01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
丫˴ؿΤʤͤϤޤʤܸǤѸǤ⡤ʹεϡդ˴ؤ˻礫ʤɸλȤδְ㤤ʸѤλŦѸӡ츻Ʀμ¤ꡤʤǤˤʤ롥ϡƿ͡δؿ椯ΤȻפäƤ롥
ȤֳءפȤʤ礤˴ؿٹ礤롥ʸˡʹȤؤɤФ롤Ȥͤ⾯ʤʤؤδؿϤäƤؤؤδؿȤΤ֤θ¤Ǥ롥֤ε Crystal Ѥʤλ ( language death ) ˤޤĤ夲ƤCrystal ϸλФ̵֤ؿϡĤޤȤ֤θռ㤵˵ȻŦƤ롥ä˱ѸˤĤƤΡˤξΤ褦ʬϤƤ롥
All language professionals have suffered the consequences of a general malaise about language study which has long been present among the general public --- an inevitable consequence (in my view) of two centuries of language teaching in which prescriptivism and purism produced a mentality suspicious of diversity, variation, and change, and a terminology whose Latinate origins crushed the spontaneous interest in language of most of those who came into contact with it. (Crystal 96)
褽ƱȤܸ줢뤤ܿͤˤĤƤ롥ŪʸˡȯǤҲǤ¥졤ǤʤΤϸȤƥåƥŽ롥ޤܸʸˡǤʸˡǤ⡤ʸˡѸιˤäơŪʴؿƤޤȤȤϳΤˤ
ܤΥݥȤǤѸˤĤƤϡ٤פʤؤ˸¤餺ɤʬǤѸ̤¸ߤΤǤ롥षؤǤϡض̤¾ʬ⤽Ѹ줬̤˹ΤƤȤ𤬤롥¤ޤ뤯餤ǧΤƤȤΤϡͤ褦ˤäƤϴ˾Ƥ롥
ܤΥݥȤǤ뵬ϼ ( prescriptivism ) Ƚ ( purism ) ϺΤȤƬǤƤؼԤǤ⡤ºŪˤ prescriptivist Ǥä purist Ǥäꤹ뤳Ȥ⤷ФФǤ롥ΤˡѾ塤ոȸäոζ̤Ϥ롥餳֤ˤ롥ոĤǤɤǤոǤ³뤫ɤǤ롥դ˸¤餺봷ˤơƲäƤ뤫δϡȾ˱Ѳ롥ܼȤ "diversity, variation, and change" ˤ⤫餺줬ʤΤ褦ǸϤСɤƤ̵ϤĤޤʤΤˤʤ
Τϡ¿ξ硤ؤؤضˤ뤳ȤضǤϡ"diversity, variation, and change" ʤɤݵʤȤäƤʤΤ¤Ǥ롥ؽԤϡؤ֤٤ΤʤȺ𤹤뤫㤨бѸؽԤǤСѥȤƱѸˤդ꤫ƤߤȤ褤ȻפѸˤϡѸ "diversity, variation, and change" ηŪ˰ˤΤǤ롥
ѸˤȤʬ̤ơߤؤδؿ⤦Ƨ߹ǸؤؤδؿؤȰळȤǤ줭ФʤȾפäƤ롥
Language Death ɤߡCrystal ϱѸؼԤȤƸؤμºŪʱѤͤΤܿȤϸĤĤ⡤¾ˤ줹ǮȷŪɮפϤʤȺɾ
Crystal, David. Language Death. Cambridge: CUP, 2000.
ENL ΰ New Zealand ǡ40ǯۤɡ轻̱ޥθ Maori ƤƤ롥
ǯθ¿ΰռιޤȤȤˡϰξɸ줬ư̤Ƴˤ뤬Welsh ¤̾㤬 Maori Ǥ롥ȤƸưθɤˤΤƤ줫ưϤ褦ȤˤɤΤ褦άΩƤ٤̤θʬƤͤˤ٤ȤϤޤǤʤ
In the case of the Maori of New Zealand, a different cluster of factors seems to have been operative, involving a strong ethnic community involvement since the 1970s, a long-established (over 150 years) literacy presence among the Maori, a government educational policy which has brought Maori courses into schools and other centres, such as the kohanga reo ('language nests'), and a steadily growing sympathy from the English-speaking majority. Also to be noted is the fact that Maori is the only indigenous language of the country, so that it has been able to claim the exclusive attention of those concerned with language rights. (Crystal 128--29)
Maori ξˤϡ(1) ޥγθǤ붦Ʊΰռ(2) ޥμι⤵(3) ܤιŪʶ(4) Ϥ¿ɤǤѸüԤ(5) ¾ξɸ줬¸ߤʤȡȤҲŪ郎Ф餷äƤ뤳ȤˤĤʤäƤ褦
[2010-01-26-1]εǿ줿褦ˡ100ǯ3000θ줬Ǥ뤪줬뤳ȤͤȤ¿ˤĤƤΤ褦ʹǽ˾Ū(1) (4) ΰռפʬˤϰߤδ˾ΤǤϤʤʬȡ츦˷ȤԤȤơ˾ǤǤФȹͤ롥
ľܤ˱Ѹ˴ؤǤϤʤαѸΤͤǡȤδطмषƤȤ linguistic ecology δפCrystal (32, 94, 98) ˤСǶ ecology of language ecolinguistics ȤǰƤƤꡤˤ֥פλ夬褷ĤĤ褦
Crystal, David. Language Death. Cambridge: CUP, 2000.
[2010-01-26-1], [2010-01-28-1]ǡCrystal ȤĤǤΤˤĤˤCrystal ϱѸؤؤ researcher populariser Ȥơ˴ؤФƤ롥Language Death ϤȤ櫓ŪļҲŪʥѥȤޤäƽ줿ܤǡ¾ˤ⸫褦ˡԤθˤǮɽƤ롥
"Why should we care if a language dies?" ȤФơCrystal 2ϤǸޤĤβѰդƤ롥
(1) Because we need diversity
(2) Because languages express identity
(3) Because languages are repositories of history
(4) Because languages contribute to the sum of human knowledge
(5) Because languages are interesting in themselves
Crystal Ρֲפɤ˻䤬ä˹ͤƤΤϡ(3) (4) ä¾3ˤĤƤŪƱդ롥ܤ Crystal θġβȤ줿
ۤ˻ʤ餳ͳäȻפĤƤߤ롥츦ˤԤȤơȤϤʤĿŪʰո
ۤʤäǸή뤳ȼΤڤȻפԤˤȤäơβǽĤǤ¿ۤ褤顥50ʾХåѥå⤤и餷ơʸĤǤ⸽ϸǸ碌ȳڤߤ˵褤
ʬθ줷ƤؽθʤɡˤŪįˤϡʼºݤӤ뤫ɤ̤Ȥơоݤ¿ۤ褤顥
פӸ츻 ([2009-05-10-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡӤϼڤǸŪȯۤθȤʤꤦ뤫顥
Crystal, David. Language Death. Cambridge: CUP, 2000.
