdock θŵäƤߤȡʤܺ٤Τ뤳ȤǤ롥
줿Τ474θ춦ƱΤΥǡǡ٤ƹ碌ɽ魯531ࡤɽ魯541ǧ줿Ʊθ줫ݤΤɤʬоݤȤ뤫ʬ˺ݤƤ첻ҲȤ߹碌ѥƱʤɤƿŤ˹θƤ롥η̤ɽǼƤΤǤ狼䤹Τ p. 4 TABLE 2 ʲ˺ƷǤ褦
| Sound classes | Denoting Mother | Denoting Father |
|---|---|---|
| Ma, Me, No, Na, Ne, and No | 273 (52%) | 81 (15%) |
| Pa, Po, Ta, and To | 38 (7%) | 296 (55%) |
| All 29 others | 220 (41%) | 164 (30%) |
¾줫Ѥ硤֤褽Τޤڤ importation ȡƼڤ substitution ̤롥̤ԤϼѸ (loanword) ȸƤФ졤Ԥѡʸ (loan_translation) ȸƤФ롥٤ʬѸ Haugen ˰͵ƽ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ˾뤬2μˡŪ礤㤷Ƥ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥
2Ĥμˡ̤ȤʤΤϡ̸θüѤθġλˤơˡǼѤ뤫ꤷƤΤϤʤװȤȤˤäơ뤤ϻˤäơ줫ޤȤΤϱѸˡܸˡ¾θˤǤǧƤꡤġη뤳ȤǤʤƱƱθġμѤλߤȡΤˤĤƤ importation ̤ΤΤˤĤƤ substitution ǤȤä롥ˤĤƤϸ̤˸ŪŪװõꡤ줾װθΤɬפΤºݾϳǧɽŪˤϼˡϥǤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ롥ޤimportation substitution ΤʤȾ˺Ѥ֥磻פΤ褦 loanblend λ⸫졤ˡηϤʣˤʤ롥դˤĤƤϡ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1])#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ ([2014-07-05-1])#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1]) ǤʬŪ˿Ƥ̤
importation ǤϤʤ substitution 쳰ŪװȤƿ˻פ⤫֤ΤϡüԡʽġˤƤ뤫⤷ʤؤŪ (cf. #2068. ؤ ([2014-12-25-1])) ؤΰ夬жۤɡ¾줫μؤܤ˸ƶӽȻפΤ̤ƤǤäѤȤȤˤʤСΤޤѤǤϤʤѤ깥ޤΤ⼫Ǥ롥Τ褦ǤСΤޤѤؤ
¾˹ͤѥȤƤϡѤطʤˤܿꤷ2ѾʤΤ뤤üԤθؤȼΤʤΤȤ̤롥ԤǤ substitution ¿ԤǤ importation ¿ȤWeinreich (109) ". . . language shifts are characterized by word transfers, while loan translations are the typical mark of stable bilingualism without a shift" Ȥǽ˸ڤƤ롥
ǡ#1638. եȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥζ ([2013-10-21-1]) Ǽ֤ȶ̣űѸΥƥѤǤ substitution ¿äѸΥեѤȽѸΥƥѤǤ importation ¿äơԤ2ĤθüѤȤϡΡְŪ2Ѿפ졤ΡָءפϤ礦ɤΥߥǴѻΤǤ롥βǤϡְŪ2Ѿפȡָءפ֤ƤΤΡºݤˤϢ³ΤǤꡤΤʶߤ뤳ȤȤϤ롥βΤĴߤ礭ˡȤŪŪȡؤؤΤ褦ʼҲŪȤǽ뤫⤳ˤϴؿƤ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
ͤФǤʤäƤ롥ȤäƤ褤ȤäƤ褤ؤȡŪ (purism) Ū¾˻뤳ȤꡤҲؾδؿȤʤ롥ޤǹԤʤȤ⡤ɸη䵬ϼγΩȤ褦ʸˤ顤ؤͿƤ롥äƤ븽ݤˤ⤫餺ηŪ˸椵줿ȤΤʤ꤫⤷ʤ
ΤʤǤ Weinreich "Sources of Language Loyalty" (99--102) ꤹϵͭͤǤ롥ؤȼӤʤ顤⤭ĦˤƤ롥ƱƳ (99) Ѥ褦
The sociolinguistic study of language contact needs a term to describe a phenomenon which corresponds to language approximately as nationalism corresponds to nationality. The term LANGUAGE LOYALTY has been proposed for this purpose. A language, like nationality, may be thought of as a set of behavior norms; language loyalty, like nationalism, would designate the state of mind in which the language (like the nationality), as an intact entity, and in contrast to other languages, assumes a high position in a scale of values, a position in need of being "defended." Language loyalty, like nationalism, can be "an idée-force which fills man's brain and heart with new thoughts and sentiments and drives him to translate his consciousness into deeds of organized action." In response to an impending language shift, it produces an attempt at preserving the threatened language . . .; as a reaction to interference, it makes the standardized version of the language a symbol and a cause. Language loyalty might be defined, then, as a principle---its specific content varies from case to case---in the name of which people will rally themselves and their fellow speakers consciously and explicitly to resist changes in either the functions of their language (as a result of a language shift) or in the structure or vocabulary (as a consequence of interference). Thus in the field of sociolinguistics purism, standardization, language loyalty, and related defensive mechanisms are phenomena of major importance requiring systematic treatment, even if, for understandable reasons, they are considered irrelevant in descriptive structural linguistics.
³ Weinreich (100--01) ϡɤΤ褦ʾﲼˤƸؤȯ䤹狼䤹⤤Ƥ롥
It is in a situation of language contact that people most easily become aware of the peculiarities of their language as against others, and it is there that the pure or standardized language most easily becomes the symbol of group integrity. Language loyalty breeds in contact situations just as nationalism breeds on ethnic borders. . . . / Thus language loyalty, like a nativistic movement, is "unlikely to arise in situations where both societies are satisfied with their current relationship." It is rather frustrated superiority feelings that cause language loyalty to develop.
ξɽ碌СгŪʶĥפΥɤϡ#1876. ġ ([2014-06-16-1])#2029. ܤ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-16-1])#2030. ꥹ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-17-1]) ǤѤƤˤƤȤˤƤ⡤ռܳФΤϡ¾ԤȤβ餫ܿˤƤꤨʤäơ㤨нѸˤ륤ꡤܸˤץꡤܸˤ륫ʸ⡤줾ξˤ¾ԤǤ뤫¾ԤȼδطϤʤΤθ뤳ȤʤˤϡŬڤ˰ȤǤʤ (cf. #1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1]))
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
촳Ĥװ٤ˤĤơޤǰʲε͡˹ͤƤ
#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1])
#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])
#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])
#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1])
#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1])
#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1])
#2065. ʸμѼ (2) ([2014-12-22-1])
ϡ촳Ĥ¥ʤ롦˳빽¤Ū¤ŪװˤƤޤȤ Weinreich (64--65) ˤɽǤ褦PDFǤįʤ顤Ѳ̤Ʊͤ˸촳ĤˤѲ⡤ŪŪξװˤäƾդƤǽˤ뤳ȤǧϢơ#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ڤ multiple causation γƵ⻲Ȥ줿
| FORM OF INTERFERENCE | EXAMPLE | STRUCTURAL | NON-STRUCTURAL | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| STIMULI | RESISTANCE FACTORS | STIMULI | RESISTANCE FACTORS | ||
| All interference | Any points of difference between two systems | Stability of systems; requirements of intelligibility | Social value of source (model, primary) language; bilingual interlocutors; affective speech; individual propensity for speech mixture; etc. | Social value of recipient language; intolerance of interference; puristic attitudes toward recipient (secondary) language; loyalty to mother-tongue; unilingual interlocutors; etc. | |
| Phonic | |||||
| Under-differentiation of phonemes | /d/ and /t/ not differentiated | Absence of corresponding distinctions in primary language | Functional yield of the distinction | --- | Loyalty to secondary language |
| Over-differentiation of phonemes | [k] and [kh] treated as separate phonemes | Presence of distinction (only) in primary language | --- | --- | --- |
| Reinterpretation of relevant features | Voiceless /p/ treated as phonemically tense and only concomitantly voiceless | Different phonemic systems | Existence of appropriate holes in the pattern | --- | --- |
| Phone substitution | [r] for [R] where there is only one trill phoneme | Different pronunciations equivalent phonemes | Danger of confusion with another phoneme | Social value of primary language | Loyalty to secondary language |
| Integration of loanwords | English /rajs/ into Hawaiian /lɑiki/ | Difference in phonemic systems; homogeneous but different type of word structure in recipient language | Potential homonymy (?) | Intolerance of recognizable loanwords; unilingualism of speaker | Social value of source language |
| Grammatical | |||||