[2010-01-26-1]εˤ褦ˡǤ֤ޤ˿¿¸ߤ롥ǤȤưˤ뤬ܤʤɤŪˤ٤ͥ٤㤤ȤΤ¤Ǥ롥⤽⡤줬ˤ뤫ɤɤΤ餤δ٥뤫ȽꤹҴŪʴबʤ¤ꡤŪؤѶŪưȤȤˤȤƤϡ٤ȽˤǥϹۤƤʤ䤬ΩϤΤǤ롥
㤨СλȤüʾꤹΤ롥̾üԤˤʤäʳǸλब𤵤뤬üԤ˺ǸüԤǤ뤫ɤϤ狼ʤ¼˿̾ΤäƤ뤫⤷ʤҸǤäȤ¹뤫⤷ʤޤˤ褯äͤʤ餺硤θθȤ֤ŤǤȤ館СθϤޤȤϸڤʤȤˤʤ롥
λǤҴŪΤΤ顤٥ʳŤ뤳ȤκǤ롥㤨С500ͤüԶƱΤΤʤǤüԤ100ͤȤȡ1000ͤΤʤ200ͤȤǤϡɤθ줬ñüԿüΨǤʤȤ餫Ǥ롥ƱΤθФ٤䡤ġüԤλǤʤɡͤ٤ѥϤ롥
Ūʴ٤ȽβǽȤơäʸˡܤǤٹ礤¬ȤȤϹͤ롥ǤΤϡѤʤȤˤ굡ǽϼ岽Ƥ椯뤫Ǥ롥ǤΤƤʤǡפȹͤѲФ뤳ȤϤꡤɤ줬̾θѲǤɤ줬ͭθѲʤΤ뤳Ȥ
ͤޤǤˡʣԤƤƤ٤Υ٥ȥ٥ Crystal (19--21) Ҳ𤹤롥üԿüǯؤθƤΤ¿褦Ǥ롥
safe, endangered, moribund, extinct (Krauss)
viable, viable but small, endangered, nearly extinct, extinct (Kincade)
potentially endangered, endangered, seriously endangered, moribund, extinct (Wurm)
Crystal, David. Language Death. Cambridge: CUP, 2000.
Ѹ˵äƤʸˡѲȤƤ褯夲ΰĤˡͤɽ;ñ̾줬롥ɸѸˤϿͤɽ;ñ̾Ȥ he ˤ she ʽˤĤ뤬ްդ˻ȤȤΤǤ̾¸ߤʤʣǤˤ餺ȤȤΤǤ they ¸ߤ롥ʿ;̾ηϤоˤĤƤϡ[2009-11-09-1], [2009-10-24-1]ȡ
If anyone is interested in this blog, he can always contact me.
Τ褦ʸȯ硤ŪʱѸǤϤˤ褦 he ȤƤanyone ϽβǽȾʬ櫓ǡ;̾ he ǤŬڤǤȤΩġǡˤ˽ʿã褦ȡhe she Ȥʤ붦̾줬͡ʷƤƤCrystal (46) ʤɤȡ
co (used in some American communes)
E
et
he or she
heesh
hesh
hir
ho
jhe
mon
na (used by some novelists)
ne
per (used by some novelists)
person
po
s/he
tey
they (as a singular pronoun)
thon
xe
ɤȯΤޤƤΩƤ뤬ɤ⤷äꤳʤȤȤǹٻƤΤϤʤ̤θŪƤȤơhe she ȤʤǤ褦˽٤Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿ʸǤСIf you are interested in this blog, you can always contact me. Those who are interested in this blog can always contact me. ʤɤ
ɤΤ褦˷ߤ뤫Ϥ狼ʤ줫ƤѤΤ strategy ΤԤǤС(1) ʣ褬Ƥ (variation)(2) 줫Ф (potential for change)(3) ʸˡηϤΤʤ夷 (implementation)(4) ͡Τ˹ޤ (diffusion)ȤѲΰŪʥƥå (Smith 7) ƧळȤˤʤΤ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
[2010-01-22-1]θοˤϡȳƸüԿȤδطͤƤߤ롥
ʲɽϡ6000줬¸ߤȲꤷüԿȤδطˤΤǤ롥ϡ1999ǯǤ Ethnologue ͤˡCrystal ޤȤΤǤ (14--15)
| Population of Native Speakers | Number of Languages | % | Cumulative downwards % | Cumulative upwards % |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| more than 100 million | 8 | 0.13 | 99.9 | |
| 10--99.9 million | 72 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 99.8 |
| 1--9.9 million | 239 | 3.9 | 5.2 | 98.6 |
| 100,000--999,999 | 795 | 13.1 | 18.3 | 94.7 |
| 10,000--99,999 | 1,605 | 26.5 | 44.8 | 81.6 |
| 1,000--9,999 | 1,782 | 29.4 | 74.2 | 55.1 |
| 100--999 | 1,075 | 17.7 | 91.9 | 25.7 |
| 10--99 | 302 | 5.0 | 96.9 | 8.0 |
| 1--9 | 181 | 3.0 | 99.9 |
121()俷ʹīεꡥ
ܤϺǯ400ؤζװƤɽǯ٤Ѹ춵ˤǤФˤꡤѸǼȤԤعáƱηءϤ⤽ΰĤȤʤ롥
ѹο̱Ϥä1997ǯִԻؤμȤϸ§ǹԤפȤˤ¿ؤλѸ줬Ѹ줫ڤؤꡤѸǼȤԤؤ100ۤɤ˸¤줿
ݸԤȿȯ礭äѸϤǤʤαؤݤľ롥ޤؤ̾ѸǼȤԤ졤̱ϱѸϤҲŪؤɬǽϤȹͤƤ뤫
1842ǯ1997ǯִԻޤDZѹ̱Ϥä켡ޤǤϱѸϿ̱ϻۤΤθǤꡤλѤˡΧ翦ʬ˸¤ƤޤǤˤϡΤǶͥȤδ֤ǤϾȤ翦ʬDZѸѤäơˤϡѸϹϰΥߥ˥ΤθؤĹϹȡͻȤŪȯŸƤȤ̩ܤ˴ϢƤ롥
ִľפ600;οΤ3ʬ1200ͤۤɡˤȤƱѸäȤ롥ִԸɤΤ褦˱ѸüԤʬۤѤä뤤ѤäƤʤˤĤƳǧɬפ뤬εˤ褦ˡθǤαѸɤᤷƤ뤳ȤΤʤ褦ΩαѸ춵ɤᤷ Malaysia ˤ㤬뤬EIL ( English as an International Language ) δϡHong Kong English Malaysian English ʤɤϰѼνиΩȤä˥ƥʤĥäƤ
ߡHong Kong English ϡѸΰѼȤƹŪ˹ǧΤƤ櫓ǤϤʤͭȯä뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ塤ɤΤ褦ȯŸɤΤ褦ǧΤƤ椯äƤ椭
[2009-10-17-1], [2009-11-30-1], [2009-11-30-1], [2009-12-05-1]εǡˤѸüԤʬŪʥǥƤˤѸˤȤݸȤƤαѸȤ̣ EIL ( English as an International Language ) ȤƾΤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ǶǤϹݶ̸ȤƤ¦̤Ĵ ELF ( English as a Lingua Franca ) ȤƾΤʹ褦ˤʤäƤ
εǸƤŪʥǥǤϡ¿쾯ʤѸüԤפôäƤ뤳ȤȤƤǯ EIL 괬ǤϡѸüԤ EIL ιȥ뤹뤳ȤˤʤȤĴͥǤ롥ĬήȿǤơǥ뤫æѤܻؤȯۤžȤ⤤ѸüԶʬǥ뤬ƤƤ롥ΰĤˡJenkins λʬ (83)
(1) MES = Monolingual English Speaker
Ѹʳθäʤüԡ
(2) BES = Bilingual English Speaker
ѸޤİʾθˤĤʤߤ˴ǽüԡ֤ννʤ
(3) NBES = Non-Bilingual English Speaker
ۤɴǽǤϤʤѸäüԡ
ñ˹ͤСMES, BES, NBES ϡ줾ŪʥǥǤ ENL, ESL, EFL б뤬ƾΤȯۤž롥ǥθƾΤǤϱѸ콬νѸؤεΥްդ뤬ǥθƾΤǤϱѸȤʳ˽ƤȤδطĴƤ롥EIL äƤʾ夢ޤDZѸ濴֤뤬¾˽Ƥ줬뤫ɤȤեƤ롥
δ餹ȡMES ϡֱѸʳθäʤüԡפ뤤ϤäϪˤСֱѸ줷äʤüԡפްդƾΤȤʤꡤƤ°¿αѸüԤŪΩ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ф BES NBES ϡ¾äѸüԡפȤݥƥ֤ΩͿ롥ä BES ϡݸȤƤαѸˤǽ¿üԤȤơ̤ͥΩġ
Jenkins ȤǧƤ褦ˡζʬˤ⤢㤨СBES NBES ʬ봮ǽٹ礤ïɤΤˡǥ뤫æѤλߤȤƤϤ⤷Х벽ҲǤϱѸ˸¤餺monolingual Ǥ뤳ȤǤ뤳ȡmonolingualism ⤽εǤϤʤȤȿǤƤǤ⡤ܤ٤ǥǤ롥
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. Abingdon: Routledge, 2003.
Ѹθø椢뤤ϱѸäŪʤȤˡĤ롥ĤϼǤꡤ⤦ĤϡŻҡ˥ѥǤ롥̤ΥƥȤȤ϶Ȥ⤢뤬ǤϤβǽϹͤʤȤˤ롥ŪʴѸθ˴ؿΤϡȤ櫓 OED μŻǡˤˤäˤʤ뤳Ȥ¿The Helsinki Corpus of English Texts (Diachronic Part) ϤȤŻҥѥäȳѤ٤ȼǧƤ롥
ϸȸˤޤĤ뤳ȤòʪʤΤǡŻǤѤС֤ξƤϤޤäˤפȤ̿ˤϤäݤǡŻҥѥ̾øòƤ櫓ǤϤʤ츦̤˶ȤƽǤƤ롥øˤŻҥѥΤۤͭѤǤ륱ϾʤʤBaayen and Lieber (803) ˤȡøˤ륳ѥϰʲ̤ꡥ
(1) ѥǸȡ٤Τ뤳ȤǤ롥Ǥ٤Ϥ狼ʤ
(2) ѥθѤȿǤƤꡤ˷ǺܤʤޤǤǽ⤤ʼϰ̤ݼŪʷ¯俷ޤǤʤȤ¿
(3) դ˼˷ǺܤƤƤ⥳ѥǤϥҥåȤʤ줬¿¸ߤ롥
ޤȤȡø˥ѥѤϡä٤Ĥǽ뤳ȤǤפȤפϡȥѥ줾Ĺû來ޤǡŪ˱ξԤȤʬФ褤ȤȤˤʤ
ȥѥΤäȤȤƤϡoctopus ʣ ([2009-08-26-1]) rhinoceros ʣ ([2009-10-05-1]) εȡ
Baayen, Harald and Rochelle Lieber. "Productivity and English Derivation: A Corpus-Based Study." Linguistics 29 (1991): 801--43.
˸ϤĤ뤫Ԥˤä3,000Ȥ10,000Ȥޤ͡ǡꤷʤʣԤʿͤȤƤäȤ褯ˤ6,000Ǥ롥
ʤԤˤäƿͤ㤦ΤϵҴŪ˿ʤΤʤΤCrystal θοΤİǤʤͳ5Ƥ (3--5)
(1) ⤽ϤĴʤΤ20Ⱦ Ethnologue ʤɤĤεؤŪĴʤäƤ뤬ΤŪΤǤꡤפϻϤޤäФȤ٤Ǥ롥
(2) ¿ԤϾ嵭ĴԴǤ뤳ȤΤäƤ뤿ˡǤդڤ夲ڤ겼ꤷǤ롥
(3) ǤοȤ餬Ǥ®٤ΤİǤʤ
(4) ȯοȯ٤ΤİǤʤʤäȤ⡤ȯֿפˤäθŪȤϹͤˤΤǡƶ϶Ͼ
(5) Ѽָ ( language ) Ȥߤ뤫Ρ ( dialect ) Ȥߤ뤫ˤĤơΤʴबʤ
ϤĴʤƤƤꡤ(1) (4) ˤĤƤϲƤ椯(5) ϼҲؾθŵŪǤꡤλʤ
㤨С1990ǯˤ Serbo-Croatian ȤäΤߤǤ Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ȻʬƤ롥줬Ѥä櫓ǤϤʤ桼ӥŪʬ椨λ֤Ǥ롥
Ʊ褦ˡѸ줬ޤޤ¿ͲƤ椯ȤͤȡIndian English, Singapore English, Caribbean English ʤɤϤ٤ English Ω̤θȤƿ褦ˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ä
Crystal, David. Language Death. Cambridge: CUP, 2000.
[2009-07-02-1]ε reduplication ʣפˤĤˤѸǤϡreduplication ϤäѤ¤䶯ĴѤȤƤĤpidgin English θäθΤǤСοϰ쵤ä롥pidgin English Ǥϡ̣ζĴΤۤƱξͤʤȤƤ reduplication ѤƤȤ (Jenkins 56)
tok "talk" --- toktok "chatter"
look "look" --- looklook "stare"
sip "ship" --- sipsip "sheep" (in some Pacific pidgins)
pis "peace" --- pispis "urinate" (in some Pacific pidgins)
was "watch" --- waswas "wash" (in some Atlantic pidgins)
pidgin ϤƤǤμबʤѸʤɸä¦θ ( lexifier language ) äȡȤ homophones Ʊ۵פƤޤäơΤ褦 therapeutic ֤ȯưȤȤʤΤpidgin English Ǥϡreduplication Ū¤쵡ǽôäƤ褦Ǥ롥
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. Abingdon: Routledge, 2003.