| Transfer of morphemes | Slovak-German in Pressburg-u; Yiddish-English job-shmob | Congruent systems, much common vocabulary, relatively unbound morphemes, greater phonemic bulk | Non-congruent systems; complicated functions of morphemes | Affectiveness of categories | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Transfer of grammatical relations | German-English I come soon home | Different relation patterns | Conflict with existing relations | Affectiveness of categories | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Change in function of "indigenous" morpheme or category | German-English how long are you here? | Greater explicitness of model (usually) | --- | --- | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Abandonment of obligatory categories | Loss of old French tense system in Creole | Very different grammatical systems | --- | Makeshift language | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Integration of loanwords | English change into Amer. Portuguese chinjar | Homogeneous word structure in recipient language | --- | Intolerance of recognizable loanwords; unilingualism of speaker | Social value of source language |
| Lexical | |||||
| Lexical interference as such | --- | Structural weak points in recipient vocabulary, need to match differentiations in source language | Existence of adequate vocabulary | Lexical inadequacy in face of innovations; oblivion of infrequent words, need for synonyms, prestige of source language, stylistic effect of mixture | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Outright transfer of words (rather than semantic extension) | German Telephon rather than Fernsprecher | Congenial form of word; possibility of polysemy (?) | Potential homonymy (?); uncongenial word form | Bilingualism of interlocutors | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Phonic adjustment of cognates | Spanish /euˈropa/ into /juˈropa/ on English model | Economy of a single form | --- | --- | Loyalty to recipient language |
| Specialized retention of an "indigenous" word after borrowing of an equivalent | French chose, retained and distinguished from cause | No confusion in semantemes | Elimination of superfluous terms | --- | --- |
ǯ٤⥼´ʸФ줿ǯ٤ϰʲ9ܤǤ롥ˤʬ̤¤٤Ƥߤ
(1) ѸΥեѸηˤĤ --- ưȤ ---
(2) եˤѸμѤȥꥹλط
(3) ֿפ̣դȤλȤʬ
(4) The Backgrounds of "Swear" --- Why It Has Double Meanings
(5) ̣ʬˤ١ååưɽιͻ
(6) with ˤ⤿餵줿¿ --- ѥѤ fight with ΰ̣ʬĴ ---
(7) ˡˤͱѸȥɱѸδط
(8) Ѹ쾦̾βץˤ Majuscule Loss ˤĤ --- Ҳطʤޤͻ ---
(9) ꥹγȸ -- ܤλҲӤ ---
ҲŪʻޤѸˤ꤬Ū¿ä褦˻פߤμȤǤϤȤ櫓Τ褦ʻܤƤä櫓ǤϤʤäΤؿ䤹ơޤʤΤạ́ˡǯ͵ΤʬǺǯ٤¿ä֤θϤʤä䤬ֻˤäǯ٤äᤫδϢ1ܤФ줿Ѹ World Englishes ؤδؿǯ³Ƥꡤǯ⤢äǯĬήȤʤäƤƤ˸δθ1ܽФ줿
2009ǯٰ´ܥꥹȽɤ (##2065,1745,1379,973,608,266) ǯ٤Хꥨ˭˴Ԥޤ
ε#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1]) ³ʸμѤˤߤ붦ˤĤơʸΰȤСѤ˺ݤƤξԤδ֤˶뤳ȤԻĤǤϤʤ⤷ʤޤꤳΤ褦ʻӤϤƤʤäȻפΤǡηˤĤƤθڤߤĤȡʤۤɤȴƤޤ
ƱͤˡWeinreich Linton (Linton, Ralph, ed. Acculturation in Seven American Indian Tribes. New York, 1940) ˰͵ʤ顤ʤ붦2ĤۤɻŦƤ롥1Ĥϡ¸θƱ줬¾줫Ѥ˴ؤ롥Ǥ˼¸ߤƱ줬¾줫Ѥˤϡ(1) ξΰ̣˺Ʊ롤(2) Ѹ줬֤롤(2) ξθ줬̣㤨ʤ鶦¸롤Τ줫Ȥ롥(3) ƻʤɤʸŪʹܤμѤˤĤƤ뤳ȤǤϤʤWeinreich (55fn) ۩
Similarly in culture contact. "The substitution of a new culture element," Linton writes . . ., "by no means always results in the complete elimination of the old one. There are many cases of partial . . . replacement. . . . Stone knives may continue to be used for ritual purposes long after the metal ones have superseded them elsewhere."
¸ιबòʤɤʤ餢ޤĤȤϡʸˡʤɤܤƤ exaptation ˤӤ (cf. #1586. ʬβ̶ʬ ([2013-08-30-1]))
ʸμѤˤߤ2ܤζϡѤ¥ʤװ˳װ˴ؤΤǤ롥μѼ٤η˴Ϳװϡ¤ŪʸŪˤʤΤ¤Ūʸ쳰ŪˤʤΤ2ʬ롥ԤϸηϤؤٹ礤˴ؤꡤԤ㤨2ѼԤνȯäξܿμҲʸŪĶʤɤޤʡ#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) ⻲)Weinreich (66--67fn)ϡʸؼԤƶ˿ʤ顤ʸμѤˤƱͤ˹¤Ū¤ŪװǧȤƤ롥
Distinctions parallel to those between stimuli and resistance, structural and non-structural factors, occur implicitly in studies of acculturation, too. Thus, Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits . . . distinguish culture traits "presented" (=stimuli) from those "selected" in acculturation situations, and stress the "significance of understanding the resistance to traits as well as the acceptance of them." They also name "congruity of existing culture-patterns" as a reason for a selection of traits; this corresponds to structural stimuli in language contact. When Linton observes . . . that "new things are borrowed on the basis of their utility, compatibility with preëxisting culture patterns, and prestige associations," his three factors are equivalent, roughly, to structural stimuli of interference, structural resistance, and nonstructural stimuli, respectively. Kroeber . . . devotes a special discussion to resistance against diffusion. Resistance to cultural borrowing is also the subject of a separate article by Devereux and Loeb . . ., who distinguish between "resistance to the cultural item"---corresponding roughly to structural resistance in language contact---and "resistance to the lender." These authors also discuss resistance ON THE PART OF the "lender," e.g. the attempts of the Dutch to prevent Malayans, by law, from learning the Dutch language. No equivalent lender's resistance seems to operate in language contact, unless the inconspicuousness of a strongly varying, phonemically slight morpheme with complicated grammatical functions be considered as a point of resistance to transfer within the source language . . . .
Τ褦ʸȸˤѤӤϡؤʸؤȤγغŪʸꡤؤθơޤˤʤ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
μѼ (scale of adoptability) ˤĤơ#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#934. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ (2) ([2011-11-17-1])#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1])#2011. Moravcsik ˤѤ ([2014-10-29-1]) ʤɤǼ夲ƤŪˤϡäǤеǽƸ줬Ūʰ̣ĸ϶Ūʰ̣ĸΤ֤ۤǤμѤưפǤ롥ΤȤϳΤľˤ礦٤ϼ¾ڤƤ⤤롥
Whitney, Haugen, Moravcsik, Thomason and Kaufman ʤɤƱѤؤδؿ Weinreich (35) μѼ٤ˤĤƹ͵椷Ƥ뤬礤Ϥ俵ŤǤ롥
It may be possible to range the morpheme classes of a language in a continuous series from the most structurally and syntagmatically integrated inflectional ending, through such "grammatical words" as prepositions, articles, or auxiliary verbs, to full-fledged words like nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and on to independent adverbs and completely unintegrated interjections. Then this hypothesis might be set up: The fuller the integration of the morpheme, the less likelihood of its transfer. A scale of this type was envisaged by Whitney in 1881 . . . and by many linguistics since. Haugen . . . discusses it as the "scale of adoptability," without, perhaps, sufficiently emphasizing its still hypothetical nature as far as bilinguals' speech is concerned. It should be clear how much painstaking observation and analysis is necessary before this hypothesis can be put to the test.
Weinreich ˴ؤǡƤΤϡμѤʸμ (acculturation) δ֤ŦƤ뤳ȤΰѤƱڡεˡΤ褦ˤ롥
Students of acculturation face a similar problem---almost equally unexplored---of rating culture elements according to their transferability. "It seems," says Linton in a tentative remark . . ., "that, other things [e.g. prestige associations] being equal, certain sorts of culture elements are more easily transferable than others. Tangible objects such as tools, utensils, or ornaments are taken over with great ease, in fact they are usually the first things transferred in contact situations. . . . The transfer of elements which lack the concreteness and ready observability of objects is the most difficult of all. . . . In general, the more abstract the element, the more difficult the transfer."