[2009-09-25-1], [2009-09-26-1], [2009-09-27-1]εǸѸħˤǤϡBaugh and Cable Ȥơħ ( Liabilities ) Ȥ Idiomatic Expressions ¿Ȥ Spelling-Pronunciation Gap 礭ȤJenkins (45) ϡȤ̤ȯʸˡˤƤ "difficulties" ¸ߤȼĥ롥
ȯˤĤƤϰʲ̤ꡥ
ñ첻¿㤨 RP Ǥ20ढ롥ɸܸ5첻
첻¿㤨 RP Ǥ8ढ롥
/ə/ ɽ첻¿ѤʣλбȤ̣Ǥ Spelling-Pronunciation Gap Ȥƹͤ٤⤷ʤ
æ ( elision )Ʊ ( assimilation )Ϣ ( liaison ) ¿Ѥ
ʸˡˤĤƤϰʲ̤ꡥ
ưλ ( tense ) ( aspect ) ¿¿ͤǡֻ ( time reference ) Ȥδطȥ졼ȤǤʤ
may, will, can, should, ought to ʤɤˡư ( modal verb ) Ϸ־ⵡǽʣηϤʤƤ롥 (see [2009-06-24-1], [2009-06-25-1], [2009-07-01-1])
嵭Τ֤褯ΤƤ¾θ٤ŪˡפȤդǤϤ뤬٤ŪͤƤ롥
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. Abingdon: Routledge, 2003.
ѸؤͳȤϰ츫ȼΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤ¿ܿͤαѸؽԤϡݥߥ˥ΤȤ֤äƤǤ롥Ϲ͡Ѹؤͳϡ¿ˤ錄롥Jenkins (35--36) ϡCrystal ƤΤȤ6⤦ĤäƷ7ΡֱѸؤͳפʲΤȤ
1. Historical reasons: ΰ仺ȤơThe Outer Circle νϰä˶see [2009-11-30-1]
2. Internal political reasons: ¿̱²ȤˤΩŪʡä˥ǥΡ˸Ȥơ
3. External economic reasons: ݻԾγܻؤơ
4. Practical reasons: Ūʸ̡ġѸʤɤΤᡥ
5. Intellectual reasons: ؽѡѤξ˥뤿ᡥ
6. Entertainment reasons: ڤϤȤ罰ʸܤ뤿ᡥ
7. Personal advantage/prestige reasons: 뤳ȤˤäƼҲŪϰ̤뤿ᡥ
ϰˤäơĿͤˤäơѸؤͳϰۤʤʣͳ¸ƤΤ̾ܤ褹̤ܸüԤˤȤäơ1 2 ͳϱˤ 1 2 ͳ̵뤹뤳ȤΤǤʤϰĿͤʤ餺¸ߤȤȤϡѸؤּԤߤʤ褯褯ΤäƤɬפ롥
Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. Abingdon: Routledge, 2003.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
2009ǯ12˥߳Ф´ʸΥȥꥹȥåפ롥
Ѹˤ륢ե٥å "v" νи
첻ܴˤѻεӱ
ֻ of ΰ̣ιꡡ?ʬΥͭ?
ܼΥ饹ʬ? -able ȼδ?
Ѹˤ May Can λ٤ο
ѸˤʹԷλ٤γ
ФνиοܤȤط
The Syntactic and Semantic Relation between the Act and Target in Terms of Directness
(for) NP to V ΰʬ
The Peterborough Chronicle ˤ se ζޤμοܡŴѸ줫Ѹζμ¾
ΤȤƥơޤʬۤȤƤϹ꤬äƤ褫äΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ŪˤϡűѸѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸȥСƤ뤷ѸؤʬǤ⡤ʸ֡졤ạ́ΥХȤƤŪ͵⤤ȻפѸѸȤäҲŪʥơޤʤä
ѸؤѸˤʬǤϤΤ褦꤬´θоݤˤʤޤȤȤǻͤޤǤˡ
ε[2010-01-16-1]Ǽ夲 buffalo ϡOED ˤ̾ȤƤνФ1588ǯȤʤäƤ롥ȤưȤƤνФ1903ǯȤä٤¯˸ꤷѤȤThe Oxford Dictionary of Slang ǤϽФ1891ǯȤäˡOED Ǥ "To overpower, overawe, or constrain by superior force or influence; to outwit, perplex" ȤͿƤ뤬ʤ̾ buffalo 餳ưΰ̣ΤäΤ褦϶ˤƶפȤϢۤƯ뤬äȾܤаޤΤꤿä
ǡʣθ츻Ҥä֤Ƥߤslang ȤȤ⤢äƤ̾줫ˡȤȤ⤢äƤޤȤʵҤʤͣ츫ĤäȤ Barnhart θ츻ΤΤǤ롥
---v. Slang. intimidate or overawe. 1903, American English, from the noun, perhaps originally transferred from the verb cow to frighten.
¸ߤư to cow ϢۤȤȤǤʤ餷Dz褷Ƥʤʤ to cow ֶפΰ̣ˤʤΤ to cow θ츻Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡ褯Ϥ狼ʤťΥɸ kúga "to cow, force, tyrannize over" ̤ΤǤϤʤȤѸνФ1605ǯShakespeare Macbeth 5. 8. 18 Ǥ롥θ츻Ȥ̾ cow ֻפȤ̵طȤȤˤʤ뤬 buffalo פϢդ褦ˤʤäΤñˤȤƤϤ⤷
⤦ġϻפĤǤϤ뤬֤Ọ̇̄줫αƶΤǤϤʤbluff ֤ɤǤޤĥסbuffle ֺ餻סbuff Ǥġפʤɤ롥ʤߤˡbuffle buffalo û̷ȤơʸߤѤ16?18˻ȤƤ¤롥ư buffle bustle θǤꡤȤƤΤǡ줫αƶٻ붯ڵˤϤʤʤ⤷ʤ
Ǥ⡤Ȥ¯ϡؼоݤΤĥȲΤĥȤ̯ʥޥåȤޤΤȤС⸫ߤϤΤǤϤʤ
The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology. Ed. Robert K. Barnhart. New York: The H. W. Wilson, 1988.
The Oxford Dictionary of Slang. Ed. John Ayto. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
ɸʸʸˡŪǤ롥Steven Pinker Υ٥ȥ顼 The Language Instinct ͭ̾ˤʤäʸǡˤ Pinker γ Annie Senghas ФΤȤ (208)
ܤʸˡϡBuffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo - Wikipedia ˤΤǾά뤬ä (The) Buffalo buffalo (that) Baffalo buffalo (often) buffalo (in turn) buffalo (other) Buffalo buffalo. ȹͤǤʲݥȤǤ롥
buffalo ֥Хåեꥫפʣϡ§Ū buffaloes ˲äơñʣƱ buffalo ⤢ꤦ
Buffalo ϡ֡ʥ˥塼衼λԡ˥ХåեפΰդǡƻŪѤƤ
to buffalo ϡֶҰ롤𤵤פΰդưȤƤѤƤ
쥫Ǵط̾줬άƤ
ѸǤΤ褦ʷǽʤΤϡ(1) conversion ʻžפͳǤ뤳ȡ(2) طάʤɤŪʵ§Τ¸ߤ뤳ȡˤ롥Pinker Ǥä (2) ¦̤˸ƤȤʤäƤ뤬(1) conversion β̤ƤǤ롥ΥǤ̾Ǥ buffalo / Buffalo ƻŪˡˤȤƤưȤƤȤ줦ȤפǤ롥̾ưΤ conversion ˤĤƤ[2009-11-03-1]Ƿڤڤ̾줫ƻŪˡˤؤ conversion Ϥꤤäͳ٤⤤
̾줫ƻŪˡˤؤ conversion ϡ褽̾θŪˡ ( attributive use ) ȸƤФΤ롥̾θŪˡȤ Christmas tree, silk hat, Tokyo branch ʤɤǤ̾β̤ؤBradley ŦȤ "a new part of speech, halfway between the substantive and the adjective" (45) ȤǤ⤤٤ΤǤ롥Bradley Ϥˡ "One highly important feature of English grammar which has been developed since Old English days" (45) ɾƤꡤBuffalo buffalo ȤɽˤθؤȿǤΤȤBuffalo ʸθͷӤ̣襤ϤҤȤǤ롥
Pinker, Steven. The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: W. Morrow, 1994. New York : HarperPerennial, 1995.
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
ε[2010-01-14-1]ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡAmerican Dialect Society ˤ2009ǯαѸήԸޤץ쥹ˡ1990ǯʹߤμ礬ޤȤƷǺܤƤ롥䤹褦ˡˤƤߤѸʤ餺Ȥ⡤Τ˻ʤ
| Year | Word of the Year | Word of the Decade | Word of the Century | Word of the Millennium |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2009 | ||||
| 2008 | bailout | |||
| 2007 | subprime | |||
| 2006 | to be plutoed, to pluto | |||
| 2005 | truthiness | |||
| 2004 | red / blue / purple states | |||
| 2003 | metrosexual | |||
| 2002 | weapons of mass destruction or WMD | |||
| 2001 | 9-11, 9/11 or September 11 | |||
| 2000 | chad | web | jazz | she |
| 1999 | Y2K | |||
| 1998 | e- | |||
| 1997 | millennium bug, Y2K bug or Y2K problem | |||
| 1996 | mom (as in soccer mom) | |||
| 1995 | (tie) World Wide Web and newt | |||
| 1994 | (tie) cyber and morph | |||
| 1993 | information superhighway | |||
| 1992 | Not! | |||
| 1991 | mother of all | |||
| 1990 | bushlips |
[2009-12-28-1]εǾҲ𤷤 American Dialect Society 2010ǯ108()դ2009ǯαѸήԸ "word of the year" ȯɽ10ǯ֤ǯǤ⤢äΤǡƱ "word of the decade" ȯɽ줿ܤϡAmerican Dialect Society뤤ľܥץ쥹PDFDZǽǤ롥
̤餤С"2009 Word of the Year" tweet"Word of the Decade" google Ǥ롥ǯΥ֡ߥ˥ѤƬʪ̤Ǥ롥
"2009 Word of the Year" tweet ϡ"(noun) a short message sent via the Twitter.com service, and (verb) the act of sending such a message" 롥Twitter Twitter.com 륪饤֤Ĥ֤䤭ץӥǡǯ麣ǯˤܤǤ֥졼Ƥ롥ŻҥȥåȤ٤Ρִˤץߥ˥ǽȤȤǡiPhone ʤɤηü饪饤˸äĤ֤䤯ͤä
"Word of the Decade" google ϡ"a generic form of 'Google,' meaning 'to search the Internet' " ΰ̣ǡΤưȤư̲Ѥ롥ʤߤ "Word of the Decade" μ blog ǤꡤϤꥦ֡ߥ˥ѸǤ롥軰̤ 9/11 ä
ήԸ American Dialect Society ŤɼˤäФ뤬ץ쥹ǤϾޤγϤ줿1990ǯγμ礬ǧǤΤǡɤǤȤƤϡ"MOST UNNECESSARY" 硤"MOST OUTRAGEOUS" 硤"MOST LIKELY TO SUCCEED" μʤɤȤ˾Ф롥
زμŤ륤٥ȤǤʤ顤桼⥢˺ƤʤȤڤץ쥹ΰʲΥȤˤ⡤ˤƤ롥
Members in the 120-year-old organization include linguists, lexicographers, etymologists, grammarians, historians, researchers, writers, authors, editors, professors, university students, and independent scholars. In conducting the vote, they act in fun and do not pretend to be officially inducting words into the English language. Instead they are highlighting that language change is normal, ongoing, and entertaining. (1)
ε[2010-01-12-1] ( disguised compound ) ĤϡȤƩ٤ι⤤äΤѲ䤽¾ηѲФơϤǧʤʤä֤Ǥ롥줬ޤطʤĽҤ٤롥
ܤϡä˱ѸˤĤƸǤ롥ޥħΰġ첻ᥢȤθ§פפФ ([2009-10-26-1])̾ǤǤʤ뤬Ȥθ§ˤǤŪȯ岽ü䤹ʤȤˡμ ( head ) ̾ǤôΤǡǤηŪʼ岽Ϲ줽ΤΤΰ̣ȷ֤δϢƩˤƯChristmas ϸ mass ֥ߥפΰǤϤΤ褦ʰռϴǤ뤷lady ϸ diġe ֤ͤ͡פθ츻ΤäƤȤƤ⸽ʸ̮ǡ֤ͤ͡פȤȤϤʤޥΰ錄ѸǤϡɬŪǤ岽ε줬ޤ䤹Ȥˤʤ롥
줬ޤ䤹⤦ĤطʤϡɽǰΩǰȤˤɬפȤ褦ˤʤȡǤʬϤ줺˻СγФ뤳Ȥ¿ʤ뤳ȤǤ롥lady ( OE hlǣfdiġe ) θϡ֥ѥͤ͡פǤ˸űѸʳǤ̣ϡֽ͡פؤѲƤꡤϢۤƯƤʤäΰֽ̣͡פǤʾ塤षϢۤƯʤۤ챿Ѿ˾ޤȤ롥⤷ռƤ顤Ѿΰ̣Ǥֽ͡פˤɤ夯ޤǤˡ(1) Ǥؤʬ(2) Ǥΰ̣ǧ(3) Ǥΰ̣η硤(4) ̣ŪĥȤĹƥåפФʤФʤʤǤ롥
ǡȤƤβˤ˻ˤơ lady = ֽ͡פȤ ( sign ) ˺꤫ƤޤФ褤ȤȤˤʤ롥֤äΤȤĤƤγƹǤΰ̣ʤ˺ƤޤפȤˤĹƤȤ
Bradley θդڤơμݤޤȤ롥
A compound word is a description, often an imperfect description; and when an object of perception or thought is familiar to us, we desire that its name shall suggest the thing to our minds directly, and not through the intervention of irrelevant ideas. Accordingly, a compound word for a simple notion gives a certain sense of inconvenience, unless we are able to forget its literal meaning. It is true that we frequently succeed in doing this: we use multitudes of compound words without mentally analysing them at all. In such cases the compound often undergoes processes of phonetic change which a distinct consciousness of its etymological meaning would not have allowed to take place. (83)
Bradley, Henry. The Making of English. New York: Dover, 2006. New York: Macmillan, 1904.