ˤʸˤ衤ζȼѲǽϢƤȤȤޤǤϻĤʤϡΤȤȼѤimportation substitution ȤˤȤδ֤ˤⲿ餫شطꤦȤȤ㤨СŪʸʸϡݤˡפ˥ǥΤޤ뷹 (importation) äꡤդŪʤΤϡפƼ (substitution or loan_translation) äꤹ뤤ϡषդηΤ
Ѥˤ importation substitution ˤĤƤϡ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1])#1067. Ѹȸܸθüѡ ([2012-03-29-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1])#1895. űѸΥƥѸֻȼѤ ([2014-07-05-1]) ʤɤǰäƤˤȤɤޤ餺礭ʸˤʤꤦȤȤ⤷ʤ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
#2052. Ѹˤˤ첻μפʼŪŪѲ ([2014-12-09-1]) ǡGörlach ˤѸˤˤ첻ѲѤ첻Ѳˤ˰ӤƤߤĬήȤơRitt ϡ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) Ǥߤ褦˶ˤƤ뤬̤γ٤顤⤦1Ĥɸ˷ǤĬήŦǤ뤫⤷ʤ
Ƭ (128--29) ϡ (117--42, 142--51) Ȥʤ顤Ѹˤˤ첻μפĹû头Ȥ˰ʲΤ褦ƤʸűѸ줫ѸˤƤѲˤĤƤϡ#2048. ƱﲻĹĹIJû ([2014-12-05-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
ҸűѸ
(1) ƱĹ (Homorganic Lengthening)
gōld, lāmb, fīndan 'find' lāng
Ѹ
(2) Ĺ (Open Syllable Lengthening)
bāke mēte 'meat' hōle lōve < OE lufu week < OE wike
(3) 첻³Ĺ (Hiatus Lengtheningե)
gīant < giant pōet < poet
ҽѸ
(4) ̵Ĺ (lengthening before voiceless fricatives)
(/a/, /ɔ/ ___ [f, s, θ]) blāst mōss stāff sōft bāth clōth
ҸűѸ
(5) 3Ҳû (shortening before three consonants)
godspell deoppra 'deeper' wundrian 'wonder'
(6) 2Ҳû (shortening before two consonants, ŻҲޤ)
fifta 'fifth' sohte '(he) sought' læssa 'less'
(7) 3û (Trisyllabic Shortening)
laferce 'lark' halidæġ 'holiday' emetiġ 'empty'
Ѹ
(8) Ʊû (Homorganic Shortening)
land wind enden 'end'
(9) /u:/-û / ___ [x, v, m]
ruf < rōugh 'rough' plume < plūme 'plum'
ҽѸ
(10) ûҲû (shortening before a single consonant)
breath dread blood good cloth
(11) û (Open Syllable Shortening)
heavy weapon pleasant seven
(12) 2û (shortening in two syllabic words)
nickname < ēkename breakfast twopence
첻ĹûˤΤ褦ǡƬϡûĹ¿ѻĹΤΤû㤬ŦѸΤȤƤߤȡûͥǤꡤĹФ¤ޤäƤȤĬή롥Ƭ (129--30) ۩
űѸ衤ѸǤĹ첻Фʸ̮¤ޤäƤȹͤ롥űѸˤ첻ǤäƤĹû¸ߤĹ첻иĶä¤ƤʤäȤᤤĹ첻Ѥ³3Ҳ֤ˤĹ첻ʤʤ(5)3Ҳûˡ³2ҲǤĹ첻Ǥʤʤä(6)2ҲûˡѸûҲǤûä(10)ûҲûˡΤβṽ¤˴ؤΤǤϡűѸ˸3ܤĹ첻ʤʤ(7)3ûˡѸä2θ2ܡ1ˤǤûä(12)2ûˡΤȤƤϡűѸˤʤĹ첻Ф¤ޤäȹͤ롥
嵭ŪʱѸ첻˴ѤȤ⤤뤬ǤϤʤΤ褦ĬήΤϱѸ첻ˤεŪʲ
Ƭġ˽ҡ"Consonant cluster" ȲѲðȲṽ¤ᤰäơס츦θߡ١ϩˡˡҤĤ˼2013ǯ127--43ǡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
between ΰ۷֤ˤˤĤơ#1389. between θ츻 ([2013-02-14-1])#1393. between Ū۷֤˭٤([2013-02-18-1])#1394. between ΰ۷֤ʬ̻ۤŪѲ ([2013-02-19-1])#1399. Ѹˤ between ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2013-02-24-1])#1554. against -st ([2013-07-29-1])#1807. ARCHER between betwixt ([2014-04-08-1]) ʤɤǼ夲ƤѸ betwixt Ϣʤ֤ޤᡤ¿ΰ۷֤űѸ褪ʤƤפʰ۷֤Ϥ褽䥳ѥƤĤäϳ줬äMED bitwix(e (prep.) ˡ۷֤ȤƵƤ -twist OED Ǥ⡤Ѹΰ۷֤ȤƤ bytwyste Ƥ롥MED ˤ OED ˤ۷֤ȤƤθڤǡΤʤˤϳ֤줺ǧƤʤä14ȾκȤ Pearl ɤǤȤޤ bytwyste ˽Ф路Τǡ⤷Ƥӱ֤˸Τǡababababbcbc εӱफʤ12Ԥ (ll. 457--468) ޤ뤴ȰѤ褦
'Of courtaysye, as saytz Saynt Poule,
Al arn we membrez of Jesu Kryst:
As heued and arme and legg and naule
Temen to hys body ful trwe and tryste,
Ryȝt so is vch a Krysten sawle
A longande lym to þe Mayster of myste.
Þenne loke: what hate oþer any gawle
Is tached oþer tyȝed þy lymmez bytwyste?
Þy heued hatz nauþer greme ne gryste
On arme oþer fynger þaȝ þou ber byȝe.
So fare we alle wyth luf and lyste
To kyng and quene by cortaysye.'
¾ˤ⤶äõ -twist Ϥΰ۷֤ϸĤäƤʤΤǡPearl Τ㤬ΤȤͣǤ롥η֤εˤĤƤϡ bitweies Τ褦 s ǽ֤ t źä줿 (paragoge) Ȥͤ뤷bitwixte Τ褦 /kst/ ķ֤ /k/ üΤȤͤ롥뤤ϡξͻ礷 (blending, contamination) βǽ⵿롥ɽŪˤ츻Ū <t> θźäȸ뤬ñʤ벻ѲʤΤʤɤȤŪ¦̤ͿƤΤ;Ϥ
Andrew, Malcolm and Ronald Waldron, eds. The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript. 3rd ed. Exeter: U of Exeter P, 2002.
μ (borrowing) ȼѸ (loanword) Ȥϰۤʤ롥ԤϲǤꡤԤϷ̤Ǥ롥ξԤ̤ɬפˤĤơ#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1])#904. ѸŪƱꤹ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫 ([2011-10-18-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ǰäƤ̤Ǥ롥
ܿʬ餳ζ̤Ĥ뤳ȤĥƤԤ1ͤˡWeinreich (11) 롥
In speech, interference is like sand carried by a stream; in language, it is the sedimented sand deposited on the bottom of a lake. The two phases of interference should be distinguished. In speech, it occurs anew in the utterances of the bilingual speaker as a result of his personal knowledge of the other tongue. In language, we find interference phenomena which, having frequently occurred in the speech of bilinguals, have become habitualized and established. Their use is no longer dependent on bilingualism. When a speaker of language X uses a form of foreign origin not as an on-the-spot borrowing from language Y, but because he has heard it used by others in X-utterances, then this borrowed element can be considered, from the descriptive viewpoint, to have become a part of LANGUAGE X.
ȤƤμѤȷ̤ȤƤμѸϸ촳 (interference) 2Ĥΰۤʤ̤Ǥ롥Ԥ parole ˡԤ langue °ȸƤ褤⤷ʤ³ Weinreich Ʊڡεǡζ̤νǧƤԸϾʤȤʤ顤ʲθ˿Ƥ롥
The only one to have drawn the theoretical distinction seems to be Roberts (450, 31f.), who arbitrarily calls the generative process "fusion" and the accomplished result "mixture." In anthropology, Linton (312, 474) distinguishes in the introduction of a new culture element "(1) its initial acceptance by innovators, (2) its dissemination to other members of the society, and (3) the modifications by which it is finally adjusted to the preexisting culture matrix."
ä˿ؼ Linton ΰʬܤʸޤȹͤʸŪǤƳˤ3ʳ̤ȤŦ뤬ϡ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) Ǥߤ (1) potential for change, (3) diffusion, (2) implementation ˴ˤ䤫бƤ褦˻פ롥ѤϡѸμơ硤ȤʳФʤʹԤƤȤμѤˤĤƤϡΤ褦ʣŪưŪʤȤ館ɬפǤ롥"dissemination" "diffusion" ΥơȴϢơóȻ (lexical_diffusion) γƵȤ櫓#855. lexical diffusion critical mass ([2011-08-30-1]) ȡ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
͡ʼΰ̣ѲʬहߤϿ¿ʤƤܥ֥Ǥ⤹Ǥˡ#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1])#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) ʤɤƤϰ̣Υå semantic change Ȥܤ˵ƤʬʤҲ𤹤롥Ūˤ Cruse Ѹ콸Ǥ롥
(1) γȾü (gain and loss of meaning) ԥ塼νиˤꡤmouse ϽưʪΥͥߤΰդ˲äơԥ塼ޥΰդäޤJane Austen λˤ direction ϰ̾ (address) ΰ̣ѤƤߤϤΰ̣ϼƤ롥γȾüˤ metaphor metonymy ѤƤ뤳Ȥ¿
(2) ǥեȸѲ (change of default meaning) 礿ŪʸȤʤäꡤŪʸ礿ˤʤ륱100ǯ expire μ礿̣ϡֻ̡פäߤϡֻ̡פŪʸؤȹ߳ʤˡˤʤפ礿̣ؤȾʤintercourse Ρָήפΰ̣Ʊͤ˼礿ϰ̤߳ʤפ˼äƤ롥
(3) ̣Ūɺή (semantic drift) ƥΥץȥŪȤȤѤäƤΤϢưץȥŪʸѤäƤȡweapon vehicle ϡˤäƤŵŪʻؼоݤȤʤΤѤƤStern ΰ̣ѲʬǤ (substitution) 롥
(4) ü첽Ȱ̲ (specialisation and generalisation) ĤƤ doctor Ϲֶաؼԡפ̣ߤǤϼȤü첽ְԡפθѤ롥actor ϽϡͥפΤߤ̣̤֡ˤ餺ͥפȤѤ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥ü첽Ȱ̲ϡ[2010-08-13-1]ʬǤ夲
(5) ɲ (pejoration and amelioration) interfere ϸŤϡֲߤ (intervene) ΰ̣ɾˤĤƤΩŪѤƤߤǤɾӤӤּ⤹פΰ̣ѤƤ롥typical ɾӤӤ֤褯褦˰פΰ̣Ѥ褦ˤʤäƤ롥ɽ魯줬Ф䤹ȤˤĤƤϡ#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) ([2014-07-18-1]) ȡ#1909. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (2) ([2014-07-19-1]) Ǽ夲ΤǻȤ줿ɲŪʤ֤֤äܤʡ˽ʡפΰ̣äΤ֤ޤʡפΰ̣ؤѲʤɤ롥ɲϡ[2010-08-13-1]ʬǤ夲
(6) ɺ (bleaching) to make a phone call ˤơmake Ρֺפΰ̣ɺ֤롤ʤפȤۤɤΰŪʰ̣ؤޤäƤ롥awful, terrible, fantastic ʤɤζո줬դäƤɺǤ (cf. #992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ס ([2012-01-14-1])#1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]))
ϰ̣Ѳװ̤ʤʣδˤȤŤʬǤꡤʬȤϲվ˶ᤤ̣ѲΥݥȤΤϡĤŤ
Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
ε#2058. 츻Ūֻɽʸɽ (1) ([2014-12-15-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ
Ѥ Perret եˤˤƻŦΤƱݤǡScragg (56) ϡѸˤˤۻȯŸɽʸؤžȤ̩ܤ˴ؤäƤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥
. . . an important change overtook the written language towards the end of the fourteenth century: suddenly literacy became more widespread with the advent of cheaper writing materials. In earlier centuries, while parchment was expensive and wax tablets were cumbersome, the church easily retained control of education and writing, but with the introduction of paper, mass literacy became both feasible and desirable. In the fifteenth century, private reading began to replace public recitation, and the resultant demand for books led, during that century, to the development of the printing press. As medieval man ceased pointing to the words with his bookmark as he pronounced them aloud, and turned to silent reading for personal edification and satisfaction, so his attention was concentrated more on the written word as a unit than on the speech sounds represented by its constituent letters. The connotations of the written as opposed to the spoken word grew, and given the emphasis on the classics early in the Renaissance, it was inevitable that writers should try to extend the associations of English words by giving them visual connection with related Latin ones. They may have been influences too by the fact that Classical Latin spelling was fixed, whereas that of English was still relatively unstable, and the Latinate spellings gave the vernacular an impression of durability. Though the etymologising movement lasted from the fifteenth century to the seventeenth, it was at its height in the first half of the sixteenth.
ۻΩƤȡɼԤϰϢʸΤĤʤȯߤˡľܤ˸Ȥñ̤طӤĤ뤳ȤФֻġʸѤ餺ɽɸ֤륢ե٥åȤǤꡤɽɽ180žȤȤȤˤϤʤʤɽζˤؤȤޤǤŤȤϳΤ
˽פȻפΤϡѤθȾ Scragg ŦƤ褦ˡƥֻκѤɽؤή˹ֻɸಽήˤȤͥΥƥǮֻɸಽĬή츻ŪֻɽʸɽȤäװϡ٤ͭŪ˴ؤäƤΤǤ롥
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
ε#2056. եȱѸˤ츻Ūֻδط (1) ([2014-12-13-1]) ǡեθ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ʊ۵ɤ̤ΤäȤ˿줿եˤƸ츻ŪֻΤ褦ʵǽȤȤϡ̤δСեνηϤɽ (phonographic) ɽ (logographic) ؤȰŤȤɽǤ롥Τ褦ɽʸηϤؤܶѸǤѸ줫ѸˤƤΤƱͤˡեǤϸʩ줫ʩˤƤषեǤξѸ˿ʤǤcf. #1332. ѸȶѸֻηϤܼŪʺ ([2012-12-19-1])#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])#1940. 16ֻԤη ([2014-08-19-1])#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ ([2014-11-30-1])
եξ˴ؤƤϡʤѸˤǤϤʤեˤΰʤΤǡե˳äƤߤʲPerret (138) Ѥ褦ޤϡʩνηϤɽŪǤȤ꤫顥
L'ancien français : une écriture phonétique
. . . . dans la mesure où l'on disposait de graphèmes pour rendre les son que l'on entendait, l'écriture était simplement phonétique (feré pour fairé, souvent kí pour quí) . . . .
Perret (138--39) ³ơʩνηϤɽˤĤƼΤ褦˳⤷Ƥ롥
Le moyen français : une écriture idéographique
À partir du XIIIe siècle, la transmission des textes cesse d'être uniquement orale, la prose commence à prendre de l'importance : on écrit aussi des textes juridiques et administratifs en français. Avec la prose apparaît une ponctuation très différente de celle que nous connaissons : les textes sont scandés par des lettrines de couleur, alternativement rouges et bleues, qui marquent le plus souvent des débuts de paragraphes, mais pas toujours, et des points qui correspondent à des pauses, généralement en fin de syntagme, mais pas forcément en fin de phrase. Les manuscrits deviennent moins rares et font l'objet d'un commerce, ils ne sont plus recopiés par des moines, mais des scribes séculiers qui utilisent une écriture rapide avec de nombreuses abréviations. On change d'écriture : à l'écriture caroline succèdent les écritures gothique et bâtarde dans lesquelles certains graphèmes (les u, n et m en particulier) sont réduits à des jambages. C'est à partir de ce moment qu'apparaissent les premières transformations de l'orthographe, les ajouts de lettres plus ou moins étymologiques qui ont parfois une fonction discriminante. C'est entre le XIVe et le XVIe siècle que s'imposent les orthographes hiver, pied, febve (où le b empêche la lecture ‘feue’), mais (qui se dintingue ainsi de mes); c'est alors aussi que se développent le y, le x et le z à la finale des mots. Mais si certains choix étymologiques ont une fonction discrminante réelle, beaucoup semblent n'avoir été ajoutés, pour le plaisir des savants, qu'afin de rapprocher le mot français de son étymon latin réel ou supposé (savoir s'est alors écrit sçavoir, parce qu'on le croyait issu de scire, alors que ce mot vient de sapere). C'est à ce moment que l'orthographe française devient de type idéographique, c'est-à-dire que chaque mot commence à avoir une physionomie particulière qui permet de l'identifier par appréhension globale. La lecture à haute voix n'est plus nécessaire pour déchiffrer un texte, les mots peuvent être reconnus en silence par la méthode globale.
ѤκǸˤ褦ˡɽʸηϤȯãɽȯãȴϢŤƤȤ¤˱ԤƶǤ롥˽Фɤ߾夲ݤˤϡȯľ˷ӤĤɽʸηϤΤۤդ路ɤεꡤɤ̾ɤˤʤäƤȡľ뤷䤹ȹͤɽɽաʸηϤդ路Ȥ⤤ (cf. #1655. ɤΤܤɤΤ ([2013-11-07-1])#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])) ɤɤؤžɽʸɽʸؤžȻŪˤ褽פȤȤˤʤСξԤδط虜ʤ
եˤѸˤ衤츻ŪֻϥͥΥƥǮȤδϢΤʸδߤСɽɽؤνηϤΥݥžȤȤʤ뤷ʪʸˤδߤСɤɤؤžȤȤʤ롥<doubt> <b> ظˤϡ¤˳غŪäƤΤǤ롥
Perret, Michèle. Introduction à l'histoire de la langue française. 3rd ed. Paris: Colin, 2008.
ε˰³ʩξˤ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) δطˤĤơScragg (52--53) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Throughout the Middle Ages, French scribes were very much aware of the derivation of their language from Latin, and there were successive movements in France for the remodelling of spelling on etymological lines. A simple example is pauvre, which was written for earlier povre in imitation of Latin pauper. Such spellings were particularly favoured in legal language, because lawyers' clerks were paid for writing by the inch and superfluous letters provided a useful source of income. Since in France, as in England, conventional spelling grew out of the orthography of the chancery, at the heart of the legal system, many etymological spellings became permanently established. Latin was known and used in England throughout the Middle Ages, and there was a considerable amount of word-borrowing from it into English, particularly in certain registers such as that of theology, but since the greater part of English vocabulary was Germanic, and not Latin-derived, it is not surprising that English scribes were less affected by the etymologising movements than their French counterparts. Anglo-Norman, the dialect from which English derived much of its French vocabulary, was divorced from the mainstream of continental French orthographic developments, and any alteration in the spelling of Romance elements in the vocabulary which occurred in English in the fourteenth century was more likely to spring from attempts to associate Anglo-Norman borrowings with Parisian French words than from a concern with their Latin etymology. Etymologising by reference to Latin affected English only marginally until the Renaissance thrust the classical language much more positively into the centre of the linguistic arena.
פʥݥȤޤȤȡ
(1) եˤƥ츻ȤƤʸϡ̻ξԤΤä
(2) ե٤бѸˤϥޥϤθäʤŪˤгΤˤ̤ꡪˡƥ츻ضŤ٤оݤȤʤ⤽ʤäᡤ츻ŪֻβФˤä뤤ϷФΤ٤줿 (cf. #653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]))
(3) 14αѸθ츻ŪֻϡľܥƥȤ̤ǤϤʤAnglo-Norman Υ Parisian French ָ̤Ǥ롥
(4) ƥľܤαƶϡܳŪˤϥͥԤʤФʤʤä
ǤϡʤͥŪˤ16ˡƥ츻ľܻȤ츻ŪֻѸȤ䤤ФơScragg (53--54) ϥƥäμѤλäǤ롤üŪƤ롥
As a result both of the increase of Latinate vocabulary in English (and of Greek vocabulary transcribed in Latin orthography) and of the familiarity of all literate men with Latin, English spelling became as affected by the etymologising process as French had earlier been.
Τ˥ƥä̤ήϡƥ츻ռȤʤä츻Ūֻؤαƶ⤢äȤ롥츻ŪֻĬή¸ߤƤΤǤꡤñ16ΥƥѤεϤʤȥƥؤοƤߡˤΤߤ˸ڤơդƤޤΤϰ°פǤϤʤѸˤ츻Ūֻϡ礭Ūʸ̮֤뤳Ȥοʤ褦˻פ롥
Scragg, D. G. A History of English Spelling. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1974.
ѸѸˤƤαѸθ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) ȯȳظˤϡбեǤθ츻ŪֻμäΤȤˤĤƤϡ#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])#1156. admiral <d> ([2012-06-26-1])#1790. եǤ16ĺޤ츻ֻ֤ ([2014-03-22-1])#1942. 츻Ūֻνᤰäơ ([2014-08-21-1]) ʤɤεǿƤȤǤ롥
äơѸˤ뤳ͤͤ褦ȤСեˤȤʤ14--16եθ츻ŪֻμˤĤơZink (24--25) Ѥ褦
Latinisation et surcharge graphique. --- L'idée de rapprocher les mots français de leurs étymons latins ne date pas de la Renaissance. Le mouvement de latinisation a pris naissance à la fin du XIIIe siécle avec les emprunts opérés par la langue juridique au droit romain sous forme de calques à peine francisés.... Parti du vocabulaire savant, il a gagné progressivement les mots courants de l'ancien fonds. Il ne pouvait s'agir dans ce dernier cas que de réfections purement graphiques, sans incidence sur la prononciation ; aussi est-ce moins le vocalisme qui a été retouché que le consonantisme par l'insertion de graphèmes dans les positions où on ne les prononçait plus : finale et surtout intérieure implosive.