ʤޤˤȤ̯ѸϡΤϹǤäΤѲǤθΩʤɤǹ¤Ƥˤʤꡤ졦ñˡפʤäΡʡؿѸؼŵ p. 236lˡdisguised compound ¾ˤ ex-compound ִסobscured compound ۣסamalgamated compound ͻסverdunkelte Zusammensetzung ʤɤθƤ̾롥ˤϡߤΤᤤ
abed < LOE on bedde "on bed"
about < OE onbūtan < on + bi "by" + ūtan "out"
as < OE ealswā "all so"
Christmas < LOE Crīstes mæsse "Christ's mass"
daisy < OE dæġes-ēage "day's eye"
gossip < LOE godsibb < "God relationship"
holiday < OE hāliġdæġ "holy day"
hussy < ModE housewife
lady < OE hlǣfdiġe "loaf kneader" (see [2009-05-21-1])
lord < OE hlāford "loaf ward"
window < ME windoȝe < ON vindauga "wind eye"
¾breakfast ([2009-12-04-1]) ֻǤߤ¤ break + fast ȹƩ٤⤤ȯ /ˈbrɛkfəst/ 졤Dzû岽ƤꡤΤȤƷ֤ѷƤȤǤϵȸƤ٤뤫⤷ʤspelling-pronunciation ֤ȯ ([2009-11-24-1]) ǤϤʤŪȯȤƤ cupboard, forehead ʤɤƱͤǤ롥
ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
ס ׯҡرѸ١罤۽Ź1988ǯ207ǡ
ε[2010-01-10-1]dzǧ褦ˡ벻Ϣ³ȤȤ˰̣ˤ䤫˷ӤĤƥץ벽Ƥ¿롥 ( phoneme ) 礭 ( morpheme ) 꾮ñ̤ phonaestheme ȤǤƤ֤٤ΤBloomfield (245) root-forming morpheme ȤѸƤäƤ롥
Bloomfield θǤϡflicker, glimmer ʤɤ -er ϡֲŪˡbrother, river ʤɤθ캬ޤ줿 -er ȶ̤Ф꤫rather, reader ʤɤȤΤ˶̤Ȥflicker, glimmer ʤɤ˸ phonaestheme ȹͤ -er ϡľηǤ /r/ ޤˤϸʤȤդˡbrother, river, rather, reader ʤɤ˸ phonaestheme ǤϤʤ -er ϡľηǤ /r/ ޤǤƤ⤫ޤʤ
ƱȤphonaestheme ȤƤ -le ˤĤƤ⤤롥ľηǤ /l/ ޤǤˡ-le 뤳ȤϤʤȤBloomfield (245) ƤˤСbrabble ָפ blabber ָηڤ͡פϱѸȤƵƤ phonestheme ʬۤǤꡤºݤθȤ¸ߤ뤬츫ȤäƤ⤪ʤ *brabber *blabble ¸ߤʤ
ǻפФΤϡ[2009-07-26-1], [2009-07-09-1]ˤ dissimilation ְ۲ʺѡˡפǤ롥/r/ /l/ ϲŪˤϤȤή ( liquid ) ǤꡤܸüԤμʤ餺Ȥ⡤Ƥ벻Ǥ롥Ʊûֳ֤Ϣ³ȡȯĤʤȤ̤ˤʤΤǡƾؤȤȤ롥㤨СƱ /r/ ˤϡܤ /r/ /l/ ؤ롤ʤɤȤäȤꤦ롥brabble blabber Ϥ dissimilation ǤߤȤ롥
̤ˡdissimilation ñȯŪդθǤꡤѲǤⱢΤǤ롥ºݡbrother, river ʤ¿θǤƯƤʤ櫓Ǥꡤ餫Ǥ롥phonaestheme ȤƤ -er -le ˤʬ۾Υ롼뤬ꡤֹ¤פΩñ̤Ȥ¾ -er -le ȶ̤٤Ȥ Bloomfield Ωϡ¸ߤ dissimilation ˤȤäƤϯǤ롥phonaestheme ޤޤˤƤ dissimilation ä䤹פʤɤȤǡֲ§ʤȤۤɶϤʤΤǤϤʤ⤷ʤˤ˼ޤ졤Ω줬Τˤʤ뤫Ǥ롥ñȯʤसʤ̣ɥϤĤ⤳ˤŪʶӤʹƤǤ롥
饤Х assimilation ƱʺѡˡפŪ¸ߤǤˡdissimilation ߤäƤ褦ȤݤǤεǤ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. Rev. ed. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935.
[2009-12-26-1], [2009-12-25-1] phonaesthesia ȹͤĤҲ𤷤¾ˤ⳺ȤܤϡȶʤȤ¿롥ä˸Ƭ˸βϢ³ connotation ȷӤĤƤȹͤǤ롥ʲϡBloomfield (245) ȴФΤǤ롥
| root-forming morphemes | signification | word examples |
|---|---|---|
| [fl-] | "moving light" | flash, flare, flame, flick-er, flimm-er |
| [fl-] | "movement in air" | fly, flap, flit (flutt-er) |
| [gl-] | "unmoving light" | glow, glare, gloat, gloom (gleam, loam-ing, glimm-er), glint |
| [sl-] | "smoothly wet" | slime, slush, slop, slobb-er, slip, slide |
| [kr-] | "noisy impact" | crash, crack (creak), crunch |
| [skr-] | "grating impact or sound" | scratch, scrape, scream |
| [sn-] | "breath-noise" | sniff (snuff), snore, snort, snot |
| [sn-] | "quick separation or movement" | snap (snip), snatch (snitch) |
| [sn-] | "creep" | snake, snail, sneak, snoop |
| [dʒ] | "up-and-down movement" | jump, jounce, jig (jog, jugg-le), jangle (jingle) |
| [b-] | "dull impact" | bang, bash, bounce, biff, bump, bat |
| [-æʃ] | "violent movement" | bash, clash, crash, dash, flash, gash, mash, gnash, slash, splash |
| [-ɛə] | "big light or noise" | blare, flare, glare, stare |
| [-aʊns] | "quick movement" | bounce, jounce, pounce, trounce |
| [-im] mostly with determinative [-ə] | "small light or noise" | dim, flimmer, glimmer, simmer, shimmer |
| [-ʌmp] | "clumsy" | bump, clump, chump, dump, frump, hump, lump, rump, stump, slump, thump |
| [-æt] with determinative [-ə] | "particled movement" | batter, clatter, chatter, spatter, shatter, scatter, rattle, prattle |
. . . in these [English symbolic words] we can distinguish, with varying degrees of clearness, and with doubtful cases on the border-line, a system of initial and final root-forming morphemes, of vague signification.
Bloomfield Τ褦ʹ¤ؼԤˤȤäơǤǤʬ褦Ȥ˸ phonaesthesia ϡǤȤⲻǤȤĤʤȾü¸ߤ˱Ǥä⤷ʤˡָƬפָפ˵ȤˤʬۤŦȤ¤ ( system ) ʤΤ϶⤤Ƥ뤢ꡤ¤˹¤ؤ餷ȴ롥
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. Rev. ed. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935. 245.