Ainsi s'introduisent avec le flot des emprunts savants : adjuger, exception (XIIIe s.) ; abstraire, adjonction, adopter, exemption, subjectif, subséquent. . . (mfr., la prononciation actuelle datant le plus souvent du XVIe s.) et l'on rhabille à l'antique une foule de mots tels que conoistre, destre, doter, escrit, fait, nuit, oscur, saint, semaine, soissante, soz, tens en : cognoistre, dextre, doubter, escript, faict, nuict, obscur, sainct, sepmaine, soixante, soubz, temps d'après cognoscere, dextra, dubitare, scriptum, factum, noctem, obscurum, sanctum, septimana, sexaginta, subtus, tempus.
Le souci de différencier les homonymes, nombreux en ancien français, entre aussi dans les motivations et la langue a ratifié des graphies comme compter (qui prend le sens arithmétique au XVe s.), mets, sceau, sept, vingt, bien démarqués de conter, mais/mes, seau/sot, sait, vint.
Toutefois, ces correspondances supposent une connaissance étendue et précise de la filiation des mot qui manque encore aux clercs du Moyen Age, d'où des tâtonnements et des erreurs. Les rapprochements fautifs de abandon, abondant, oster, savoir (a + bandon, abundans, obstare, sapere) avec habere, hospitem (!), scire répandent les graphies habandon, habondant, hoster, sçavoir (à toutes les formes). . . .
ȤƤϡ(1) եǤϥͥΩ13ƥѤǤꡤȼäƥƥ˴Ť츻Ūֻ⸽Ƥȡ(2) ȸλҲæƤȤ˸츻ŪʻҲ褵ȡ(3) 츻ŪֻĤñ줬ʩξˤƶ̤뤳ȡ(4) եξˤϸ츻ŪֻƱ۵ɤ̤䤬äȡ(5) եǤ츻Ūֻ˴ŤĹ꽤ߤ줿ȡ롥Ϥ褽Ѹθ츻Ūֻˤ⤢ƤϤޤꡤʩξݤͿƤ뤳ȡäȸХե줬ѸرƶڤܤȤ롥(5) ˵꽤 (hypercorrection) αѸǤˤĤƤϡ#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1899. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (3) ([2014-07-09-1])#1783. whole <w> ([2014-03-15-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
츻Ūֻ˴ؤƱʩǰۤʤȻפΤϡ嵭 (4) եǤϡ츻ŪֻƳϡƱ۵ (homonymy) ̤ΤäȤСˤƱ۵ (homonymic_clash) 뤿ˡ츻Ū§˴ŤƸߤ˰ۤʤֻƳȤȤǤ롥ƥ줫ޥػβѲη̡եǤñƱ۵줬̤˻äˤƲ褹Ȥơ츻ŪֻѤ줿ΤǤ롥ܸΤҤ餬ʤǡ֤פȽƤɤΡ֤פ̤դʤΤǡǡֹֻաסָספʤɤȽʬȻƤ롥ˤƥեνηϤϡɽŪʤΤ顤ɽŪʤΤؤȰŤȤ
ѸǤƱ۵ͤ뤿˸츻ŪֻƳȤϤʤä褦˻פ뤬ǽŪʸ츻ŪֻưդȤˤĤƤϡ⤦տͻͤꤽ
Zink, Gaston. ''Le moyen françis (XIVe et XV e siècles)''. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1990.[sic]
#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) #1926. ܸܿ͡üԡ ([2014-08-05-1]) ǡפȤѸˤĤƤ줳ȹ̤ͤ˸ʳءˤΥǥˤϡפ褯ФפפϤȤꡤӸؤǤϽηŪʴطס̼סֻפɽ뤳Ȥ¿ʤפ©ҡפַפǤϤʤΤȹͤȡطɽ魯ޤǤࡦޤʻࡦޤˤδطŻ뤵뤫Ȼפ롥ˤƤϡ˽ΥڥҤޤȤϤʤСñסʤȤȤƤϥ襦ݥݤʤɤɽֻñסˤǤ롥˴ϢƤϡ#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1])#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1])#1579. ָϿʪǤפȡ ([2013-08-23-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
פ졦̼פˤĤƤϾΤ褦ʤȤͤƤꡤΥǥˤֽϡ˵ŤƤȤdz⤦1Ĥζ̣ŦƤ줿ɸ˷Ǥ첻פȤѸǤ롥äΤǡʤۤɤȴΤˡʤ㲻פǤϤʤ첻פʤΤĴ٤Ƥߤ
Ѹǡ첻פ vowelФֻҲפ consonant Ǥ롥αѸѸθ츻ˤϡäȤҤȤǰϴޤޤƤʤԤϥƥ vōcālem ͭΡˤ̤ꡤ캬 vōx ˤǤ롥Ԥϡƥ consonans Ĵ¤롤˶ˤ̤ꡤ켫Τϥꥷ súmphōnonʡ첻ȡϤȤȯΡˤΤʤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤä˿ƻҤȤϴͿƤʤ¾θϻäǤ롥
Ȥȡ첻סֻҲפȤƾΤϡܸȼΤΤ餷ȤȤˤʤ롥ܹ缭ŵ٤ˤȡ֤ܤפˤϡ첻ۤȡ챤ۤιब̡ˤꡤ줾켡Τ褦ˤ롥
첻ۡɴϢġ1870--71ˡӰʸ consonants ʻҲ˵ڤ vowel 첻ˤ濫ס1899ˡҵӸޡ㲻첻ζ̵˰Ԥˤơ¶ϡƱλ¿̾ľ˰ʤס1909ˡҿӡֶ줷֤ˡŤıջ줬첻ĹΤǡ
챤֤ۡܤ첻ˡפƱʸŵ1874ˡӰ졦ֺΤθȱҡסʸŵ1897ˡʸɧӻԤȯϡӤԤΡؤ٤˻¹ԤȯϡӤԤΡؤ٤˻ơˡǷ챤źؤơ챤ŤʤȯΤǡסΤ1903ˡҾǯ¥͡ P(H)TKRS λҲ Unaccented 챤˽ϤơP(H)TKS ʤƤϤ륷֥ΩĻϡ
ǡ첻ۤιʸȤƿƤ㲻פȤѸܤϡȤλҲΰ̣ǻȤƤ롥ǤϡƱŵǡ㲻ۡʤդˤιƤߤ롥
֤ʻҲˡפƱʸŵ̵1897ˡʸɧӰ켷ֱѤ Consonant Ҳϡ㲻ʥեˤʤ뤢ϡʤס첻ء1902ˡʿȡӰ͡㲻ϡ¶βξ夫̤СȤʤ롥ͭ㲻̵㲻
ؤäƤˤϡconsonant ȤơֻҲפȤȤˡ㲻פȤԤƤ褦פФΤϡפʤΤֻҡסʡ̼ˤʤΤȤФơǽŪˤϡֻҡפǼޤäȤȤΤ褦Ǥֻҡפ̤ʬʤؤΥǥˤơƤ褦ˤ⸫뤫顤̼פǤǽ⤤ʡˡ
ˡܤȤʤۡʤܡˤȤϲƱŵĴ٤Ƥߤȡ
(2)Ƥȡ٤Ȥäꡥ䡤ϡ칻졤á(3)ʪȤȤʤΡ졤졿첻췿콸ġ
Ȥ롥ǡ첻סʤʤۤɡֻפȤѸ⤢äˤϡʪȤȤʤΡפΰդΡפȤƵƤ롥
ǻפ⤫֤ΤϡΧˤ벻ṽ¤εҤߺǤƳƤ벻ṽ¤ (cf. #1563. ṽ¤ ([2013-08-07-1])) εҤǤϡonset, rhyme, nucleus, coda ʤɤΰ֤äع¤ȤƤ롥ṽ¤ˤƳˤǤΤȤʤΤʸ̤ nucleus ǤꡤŵŪˤϤ첻ޤꡤμդˡ֤Ȥ˶פȤƤλҲۤ롥첻ŪˡΡפϡפʤɤɽʤ֤˼ޤ벻ǤꡤǻҲϤμդֻۤʬפǤʤʤֻʬפȤȤषΥˡȱΧȤΤϸ̩ˤϥʥ첻סֻҲפȤոطʤˤŪʲΤȤ館ȤϴؤäƤ
嵭Τ褦ˡפȤϡŪ߽ФǤꡤʸˡȯۤ˶ᤤȤ⤢äơܸθؤΥǥˤϽѸǤ˺դƵפȤȤ⤷ʤ
#2015. seek beseech θҲ ([2014-11-02-1]) ǡKrygier ˤϢʸɤεκǸǡseek /k/ ǹԤ줿ťΥɸƱ /k/ αƶˤΤǤϤʤȤҲ𤷤Krygier ϤٻƤ롥ǫϤʤΤǡפƤ
εǤȤꡤűѸб sēċan ǤꡤλҲ [k] ǤϤʤŸ˻ [ʧ] äθβϡGmc *sōkjan ˤƸ [j] ³ƤȤˤ줿ΤǤ롥űѸθ߷ޤǤϸ줿 [ʧ] 뤬2;ñ3;ñζΤߤ sēcst, sēcþ Τ褦 [k] ʤΥѥǤθؤˤĤƤϲŪʵ뤬ǤϾάˡŪʸˤȡ23;ñ [k] ѥ˹ꡤ1;ñʤɤ٤Ƥζ [k] ˻äȤ롥 (analogy) ΤʤǤѥǤοʿ (levelling) ȸƤФतβȤ (cf. #555. 2 analogy ([2010-11-03-1])) Hogg (7.42) ⤳ٻƤ롥
Following general principles of analogy . . . we would expect the nom.sg. to predominate over plural forms in nouns, and in strong verbs the present forms similarly to predominate over past forms. . . . In the present tense of weak verbs the alternation type sēcan ? sēcþ is, as would be predicted, the source of later seek, cf. beseech, where the affricate has been extended, perhaps on pragmatic grounds, and so for other similar verbs, such as think, work.
Krygier ϡ˵롥̾Ѥͭɸʷ̵ɸʷݤ߹ޤƤǤ롥ǤСsēċan ξ硤ष1;ñʤɤ [ʧ] ķ̵֤ɸȤߤʤϤ顤[ʧ] ؿʿƤ椯ΤڤȤ¤ȿФǤ롥ΰѤˤ⤢̤ꡤष [ʧ] ؿʿ beseech ˴ؤƤϤĤΤǤꡤseek ˤĤƱФȤΤǤϤʤ
Krygier ϡseek Ʊ֥饹°ưʸ촴 [k] ļѲIưˤΥꥹȤä (catch (OFr cachier), dretch (OE dreccan), letch (OE læccan), quetch (OE cweccan), reach (OE rǣcan), reach (2) (OE reccan), rech (OE reccan), seek (OE sēcan), stretch (OE streccan), teach (OE tǣcan), think (OE þencan ? þyncan), watch (OE w(r)eccan), work (OE wyrcan)) ơ13ĤưˤĤơ5Ĥ˶ʬѸФ[k] [ʧ] 夲η̡ưΤȤƤΤȤƤ [ʧ] ͥǤϤĤưˤĤƤष [k] ͥǤ뤳ȤƾʤȤ¾٤٤Ȥ狼äŪˤϡHogg ΰѤͽۤ褦ˡseek, think, work 3줬Τ褦ʬۤ (Krygier 465)
Ǹˤä [k] ͥǤȤȤϡťΥɸδͿ碌롥ºݡ˵ưбťΥɸˤ [k] 롥3ˤĤƤСťΥɸ sœkja, þekkja/þykkja, yrkja Ǥ롥ξΤߤǤޤǤ뤬ξˤϸťΥɸλͿͤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ȤϡϤ [k] ɸȤƺѤ줿ȤʥꥪꤹΤߤseek beseech ʿŪȯãʤäΤϡťΥɸ sœkja ʸڤ뤬 *besœkja ʸڤʤȤȤطƤΤǤϤʤ (Krygier 468)
Krygier (468) ηʤΤǡѤƤ
By way of a summary, the following interpretation of the developments in the "seek"-group regarding velar restoration can be proposed. The Present-day English situation is a result of an interplay of two factors. One of them is analogical levelling of the alternations resulting from Primitive Old English syncope of medial unstressed [i]. Contrary to earlier scholarship, however, a path of development parallel to that in strong verbs is postulated, thus removing the minority velar forms from second and third person singular present tense. This would give palatal consonants throughout the present paradigm in all dialects of Late Old English/Early Middle English. On this pattern the influence of Old Norse equivalents of the "seek"-verbs should be superimposed. For obvious reasons, initially it was limited mainly to the north-east, later spreading southwards, with West Midlands as a possible relic area. The absence of an Old Norse equivalent would favour the preservation of the palatal type, while its existence would further velar restoration, as best exemplified by the seek ? beseech contrast. In individual cases other factors, such as the existence of etymologically related Old English words with a velar, e.g., wyrcan : weorc, could have played a secondary role, which can probably be seen primarily in isolated velar forms in the south.
Krygier, Marcin. "Old English (Non)-Palatalised */k/: Competing Forces of Change at Work in the "seek"-Verbs." Placing Middle English in Context. Ed. I. Taavitsainen et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2000. 461--73.
Hogg, Richard M. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 1. Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
εϡȤդȤȤʵǤ
轵ˡѸʸز30ƱּؤdzŤޤθˡ2013ǯ Does Spelling Matter? 尴åեؤ Simon Horobin ̥ȤȤƾ"Does Spelling Matter in Pre-Standardised Middle English?" ꤹ륷ݥŤޤΥݥλʲʤȯɽԡˤ̳ᤵƤޤ˲ˤۤޤطԤޤơ鿽夲ޤ
ơϤΥݥ˴ϢơĤޤSimon Horobin ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ⤤ʤȤǻȤƤޤcf. Simon Horobin) ä Does Spelling Matter? ϱѸֻ˴ؤФƤϡܥ֥Ǥ夲ƤΤǡѤäˤʤä¿ʬ⤪äˤʤܤǤ¤ϡ Horobin Ȥ2012ǯ Spelling Trouble ꤹ֥֤äƤޤʤꤪ⤷ΤǡҹɤᤷޤܿͤƤƳڤȽҤ٤Ƥޤ
ݥǻ䤬äΤϡܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤӰäƤ츻Ūֻ (etymological (re)spelling) ˤĤƤǤޤǤФФ˽ƤȤƼȻפä櫓ǤޤȤˤƤޤޤ¿κȤɬפʤ褦ǤؿΤϡޤǤ˽ƤġεȤϢϤ줫ƤȻפޤåǼäڤӤθ˸ĿŪ˥Ȥäˤϴդޤ
ޤݥǤϡHorobin Ф줿Ȥ⤺äȵˤʤäƤ "Does Spelling Matter?" Ф餫ˤޤ餤С"Yes" ȤȤǤ٤˺¤äƤϢŪ "Yes" ¾ΥѥͥꥹȤο¨ƤˤʤäƤޤˤ衤ֻ1ĤȤäƤ⽽ʬˤ⤷Ѹ˾Υơޤˤʤ뤳ȤƳǧοޤֻμҲء (sociolinguistics of spelling) ʤΤۤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤȡ
ˤޤƤ⡤طԤΤ٤Ƥء꤬Ȥޤ
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ޥλ夫űѸ졤ѸФƶѸ˻ޤǤαѸ첻ˤäȤޤȤߤȻפäΤǡפʼŪŪѲޤȤƤߤʲɽϡGörlach (48--49) 첻μ̤˴ؤѲάǯɽɥåΤǤ롥
| Period | Quantity | Quality | ||
| Rule | Examples | Rule | Examples | |
| WGmc--OE | ai > ā, au > ēa, ā > ǣ/ē, a > æ | stān, ēage, dǣd, dæg cf. Ge Stein, Auge, Tat, Tag | ||
| 7--9th c. | compensatory lengthening | *sehan > sēon "see", mearh, gen. mēares "mare" | ||
| 9--10th c. | lengthening of before esp. [-ld, -mb, -nd] | fēld, gōld, wāmb, fīnd, but ealdrum | ||
| shortening before double (long) consonants | wĭsdom, clæ̆nsian, cĭdde, mĕtton | |||
| shortening in the first syllable of trisyllabic words | hăligdæg, hæ̆ringas, wĭtega | |||
| OE--ME | shortening in unstressed syllables | wisdŏm, stigrăp | monophthongization of all OE diphthongs | OE dēad, heard, frēond, heorte, giefan > ME [dɛːd, hard, frœːnd, hœrtə, jivən] |
| 12th c. | [ɣ > w] and vocalization of [w] and [j]; emergence of new diphthongs | OE dagas, boga, dæg, weg > ME [dauəs, bouə, dai, wei] | ||
| southern rounding of [aː > ɔː] | OE hāl(ig) > ME hool(y) [ɔː] | |||
| 12--14th c. | unrounding of œ(ː), y(ː) progressing from east to west | ME [frɛːnd, hertə, miːs, fillen] | ||
| 13th c. | lengthening in open syllables of bisyllabic words | nāme, nōse, mēte (week, door) | ||
| 15th c. GVS and 16--17th century consequences | ||||
| esp. 15--16th c. | shortening in monosyllabic words | dead, death, deaf, hot, cloth, flood, good | ||
| 18th c. | lengthening before voiceless fricatives and [r] | glass, bath, car, servant, before | ||
ĤϸؤǡؤʤɤǸؤ˽ܤؽԤФСָؤΥȥ쥹פθȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ؤȤȤƤϿͤȤǤϤʤʤʤ̣ʤΤǡͤƤߤ (29) 4ĤΥȥ쥹Ƥ롥
(1) ꤵ륹ȥ쥹
(2) Ѹθ̩Ф륹ȥ쥹
(3) ȤˤϤ륹ȥ쥹
(4) ΤȤиФƻŦ륹ȥ쥹