ֱѻפȸƤФ Geoffrey Chaucer (1342/43--1400) ʸػ˾˲̤ȤС줳̵¤뤫⤷ʤChaucer Ѹ˾˲̤ϡȤɤʸǤȤǤĿͤˤ˲̤ȤΤϡɾΤϤ
Ǥ⡤ Chaucer ͤѸˤ˲ƤʤȤȤϹͤˤ褦Ǥ롥㤨СѸ˳ǤϡեѸޤ̤οѸƳĿͤȤɾ뤳Ȥ¿ʸظȤƤαѸФӤ Chaucer ͿȤǤ롥Horobin Ϥ콳롥
. . . he introduced large numbers of new words into English and thereby somehow 'created' the English literary language. This view is a myth that has built up over generations of scholarship, although it is partly based upon analyses of the evidence of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). (24)
Horobin (79) ϰʲ̤Ǥ롥Τ OED ǤϡChaucer Ѥ¿μѸ줬ѸǤνȤƵϿƤ롥(1) ѸθäòԤޤ줿 Middle English Dictionary ˤСΤ¿ Chaucer ˸Ƥ뤳ȤȽ롥ޤ(2) ¸Ƥʤ Chaucer ¸ߤǤʸθäƤȤǽͤɬפ뤷Ͽ˻ĤʤäդǤϤǤѤƤ⤷ʤȤǽˤαդɬפ롥ˡ(3) եƥ줫äѤ뽬 Chaucer ˻Ϥޤä櫓ǤʤǤ Chaucer κȤ̤˼ѤƤȤ¤(see [2009-08-22-1])
ǤϡChaucer ˱Ѹ˾ΰյϸʤΤHorobin ηϰʲΤȤǤ롥
By writing for a range of characters, in a range of voices, as well as writing scientific, moral, philosophical and penitential prose tacts, Chaucer showed that the English language was capable of a range of functions not witnessed since before the Norman Conquest. . . . Chaucer demonstrated how the English language could be used for all types of writing, particularly for secular literature. (26)
Ѹ˾ΰյȤϡ깭ʸػˡѸʸλˡѸˤΤ٤Ƥʤյɤ뤬ɤ function ǤľŪˤʸŪǽΤȤؤƤɤ뤬Horobin ϼҲŪʵǽտޤƤȻפ[2009-11-06-1]Ǥߤ褦ˡChaucer ʹߡѸˤƱѸνɸबƤ椯Chaucer ϤλήΤͽѸλȤȤơʸػ˾ǤϤʤѸ˾ˤ̾ĤƤ롤ȸΤǤϤʤ
Horobin, Simon. Chaucer's Language. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
ε[2010-01-07-1]κǸˡƹǥڥѤäƤ ( Hispanification ) ˿줿ϡȴϢƤĤο
ˤơƹȤƤαѸκǶοʼԤǤ뤳ȤޤʤƹѸݤιǤ뤳ȤƱǤϤʤƹ¿̱²ȤǤ¿ȤǤ뤳Ȥ˺ƤϤʤʤEthonologue (297) ˤȡꥫ罰ǸǻѤƤ "living languages" 364롥ΤʤǡǯäȤϤФƤϥڥǤ롥ڥüԤο1970ǯߤ6ʾäƤȤäβ®٤Ǥ롥ŪʿФС1990ǯĴǤ 22,400,000 ۤɡ2000ǯĴǤ 28,100,000 ۤɤΥڥüԿ𤵤Ƥꡤ10ǯ֤25%äȤˤʤ롥New Mexico ǤϥڥϸŪϰ̤ͿƤꡤʳνˤƤ official Spanish ʤɽ褯ʹ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥ʰʾξϡ Ethonologue ˲äOnline Ǥ Ethnologue ꥫ罰ι ⻲ͤˤ
Graddol (26--27) Ǥϡ1990ǯȯɽ줿ƹ̳ʤפ˴Ť2050ǯοʬͽ¬Ҳ𤵤Ƥ롥ˤȡ2050ǯƹǤ Hispanic 4ʬ1Ȥ Black Native Americans ޤͤפȤȡȾʬ뤳ȤˤʤȤͽ¬طʤˡ1990ǯƹDZѸѸͯФΤ⼫ʤȤäȤ褦
U.S. English ΥȤǤ Official English ˤĤƾܤ⤬ͿƤ롥Crystal (127--40) ˤϢ롥ͤޤǤˡ
Graddol, David. The Future of English? The British Council, 1997. Digital version available at http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-research-futureofenglish.htm
Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. ed. Ethnologue. 15th ed. Dallas: SIL International, 2005.
Crystal, David. English As a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ε[2010-01-06-1]ǡ1588ǯΥڥ̵ŨΤäʤ̤αѸ˹Ȥ˿줿̣ȤˡڥΤäʤ̤Ѹ˹⤦Ĥ㤬롥1898ǯ ( the Spanish-American War ) Ǥ롥
1895ǯ塼ФڥΩܻؤȿڥβ˽ްФꥫϥ塼ФٻڥΥ塼ФűIJǷĤ1898ǯ424ڥ۹𡥤襤ϰŪäڥΥեԥγǤϡΥڥϥꥫˤäʤࡥ塼ФΤۤǤ⡤ꥫԹˤꥹڥϺ٤äʤषơ717ˤϷ夬ĤƤ
Υѥǡڥ (1) Cuba (2) Guam Puerto Rico ꥫ˳(3) the Philippines 2ɥǥꥫ˰ܾꥫϤƱʿΤڤͭ뤳ȤȤʤꡤŪʱƶϤ뤳ȤȤʤä
Ȥǡ1619٤ˤ錄륹ڥΤäʤ̤ѸγˤȷӤĤΤϡ[2010-01-05-1]ǾҲ𤷤¼Ǥ
ˤ륹ڥबѸȱʸγĥȳȻ˲̤ϡʤȤ礭ˤζ⤿餷̤Ǥ뤬ˡפȤϡɭΤǤϤʤ(37)