ޤ (1) ˤĤơǤܸäʤ褷ƤԤˤȤäơȤ϶Τ褦˴ƤʤΤǤ롥ȤؤǤϤޤȻפäƤȤ褽٤ꤵ졤Ƥʤ롥Τˤ̤¿ΤϤäĤġ⤤ʼȤǡܸȤѸʤɤȤΤ¸ߤʤפȤͤХ롤ޥפȤʸˡʤɤ¸ߤʤפʤɤʡ֤֤פȤ⤤ˡܸʳΤäƤȤбѸǤꡤޤDzǯѸ춵ƤˤȤäơֱѸȤΤ¸ߤʤפȤѸȤϵǤפʤɤȻŦ줿ȤǡΤȤäƤΤפפΤ褦ϼȤܵǸäƤ餷ȤȤˤʤСؤȤʬФƷٲȤˤʤ롥
(2) Ϥɤγʬˤ̤˸뤳ȤʤΤΤ˸ؤѸˤϤ뤵ϤޤǤιʸˡʸˡμȤǡ̾סưפ˻Ϥޤ̤סַӡסָߴλסʬ칽ʸפʤɤȤѸ˶줷ƤΤ褦Ѹ˽ƤäؤǤϡ˴ؤǥǤϡפǤϤʤפȤ٤ (cf. #1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) #1926. ܸܿ͡üԡ ([2014-08-05-1])ˤȤָפǤϤʤַǡפȤȤפǤϤʤѼפȸ٤ʤɤ͡뤳Ȥˤʤʢ褯͡Τϻˡοͤϸտ뤳ȤФͤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤʤꡤԿ
(3) ϻȤƤϼ´狼ʤΤ (32--35) ˤ㤨СָϿʹ֤ͭǽϤǤꡤ¾ưʪˤϤʤΤǤפȤ褦ȤΤϤ˥ȥ쥹ͤȤȤ餷Υȥ쥹ˤĤƻˡǤ˼´狼ʤΤϡ伫Ȥؤˤޤ긷ȤϤʤȻפäƤ뤫餫⤷ʤΤŪʸؤ䤽βʬˤϤ줾ȼμϰϡʤȡפΤϳΤ¤ءʸˡǧθؤʤɤȤɤؤΡȡפȤȤ館ΤǤСΤˤϰΥȥ쥹⤷ʤϷ빽ʬ褦ʵ롥
(4) Υȥ쥹 (1) ̤뤬 (35) ˤС¿οͤե饹ȥ졼ΤΡפǤּʬǤϤդʤȤäƤ뤳ȤФФơȥ䥫ΤϤߤʤʤΤפȤȤǤ롥⤷Υȥ쥹ʤθո˴ؤƸؤ˴Ĥ줿ʤȤȥ쥹ȤǤСƤʤȤΤϡ⤽⸽θؤϡոѤȸѤȽǤ뵬ϼŪΩäƤʤؤϡ̾ˡˤĤ̵ؿǤ롥äơ(4) ϸΥȥ쥹ȤФǤ롥
ȡޤǽơΤ褦ΤȤɵ椹ȤΤϤȤƤȤʤΤ⤷ʤȻפľϸؤιͤФƥȥ쥹ȤϤषƤȤȤϽҤ٤Ƥ(1) (2) ˴ŤơθФ֥פѸθ̩פᤷ³ƤȻפ¤ޤʤϰϤǡˡޤ(3) (4) ˤĤƤϡȤϤʤ⤷ʤɤ⡤ʤ٤ĤȤˤǤʤȡ
ζǷؤϤƤθء١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2004ǯ
#2007. Gramley αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-10-25-1])#2038. Fennell αѸ˳ܼ ([2014-11-25-1]) ³ҲŪʴ¿ʬ˴ޤ⤦1Ĥɤߤ䤹Ѹ˽Gerry Knowles A Cultural History of the English Language ܼǤ롥˼ҲŪΩ줫αѸ˳Ҳ𤹤뵡¿ĿŪˤϺŵȤäƤ褤ڶι¤ϩ Strang ðۤʸ˴Ѥ Görlach ʤɤϹǤ롥Ǥ̸ˤüԡʽġˤˡ볰̻ˤȤȤ˵ҤΤ§ȤϻפäƤ롥
Knowles ξΥȥƤȡJespersen Growth and Structure of the English Language ʤȤ롥ҲˤȤƤαѸˤή줬ʷˤȤ館ܼKnowles ˸ڤε⻲Ȥ줿
1 Introduction
1.1 An outline history
1.2 Language and social change
1.3 Language, evolution and progress
1.4 Language and myth
1.5 Language superiority
2 The origins of the English language
2.1 The linguistic geography of Europe
2.2 Language in Britain
2.3 Early English
2.4 The survival of Celtic
2.5 The British people
3 English and Danish
3.1 Old English and Old Norse
3.2 Norse immigration
3.3 The Anglo-Saxon written tradition
3.4 English in the Danelaw
3.5 Norse influence on English
4 English and French
4.1 England and France
4.2 Literacy in the medieval period
4.3 The reemergence of English
4.4 English under French influence
4.5 Printing
5 English and Latin
5.1 The Lollards
5.2 Classical scholarship
5.3 Scholarly writing in English
5.4 The English Bible
5.5 The legacy of Latin
6 The language of England
6.1 Saxon English
6.2 The language arts
6.3 English spelling and pronunciation
6.4 The study of words
6.5 Elizabethan English
7 The language of revolution
7.1 The Norman yoke
7.2 The Bible and literacy
7.3 Language, ideology and the Bible
7.4 The intellectual revolution
7.5 The linguistic outcome of the English revolution
8 The language of learned and polite persons
8.1 Language and science
8.2 The improving language
8.3 The uniform standard
8.4 A controlled language
8.5 A bourgeois language
9 The language of Great Britain
9.1 The codification of Standard English
9.2 London and the provinces
9.3 English beyond England
9.4 English pronunciation
9.5 Change in Standard English
10 The language of empire
10.1 The international spread of English
10.2 The illustrious past
10.3 Working-class English
10.4 The standard of English pronunciation
10.5 Good English
11 Conclusion
11.1 The aftermath of empire
11.2 English in the media
11.3 Speech and language technology
11.4 The information superhighway
11.5 English in the future
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982.
Ѹˤˤ̵ԹŸ /ʃ/ ϰŪʲǤäȤ뤬ɽ魯ֻϥꥨ˭٤äḽѸǤŻ (digraph) <sh> §Ȥ櫓ѸǤ͡ʰֻԤƤˤγάϡ#1893. إܥ <sh>, <ch>, <j> ϤɤΤ餤Ѹ ([2014-07-03-1]) Ǽۤˤ#479. bushel ([2010-08-19-1]) #1238. Υޥ̻οá ([2012-09-16-1]) εǴϢ˷ڤƤ
OED sh, n.1 ˰͵ơѸ˾塤λҲɤΤ褦֤ƤΤ⤦٤ҤޤϡOED εҤ˴ŤƤ餢ǯɽΤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤǡͤޤǤˡ

ʲä롥űѸɸֻä <sc> ѸȿΰӤɤꡤ¾μΰֻ֤뤳ȤˤʤäλҲΥեβǤȤƤ¸ߤʤäᡤեǽȤ˴ƤѸμ̻ϡ餫ιפ뤳ȤˤʤäǤñʻߤñȤ <s> ѤˡǡѸǤϸƬȸ /ʃ/ ɽ魯ΤѤ줿ŪˤϤʤʤäŻҲ <ss> ϴĶФѤ줿Ȥ⤢ꡤ깭Ѥ줿ȸǤ <ssh> ᡤĹ16ޤѤ줿16ѤȤƤϡCoverdale (1535) ǤФѤ줿 <szsh> <szh> 뤬ޤѤǿԤϽФʤä<ss> <sch> ΤۤѸȾФͥäֻȤƤϡɥĸֻפ碌 <sch> ʤ櫓ˤϤʤȤ櫓ƬǤϹԤ졤Ǥ16ޤ³
θǤ˸ /ʃ/ ɽ魯ΤˡֻѤ줿롥㤨 she ɽ魯Τˡ13ˤ <sge>, , <sze> Τ褦ֻȤѤ줿East Anglia Ǥϡ褯ΤƤ褦 shall should θƬҲ <x> ֤졤̯ <xal> <xulde> ߤ줿ޤ -ship ѸǤϤȤ -<chipe> ֤줿
Ǹˡ1200ǯ Ormulum Ǥ⤹Ǥ˵§ŪѤƤ<sh> ͥŻȤ¾뤳Ȥˤʤ롥14Υɥʸ Chaucer ǤŪǤꡤCaxton ǤɸȤʤä
ḽѸǤϡĤθˤƤλҲɽ魯Τ¾λѤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬츻Ū뤤ȯ٤ŪǤ롥㤨Сmachine, schedule, Asia, -tion (cf. #2018. <nacio(u)n> <nation> ֻѲ ([2014-11-05-1])) ʤɤǤ롥
űѸ줫Ѹˤơ첻̤ѲȵäǽƱﲻĹ (Homorganic Lengthening) 12--13ˤƳĹ (Open Syllable Lengthening) IJû (Closed Syllable Shortening) Ȥ롥ñȯ櫓ǤϢŪ櫓Ǥʤष1ĤθǤ줿̴طˤ벻ѲȤߤʤ٤ΤǤ롥
줾ѲάҤ褦ƱﲻĹϸűѸޤǤƤ첻βѲǡ#145. child children 첻Ĺ ([2009-09-19-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤƱʤ뤤϶ᤤĴﴱˤĴ2ĤͭҲ³ˡԤû첻Ĺ첻ȤΤŪˤ /ld/, /rd/, /rð/, /rl/, /rn/, /rz/, /mb/, /nd/, /ŋg/ û첻Ĺ롥Ϣ³2ĤλҲͭľ첻˰ޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤿ᡤ̤Ȥ첻β̤Ĺʤ롥cild cīld ءblind blīnd ءclimban clīmban ؤѲ
˳ĹϽѸ첻βѲǡ#1230. over offer ϺǾФǤϤʤ ([2012-09-08-1]) ǤܤҤ٤褦ˡˤû첻Ĺ첻ȤΤnama nāma ءberan bēran ءofer ōfer ؤѲ
ǸIJûϳĹƱŪ첻βѲǡIJˤĹ첻û첻ȤΤsōfte softe ءclǣnsian clænsian ءkēpte kepte ؤѲ
ơ3ĤβѲظึ˰ܤ֥륷 (64) ˤСűѸˤϴܲṽ¤Ȥ4Ĥηꤨ(1) V|C (ex. beran), (2a) VC|C (ex. settan), (2b) VV|C (ex. dēman), (3) VVC|C (clǣnsian) Ǥ롥Τ3⡼餫ʤ (2a) (2b) ŪʸȹͤƤꡤ(1) ϤûΡ(3) ϤĹΤȤƼŪʹ¤Ȳᤵ롥δ餹ȡűѸʹߤβѲϡŪ (1) (3) ι¤Ū (2) ι¤ؤȽƤȤȤ館롥(1) V|C beran ϡ첻Ĺ뤳Ȥ1⡼ä(2b) VV|C bēran ؤܶᤷ(3) VVC|C clǣnsian ϡ첻û뤳Ȥ1⡼鸺餷(2a) VC|C clænsian ؤܶᤷΤ褦ˡĹIJû2ѲˤĤƤϡ3⡼δܹ¤ؤνȤư礷뤳ȤǤ롥
ƱﲻĹˤĤƤϤɤϢ³2ĤƱλҲϸߤĴŪ˶̩Ǥ뤿ᡤŪˤϤ1ĤλҲǤ뤫Τ褦˿褦ˤʤäȹͤƤߤ褦ȡ (2a) VC|C cild ϡŪ /ld/ 1ҲȤߤʤȤˤСष (1) V|C °뤳Ȥˤʤ롥(1) ϸæʹ¤ʤΤǡ첻Ф (2b) VV|C ܶᤷƤʣʡгʷ cildru Τ褦 /ld/ θˤ⤦1ĻҲ³ˤϡĹ֥å뤿ᡤû첻ݤ졤˻롥
嵭θʲ˿ޤǼ

Ϣơ#1402. Ѹ줬ǯ֡첻Ҳ岽Ƥͳ ([2013-02-27-1]) ε⻲ȡ
른塦֥륷ˡ 忡 СⲬ ͥˡرѸˡˤȸ١ݽǡ1999ǯ
#1171. եȤθܿȶޤο ([2012-07-11-1])#1208. եαʸˡؤαƶɾ ([2012-08-17-1])#1884. եѸʸˡü˴Ϳ ([2014-06-24-1]) 褦ˡΥޥαѸ˾ΰյϼȤƴŪǼҲŪʤΤǤ롥äˤϳΤ˾ʤ̱ƶľܤͿʸˡ䲻ؤαƶϤäȤƤϤǤ (cf. #204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1])#1815. ̾ one ˡϥեαƶ ([2014-04-16-1]))
ΥޥκιϡҲѸνϤåꡤѸäդزäȤǤȻϹͤƤ롥ˤäơѸϼͳãŷ̵˥˸Ѳ뤲뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäǤ[2012-07-11-1][2012-08-17-1]εǰѤƤȽʣ뤬֥륷 (42--43) ޤΥޥΤɾƤ롥
1066ǯ˵ä礭ʽɬŪ֤ȼäơαƶʬͿĤĤäϤ֥Υޥͤˤѹ (conquête normande) ΤȤǤꡤˤäĤθ졤Ѹȥե줬ܿŪҲŪư줿줫Ĺ֡Ȼ۳ϱѸäʤʤǤ롥11溢ޤǤ˴˻ϤޤäƤĤθ츽ݤ⡤ȤȤ礷ǤϤΡ֥ΥޥͤˤѹפѸξ˷ŪʱƶͿȤϴְ㤤ʤ1300ǯޤǤˤĤΡܤ٤㳰̤ˤơȾʸغʡ¿νʪϰȤƥΥޥ줢뤤ϥƥǽƤΤǤѸΰҿ㲼֥Υޥͤˤѹװʹ߱ѸμפΤäդˤʤäΤǤ롥äդϽդݼ˳ήưŪǡפ˱뤳ȤΤǤ֤Ǥ롥Ĺʲβ̤Ƥ˱Ѹ줬ʸήξdzȤƤΰҸ᤹ȤǤѤդϡ֤λäդãȯãʳȿǤƤȹͤ롥פˡݼŪʽϤλߤ̵ʤäΤǤ롥¿Ȳ̶ʬä˸ƤʤˤƤϿŤǤʤФʤʤʤʤ顤űѸʳǻѤǤϡλο¿ڤƤȤϸ¤ʤǤˡݼŪʽϤλߤ̵ʤäȤϡʸؤȻθѰ (registre) ͰŪ˴ѤȤ߹ޤƤ¿θ줬ǤȤ䡤ä˷ŪѲ (paradigme) (désinence) ΤʤŰ줷ƴά줿Ȥˤ⸽Ƥ롥
֥륷ϱѸˡˤˤȳ̻ˤޤߤŪʱѸˤɽȻפ
른塦֥륷ˡ 忡 СⲬ ͥˡرѸˡˤȸ١ݽǡ1999ǯ
#2043. Ѹֻɽַǡ ([2014-11-30-1]) εθȾǡư <pronounce> Ф̾ <pronunciation> ֤ͳ˿줿ḽѸֻϤɽŪʤΤˤɽַǡŪˤηϤؤȯŸƤŪɽ¿ʬ˻ĤäƤꡤΤ褦 <ou> = /aʊ/, <u> = /ʌ/ δطƤ륱롥
طˤư̾θ촴ʬ˰ۤʤ첻ۤʤ첻ȤΤʤȤˤϰ㤤ʤǡפ褦Ȥߵᡤ뤤ϰѤ뤳ȤϼԤǤ롥̾ <pronounciation> ֤äꡤ/prəˌnaʊnsiˈeɪʃən/ ȯߤԤƤλߤϤФеϼԤѤȥåƥŽƤդˤСۤɤ褯Ѥ뤳ȤȤȤHorobin (247) ˤ⡤"commonly misspelled pronounciation" ȤƸڤ롥OED ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The forms pronouncyacyon, pronounciacion, pronountiation, pronounciation show the influence of PRONOUNCE v. This influence is also seen in the pronunciation Brit. /prəˌnaʊnsɪˈeɪʃn/, U.S. /prəˌnaʊnsiˈeɪʃ(ə)n/, which has frequently been criticized in usage guides.
̾ˤ /aʊ/ ȯϡWeb3 Ǥ "substandard" ȥ졼٥뤬ŽƤꡤLongman Pronunciation Dictionary ǤդƤ롥
̾첻ɽ魯ֻˤĤƤϡθ줬ե줫Ѥ줿Ѹ <u> ̤äOED ˤ <ou> İ֤꤬15ԤƤȤǡEEBO (Early English Books Online) ˴Ťƥȡǡ١Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡ16--17ˤϳΤ˥ѥѥ <ou> 㤬롥¿ΰ۷ޤƸ̤ϰʲ̤ꡥ
| Period (subcorpus size) | <pronunciation> etc. | <pronounciation> etc. |
|---|---|---|
| 1451--1500 (244,602 words) | 0 wpm (0 times) | 0 wpm (0 times) |
| 1501--1550 (328,7691 words) | 9.73 (32) | 0.30 (1) |
| 1551--1600 (13,166,673 words) | 1.14 (15) | 0.30 (4) |
| 1601--1650 (48,784,537 words) | 1.35 (66) | 0.12 (6) |
| 1651--1700 (83,777,910 words) | 1.38 (116) | 0.19 (16) |
| 1701--1750 (90,945 words) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
| Period (subcorpus size) | <pronunciation> etc. | <pronounciation> etc. |
|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 (10,480,431 words) | 31 | 2 |
| 1780--1850 (11,285,587) | 43 | 0 |
| 1850--1920 (12,620,207) | 64 | 0 |
ε#2044. ʤ mayn't ȤʤΤ (1) ([2014-12-01-1]) ˰³ɸꡥŪʻ¤롥OED ˤȡû̷ mayn't 16㤬ߤȤȤƺǤᤤΤ17 Milton ΤΤ
1631 Milton On Univ. Carrier ii. 18 If I mayn't carry, sure I'll ne'er be fetched.
OED ˴Ťȡܤ٤ϽѸʸȤȤˤʤ롥 EEBO (Early English Books Online) ١ǸĿŪ˺äƤƥȡǡ١ˤ٤ԤäȤΤ褦ʷ̤Фmai nat ʤɤΰ۷ޤƸˡƻΥ֥ѥεϤۤʤΤǡ100 (wpm) Ӥ줿
| Period (subcorpus size) | mayn't | may not |
|---|---|---|
| 1451--1500 (244,602 words) | 0 wpm (0 times) | 474.24 wpm (116 times) |
| 1501--1550 (328,7691 words) | 0 (0) | 133.22 (438) |
| 1551--1600 (13,166,673 words) | 0 (0) | 107.01 (1,409) |
| 1601--1650 (48,784,537 words) | 0.020 (1) | 131.85 (6,432) |
| 1651--1700 (83,777,910 words) | 1.03 (86) | 131.54 (11,020) |
| 1701--1750 (90,945 words) | 0 (0) | 109.96 (10) |
| Period (subcorpus size) | mayn't | may not |
|---|---|---|
| 1710--1780 (10,480,431 words) | 33 | 859 |
| 1780--1850 (11,285,587) | 21 | 703 |
| 1850--1920 (12,620,207) | 68 | 601 |

ʤ may not û̷ mayn't ѸǤϰŪѤʤΤȤΤԻĤȻפäƤΤޤǰ鷺ˤΤǾͤƤߤ
ˡư줬꼭ȼˤϡƤбû̷롥can't, couldn't, won't, wouldn't, shouldn't, mightn't, mustn't, needn't, use(d)n't, oughtn't mayn't ϤޤꤪܤˤʤºݤΤȤ礭ʼˤϵܤΤ졼٥ȤƤϸŪǤȤǤȤüˡȤƤ롥OED Ǥ mayn't "(colloq., now rare)" "rare in all varieties of English" ȤꡤɸѸåȤȤѸ춵ˤƶƤʤΤ̵̤ȤǤ롥Quirk et al. (122) Ǥ⡤mayn't shan't ȤȤѤʤʤäƤƤ뤳ȤҤ٤Ƥ롥
Every auxiliary except the am form of BE has a contracted negative form . . ., but two of these, mayn't and shan't, are now virtually nonexistent in AmE, while in BrE shan't is becoming rare and mayn't even more so.
ޤ Quirk et al. (811--12) ϡղõˤ mayn't I? ʤɤηȤˤΤʤˤڤǤ롥mightn't I? can't I? ѤüԤ⤤褦ޡȤǤϤʤmay I not? Ͼ˲ǽ줷¿ʸ̮ˤϤդ路ʤ
The negative tag question following a positive statement with modal auxiliary may poses a problem because the abbreviated form mayn't is rare (virtually not found in AmE). There is no obvious solution for the tag question, though some speakers will substitute mightn't or can't or --- when the reference is future --- won't:
?I may inspect the books, | mightn't I?
| can't I?
?They may be here next week, | mightn't they?
| won't they?
The abbreviated form is fully acceptable, but limited to formal usage:
I may inspect the books, may I not?
They may be here next week, may they not?
ơBNC mayn't 7ΤߥҥåȤäե֥ѥ2Τߤե֥ѥ5Ūʸ̮ˤƤ롥73㤬 mayn't you?, mayn't it?, mayn't there ȤäղõΤʤǸƤꡤϻѤƤ뤳Ȥ狼뤬1쵬ϤΥѥǤȤȤϡϤ¾ԻѤȤäƤ褤
can't mightn't ȤʿǤڤꡤղõˤ뤽ΤʤżƤޤǤ mayn't λѤȤξϡäɤΤ褦Ф褤ΤŪ˲ǤΤŪʻˤĤơεǹͻ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
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