Ҥ뤬äƸߤƹڥȤ Hispanic Ϥο͡ڥʸˤ⳰˳ĥȻƤꡤαѸʸˤôˤȤäƶҤȤʤäƤ롥ڥεսȤǤ⤤٤Spanish English ΰϡ̵Ũ16衤21ˤޤ³Ƥ롥
¼ ˡؿѸ?ԥį?١رؽDz2006ǯ
1588ǯPhilip II Ψڥ̵Ũ ( the Spanish Invincible Armada ) Elizabeth I Ψ륤ɤ̤ʤϡ˾̾⤤λˤꡤ衼åѤˤפ륹ڥΰҿɤ餰ȤȤʤꡤäƥɤݾ˱ƶϤĤ褦ˤʤä
طʤˤϡʣäޤ Catholic Spain ˤȤä Protestant England ȥåز뤳ȤϻβäޤEngland the Spanish Netherlands ΩٻȤ Philip II ܤ餻ΤۤEngland ±٤äǰפǤȤ Philip II ˤȤäƤϲʤʤȤǤä
Philip II ǯǴ夲1588ǯ England ؤȽйҤȤäڥ the Spanish Netherlands άϤȤʤϤιäݤʤޤޤ˥ɳͤùǤޤäΤǤ롥»ʤäڥϵդ̳졤åȥɤäƥڥؤεϩˤĤʤäϿȡˡơڥάߥˤꤢäʤष

λ郎ıѸ˾ΰյϡѸȤɤŪʶϤˤ롥ɴǯ100ǯ֤ǡĤƥեˤäƤڤ٤ƼäƤޤäɤϡä꼫ʤƤغεڥݤǤ롥Ϥȼᤷɤϡ塤ƲȥꥫؤοʽФ̤Ƥ椯줬ɴǯαѸؤˤʤäȤϤޤǤʤ
ξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡBritish History in depth: The Spanish Armada ͤˤʤ롥
ѸˤޤˤεҤˤϡ֤ήȤδطȤ顤ˡ롥(1) 鸽ߤؤȸҡ(2) ߤؤȸҡǤ롥ܻˡʪˡкѻˤʤɡ̤ˡˡפΤĤֵ䳵פȡۤȤɤ٤Ƥˤ (1) ѤƤΤǤϤʤѸˤιֵ䳵Ǥ (1) Ū¿Ǥ롥
(2) εˡ⽽ʬ˰̣ʤѸˤǤºݤˤĤλߤʤƤ롥(2) ̵ŪˡΤŵŪ̾ȤСStrang Ǥ롥ǶǤϡرؤ¼˻Ѹ˻̵ڤȤ (2) ΥꥨȤ뵭ҤѤƤ롥
ĤεˡˤϤ줾Ĺû꤬ꡤȤƤɤ餬ͭȤȤϤʤŪˤ롥ĤεˡӤ̤ε˻ߤϡɤǤ̵ŪҤƺѤ¼θդڤ (2) ĹäƤߤ
Ѹˤγ¿ϡ̥衼åѤΰ٤ˤΩϰȤƤΡֱѸפ䤬ϵŪʵϤȯãޤǤҤ롥˳ؤεҤƱȯε̤ΤǤ롥ϡޤΡְפæȹͤʤꥤꥹθȯŪ⤯ȤϡҤˡȤƤϤˤŬäƤ褦ˤߤ뤬ؼԤΡֹפǽ餫黦ȤˤʤϤʤǤ櫓ʤ(2)
̵ŪҤĹΰĤϡεˡָѸΡȤݤεϤɤˤΤפȤѸؽԤΥȥ졼Ȥ䤤ΤŬ֤Ǥ뤳ȤǤ롥㤨СѸư˻ñ s ĤΤϤʤȤ䤤褦Ȥ硤ŪΤΤǤСĸưζѤϤơޥĸ졤űѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸȻ֤˱äưζѤˤҤɬפ
⤦Ĥϡ̵֤ڤǤ롥ñ s ϡ⤽ѸޤǤ -s ǤϤʤ -th ǤäȡѸˤϻñΤߤʤ餺¾ο;ΡˤäƤư͡ѲȡθűѸǤϼѲѲǸѲΥפۤʤäƤȡΥޥĸǤϡ
ηŪˡΤˡŪ¤ΤꤿˤϡԤŬڤŪʻ˴Ť¤ºŤ褦ȤΩ줫ϡȤδϢζϤƽ˴ϢʤäƤ椯ؤʤۤŬڤǤ롥ñʤȤʣʤȤؤȽμƤ椯Ȥˡϡؽ塤塤ФǤ롥ߤʤȺΤäƤ뤳ν˵Ҥ˱ѤʤϤʤȤ⤤롥
Ϻǯ٤Ū (1) ˡDZѸˤιֵʤƤθȾˤʤäơָ˶ŤƤäʤäƤޤΤ褦ƤǤäȼȤƤСפȤݤΥȤäơʣʻפǤ롥ְǯ֤ʤ餯ԤޤפȿʤˤʤʤǤʤ
˽Ҥ٤褦ˡĤεˡΤˤĹû꤬롥ǯ٤̵ŪҤĹǤָŪʻ˴ŤפޤιֵˤȻפäƤ롥ϺϤ
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
¼ ˡؿѸ?ԥį?١رؽDz2006ǯ
[2009-12-14-1]ǡǯ쵯褷ƤƤ뤳Ȥ˿줿طʤˤ (1) Ѥοࡤ(2) ҥȤθοŸȽҤ٤(2) ϤؤΤΤȯŸޤȹͤƤ褤ǧθءءΤᤶޤȯŸϡ쵯κƶ̵ΤϤϤʤ˸ƨƤϤʤʤΤϡʸˡαƶǤ롥ˤĤơ (78) Ѥ롥
ȤФʲϡؤʬǤϡȬϻϻǯΥѥزư衤̤ؽŪ˼夲뤳ȤۤȤɤʤäʸˡϤȤ뿷ؤȯŸϡ쵡ǽθȯʸ콬ˤβĩǤΤǤ뤫顤αĹȤƸ쵡ǽηȯʸ쵯ʲˤ˴ؿȤƤԻĤϤʤ
¾ˤϡǯ pidgin 츦ȯŸ⡤ޤ줿ǽη֤ꤹΤ礭Ƥ롥
20ǸλȾϡ̾ΤȤˡֿʲפʬǥɤȤ줿Ѳ˴ؿļԤȤơ礤˼ͿƤ뤳γŪĬήȯŸƤ椯ȤԤ
ʿָλĤظ٤ȸ츦Τ줫סط3812桤2009ǯ74--79ǡ
ε[2010-01-02-1]˰³ǤޤޤäƤΤǷڤ⤦ġ
IPA ݲɸʸפοޤThe International Phonetic Association ΥȤPDFǥɤǤľܤˤˡA4ѻ1˰ǤΤǡOE Inflection Magic Sheet̤˰Ƥߤ
ʤߤˡ[2009-05-17-1]ǤҲ𤷤PCIPAȯǤˤΥǤ롥
ǤäƤΤǷڤġ
OE Inflection Magic Sheet顤˥ѥȤˤޤȤޤäűѸζɽPDFȤȤǤľܤˤˡA4ѻ1˥顼ǰǤΤǡΥ祳Ȥƿʬʤ̾졤ƻ졤̾졤ưμפʶޤǤƤ롥 *
ѸηʸΰȤƤΤǸűѸζޤϽΤƤʤФʤʤϤʤΤʤʬȴƤޤäƤ롥ǯǤ⤢뤷ƳФʤƼĢ˶߹ǤȤˤ롥
ޤƤǤȤޤǯ hellog ؤˬ꤬Ȥޤǯ³ޤꤤޤ
ơǯϡ뽩˱ѸˤμȤDzݤͳݡȤˤĤơѸˤΤɤΤ褦˴ؿäƤ뤫ΤꤿäΤǡݡȤΥơޤϼͳˤ129̾γݡȤˤĤưƤ绨Ĥ˥ɤʬष͵̤Фʲ̤Ǥ롥
| Rank | Point | Subject | Link within hellog |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 14 | Ѹ | loanwords |
| 2 | 13 | ꥫѸʤȥꥹѸӡ | American English |
| 3 | 9 | եαƶ | French influence |
| 4 | 7 | (ME) dialects | |
| 4 | 7 | 츻 | etymology |
| 6 | 6 | ꥹˡʤȱѸˤδϢ | history of Britain |
| 7 | 5 | ե٥åȡʤˡ | alphabet |
| 7 | 5 | ȤƤαѸ | lingua franca |
| 7 | 5 | αѸ | reestablishment of English |
| 7 | 5 | ֻȯЪΥ | spelling-pronunciation gap |
| 7 | 5 | syntax |
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-06-26 03:46
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow