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ե줬ѸͿŪƶȤСäǤΤǤ롥¾ɽֻˤ⾯ʤ餺ƶڤܤˤ¿ʤ˴ؤƤϡФХե줫μѤȤƸڤ벻Ǥ롥Görlach (337--38) ˤȡˤ5बǧ롥
(1) /v/ βDz (phonemicisation) űѸǤ [v] ϲ /f/ ΰ۲ˤޤΩǤǤϤʤäȤ(a) very Τ褦 [v] ĥեѸή(b) vixen Τ褦 [v] μѡ(c) over : offer ˸ñҲȽŻҲΩξü(d) of ˸̵ˤͭȤäŪװˤꡤ/v/ ǤȤΩƱȤ [z] ˤĤƤ롥(a) װ˴ؤƤХեαƶ뤳ȤǤ뤬/v/ /z/ ۲ȤƤϸűѸ¸ߤƤĺ˵ǽƤ̵ͭΩؤ礷ȤȤ館СηŪĴ (systemic regulation) ȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ǤϡGörlach ϡѸηװ뤷Ƥ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפȡˡ
(2) /ʒ/ βDzβűѸǤΩǤǤϤʤAnglo-Norman Ѹ joy gentle θƬ /ʤ/ ȤƼ¸줿ΤǡѸǤ鵩ʲä/ʒ/ βDzϡmeasure ʤɤθǤ [-zj-] ͻ餦Ȥ礭βDzˤꡤηϤ /ʤ : ʒ ? ʧ : ʃ/ оȴطϤꡤǤեαƶŪǤʤ
(3) եѸ˴ޤޤ첻αƶǡ첻 /ɔɪ, ʊɪ/ ѸDzDz2Ĥä뤳ȤǡѸ첻ηϤϤμ줿ΤȤʤä
| -- | ɛɪ | aɪ | ɔɪ | ʊɪ |
| ɪʊ | ɛʊ | aʊ | ɔʊ | -- |
. . . it is significant that phonemes said to be derived from French survive only where they fill obvious gaps in the English system --- and some of these were stabilized by loans from English dialect . . . . (337)
¦פʤΤζפʤΤ[2010-07-14-1]ε#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פפεפ롥
Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Fischer Ѹε˴ؤ붽̣ʸƤ롥ȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
ޥʸˤơ1ǯϲƤߤ2˶ʬƤ͵ʬʸȤܿˤꡤդȽγǰäƤƤϤűѸǤϡsumer winter Ū2ʬ˲äơ˽դ1֤ɽ魯 lencten ˡֽաפȤѤ졤˽1֤ɽ魯 hærfest ˡֽפȤѤ㤬ꡤΤ褦˻͵γǰ·äƤlencten hærfest Τ줾θˤѤ餺ʻ¸Ƥᡤ鹭˵ɽ魯Ѹ spring autumn, fall ٤ȡ̾ΤȤƤ¸ߴϤä
ѸˤʤȡűѸ lencten б϶ؤԤ롥14--15ˤϹΡֽաפֽաפΰ̣ξäζ礬Ϥޤ롥ֽաפΰ̣ξȤʤꡤĤƤΥޥŪ2ʬε椨sumer ֽաפޤĶȯã롥ơ13Ⱦˤϡդ𤲤ɽ Sumer is icumen in 줿
Ѹȡֽաפ붥ơspring ƬƤ롥ϡʪ˽Ť碌ȤȤơȤɽ˴줿ᤫ⤷ʤspring of the leaf Τ褦 metonymy ɽ⤢Сspring of the year Τ褦 metaphor ⤢äƱͤˡűѸʹĹ餯ֽפôƤ hervest ⡤18νޤǤˤϡϤ꿢ʪȤä fall 䡤եѸ autumn ʤɤ˽ϰ̤ϤǽŪˡƱ褦˿ʪȤȤä spring fall ĤäΤ϶ǤϤʤ
Fischer ϡʾη뤿ˡűѸ줫ѸˤƤΡֽաסֽäܺ٤Ĵ¿ξĹ semasiological diagram ȡбξĹ onomasiological diagram ΰĤȤơspring ¸ߤ drag-chain ˤäơharvest ξü push-chain ˤäȤƤⶽ̣ (86)
Fischer, Andreas. "'Sumer is icumen in': The Seasons of the Year in Middle English and Early Modern English". Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 79--95.
ε#1219. ոϤʤब˭٤ ([2012-08-28-1]) ǻȤ Peters ϡѸζΰ۾ʳˤĤĴƤ롥λϡγ礬Ѹ˾äȤ㤷äǤ롥⡤ζ븻ŵŪä locality, dimension, quantity ɽ魯⡤quality ɽ魯ؤȰܤäƤäȤΤħŪǤȤ (Peters 271)
OED ǤĴˤȡ1Υԡϡ1590--1610ǯˤꡤΤ褦ʸ줬ޤޤ (Peters 272)
ample, capitally, damnable, damnably, detestable, exquisitely, extreme, grievous, grossly, horribly, intolerable, pocky, rarely, spaciously, strenuously, superpassing, surpassing, terribly, tyrannically, uncountably, unutterably, vehemently, villainous, violently
2Υԡ1650--60ǯˤꡤۤܤ٤ƼѸ줬ȤʤäƤΤħŪȤˤĤƤϡؤʰͿƤʤä
ǤϡʤѸǶ줬礷ΤPeters ϡ븻Ǥä¿ʼѸޤˤȸŪʸΤʸϤƤȤ¤ŦƤ (273) Ŧ褦ˡոˤϾ˼ʺȤ⤤٤ѤƯƤ롥Τ褦ⰵäƤȤءѸˡѸήȸŪʸΤνиȤää⳰װȤ߹蘆ꡤȤ櫓λ˶줬礷ΤǤϤʤ
ƱμѤȤؤαƶˤĤƤϡä˰ʲεȡ
[2009-08-19-1]: #114. ѸμѸεȳ
[2010-08-18-1]: #478. ѸΤ褦˼ڤƤϼΤƤ줿ƥ
[2012-01-06-1]: #984. flat adverb ϥƥϤηƻ줬ƻ
[2012-07-12-1]: #1172. ѸΥƥñ
Peters, Hans. "Degree Adverbs in Early Modern English." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 269--88.
ո˺Ѥ³ˡ§פˤĤƤϡ[2012-01-14-1]ε¾ǿƤɽϻȤƤ椯˽˶դƤ뤿ᡤüԤϿʶɽ롥ơοɽ٤ޤꡤɽߤʤ롥αʱΥึָ³ˡ§פǤ롥ɽߵظˤϡζդȤտޤƯƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤǤϤʤüԤŪǤꤿȤ˾ߤýѤȤ˾ʹδؿ椭Ȥ˾κˤ롥Τ褦ߵ˾ưϤȤʤäơȿո줬ޤƤ롥
Ťո줬ĤǤ⿷ոˤȤä櫓ǤϤʤŤ줬ʻ¸⾯ʤʤξ硤ո췲ߡѤ߽ŤͤƤ椭ŪˤߤС˼˭٤쥫ƥȤʤ롥̤ξˤϡոϡüԽĤˤΤ߹Ѥ shibboleth ȤƤ̤"group identification" (Peters 271) ˴Ϳ䤹ȤơҲŪˤפʸǤ롥
ɸμФƤϡ⤦1Ĥβ褦˻פ롥Ǽ夲Ƥ붯ոȤϡ̩ˤ maximizer booster ؤȤ櫓 booster ϼब˭٤Ǥ롥ϡmaximizer ٤κǹɽ魯Ȥ̣Ū (ex. absolutely, completely) booster ٤ι⤵ɽ魯ȤŪǤꡤʤϰϤ (ex. greatly, highly, uncommonly) booster ζ븻˴ɽ魯줬ʤʤ (ex. desperately, terribly, violently) ϴޤŪǤꡤʤȤȴطƤ (Peters 271) ơɽ魯ϡޤǤʤ˭٤ʸ췲Ǥ롥
³ˡ§ߥ˥ߵᡤgroup identification ΤμʡȤ٤ιꡤɽ̵¢ζ븻װˤäơոϡ̻Ūʥи³ǤʤŪʥꥨƤ椯ΤǤ롥
ܸζոˤĤƤϡ[2012-01-19-1]ε#997. real bad ȡ֤Фספȡ
Peters, Hans. "Degree Adverbs in Early Modern English." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 269--88.
Ѹˤ whom οˤĤƤϡ¿θ椬롥ѸǤ褯Τ줿ѲǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ ##622,624,860,301,737 γƵǿƤĤƤ´ˤ⤳äΤ ([2010-12-26-1])
ǶθȤƤϡIyeiri and Yaguchi 롥ϡMichael Barlow ԻAthelstan ͭƤ The Corpus of Spoken Professional American English (CSPAE) ˴ŤǤ롥CSPAE ϡ1990ǯ祢ꥫѸäեѥǡ(1) White House ǤεԲ(2) The University of North Carolina ζ(3) إƥȰѰιȲġ(4) ɲƥȰѰιȲĤΡ4ĤξʬƤꡤΤȤ200줫롥ޤCLAWS7 ǥդƤ롥ϡwhom ϷĥäʸΡä˽դˤƻѤȤ뤬ǤϡĥääդȤĶǤɤٻȤΤȤ䤤뤳ȤǤ롥
Ĵ̤˽Сspoken professional American English ˤƤϡwhom οǤʤΤΡޤ٤٤Ǥϸ롥whom Ķˤ餫ʷꡤֻľˤƤϺǤ褯ݤƤʤδĶǤ who λϳ̵ǤϤʤˡֻ (preposition_stranding) ˤϤƤ who Ǥ롥ޤwho(m) ֻŪǤϤʤưŪȤƵǽƤˤϡ礭ɤ줬롥
ȤƤ whom ȴطȤƤ whom ٤ȡԤΤۤब㤷ΤˡɮԤ Rohdenburg ˤ "Complexity Principle (transparency principle)" ѤƤ롥ϡ"[i]n the case of more or less explicit grammatical options the more explicit one(s) will tend to be favored in cognitively more complex environments" (cited in Iyeiri and Yaguchi, p. 185) Ȥǡwhom εƤϤȡطޤʸǧξʣǤꡤŪʳɸ᤹롤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ҤΤȤꡤwhom οϸѸθѲȤƼ夲뤳Ȥ¿Τ褦ˤĤơreferences ˻ͻޤȤƤΤϤ꤬ޤäեѥλѤˤؿ襤ϢơThe Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English Ȥѥ⻲ȡ
Iyeiri, Yoko and Michiko Yaguchi. "Relative and Interrogative Who/Whom in Contemporary Professional American English." Germanic Languages and Linguistic Universals. Ed. John Ole Askedal, Ian Roberts, Tomonori Matsushita, and Hiroshi Hasegawa. Tokyo: Senshu University, 2009. 177--91.
[2009-10-10-1]ε#166. cyclone ȥˡ§פǡꥷѸ cycle cyclone Ѹ wheel ȤȤˡĸ *kwelo-s ̤뤳Ȥǧcycle ΤۤOE hweohl, Vedic Sanskrit cacrám, Tocharian A kukäl "chariot", Hittite kugullaš "ring-shaped bread, donut" ʤɤǤϡ캬ƬˤҲ֤졤첻ȤȤ˿ƬղäƤΤ狼롥캬Ф reduplication ʽʣˤŬѤƤŵǤ롥νʣΤ *kwe-kwl-o- "wheel" ȤƺƷƤ롥
Fortson (117) ˤСreduplication ˶դ䴶ղäϤꡤ*kwe-kwl-o- ο͡äȸ碌Ǥ뤯ƻνиȼòȹͺۤ˸äƤΤǤϤʤȤreduplication ϡ[2009-07-02-1]ε#65. Ѹˤ reduplicationפǤҤ٤褦ˡȤϢ֤뤯ס֤ײžؤˤϡȯȼưȶդȤؤäơreduplication Τˤդ路褦˻פ롥
ĸüԤؤäƤȤϡ֤סּּס֤Ӥס֤ʤסּؤĤʪסּؤĤʪDZ֡פб줬Ȥ˺Ʒ졤¿̼ˤб줬뤳Ȥμ¤Ǥ (Fortson 36)
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
5˥֥ͤƥ塤̱Ǥ륱ȿͤϤʤŪƶ뤳ȤȤʤäűѸˤ륱ȸαƶκǤΤϡ̾Ǥ롥[2012-07-28-1]ε#1188. ɤβ̾ Thames, Humber, Stourפǥ̾ˤĤƤοΤȤƥȤ̾¿ĤäƤ뤳ȤǧƤ褤
̾뤤ϰ̾ȤơBarr (cf. Welsh bar = "top", "summit"), Bernicia, Bredon, Brockhall, Brockholes (brocc = "badger"), Bryn Mawr, Cornwall, Creech, Cumberland, Cumbria, Deira, Duncombe (cumb = "a deep valley"), Exeter, Gloucester, Holcombe, Huntspill, Kent, Lichfield, Pendle (cf. Welsh pen= "top"), Pylle (pill = "a tidal creek"), Salisbury, Torcross, Torhill, Torr (torr = "high rock, peak"), Torhill, Winchcombe, Winchester, Worcester ˤϡΤ뤤ϸΰˤƥȸ etymon ޤޤƤ롥Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Dover, Wye ʤɤβ̾⥱ȸǤ롥
̾ΤСȸ줫μѤ϶ϾǤ롥ass, binn (basket, crib), bratt (cloak), brocc (brock or badger), crag (a high steep rough mass of rock), cumb (valley), dun (dark colored), luh (lake), torr (outcropping or projecting rock, peak) ʤɤθϡͤȿͤȤṲ̄ܿƱѸؼΤǡancor (hermit), cine (a gathering of parchment leaves), clugge (bell), cross, cursian (to curse), drȳ (magician), gabolrind (compass), mind (diadem), stær (history) ʤɤθϡɤ붵դˤ륱ȷϥꥹȶڤ̤ƱѸ˼ޤ줿
˵Τ18ФűѸ˼Ѥ줿ñϤ褽夵Ƥ롥̤ˤѤʤޤޤƤꡤȼѸ¸ߴ狼
ʾ塤Baugh and Cable (75--77) ȤƼɮ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ε#1214. °̾ΰ֤θ경ˡ ([2012-08-23-1]) ǡѸˤ、̾Ф°̾ΰ֤θĤˤĤƸ֤Ǥ֤Ǥ졤°̾줽ΤΤƱ˿षƤäȤ¤˺ƤϤʤʤ°̾Ѥ A's B B of A Ȥof ˤ뱪ȯãԤθطϡɤ鸫С礫ʬϤ (synthesis_to_analysis) ȤѸˤĬή˾äѲǤ롥
Fries (206) ͿƤɽϡűѸ줫Ѹˤ3°ʡ°ʡof °ʡˤ줾ɤ٤γѤ줿ͤǤ롥ղƤߤ
| Post-positive genitive | 'Periphrastic' genitive | Pre-positive genitive | |
|---|---|---|---|
| c. 900 | 47.5% | 0.5% | 52.0% |
| c. 1000 | 30.5% | 1.0% | 68.5% |
| c. 1100 | 22.2% | 1.2% | 76.6% |
| c. 1200 | 11.8% | 6.3% | 81.9% |
| c. 1250 | 0.6% | 31.4% | 68.9% |
| c. 1300 | 0.0% | 84.5% | 15.6% |

#132. űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã ([2009-09-06-1]) Ⱥε#1213. Ūΰ֤θ경ˡ ([2012-08-22-1]) ˰³Fries θξҲ𡥺ϡ°̾줬、̾Ф֤뤫֤뤫ȤˤĤơ
c900--c1250ǯȯŸˤĤơΤ褦ʷ̤줿 (Fries 205)
| c. 900 | c. 1000 | c. 1100 | c. 1200 | c. 1250 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Genitive before its noun | 52.4% | 69.1% | 77.4% | 87.4% | 99.1% |
| Genitive after its noun | 47.6% | 30.9% | 22.6% | 12.6% | 0.9% |

[2009-09-06-1]ε#132. űѸ줫ѸؤθȯãפǼ夲 Fries ĴϡѸθȯã˴ؤפʸǤ롥εǤϡưФľŪŪʰ֤˴ؤ̻ŪܤΤߤ夲Fries ϤۤˤľŪưФŪŪʰ֤䡤、̾Фƻ°̾Ūʰ֤оݤȤƤ롥ԤˤĤƾҲ𤹤롥
űѸ줫ϡ900--1000ǯϰϤΥѥ2558 F. C. Cassidy Ĵ̤ȤƤ롥ŪľŪΰִطˤĤơԤ̾줫̾줫ξԤޤफˤꡤͤ (202)
| OE Corpus (900--1000) | Dative-object before acc-obj. | Dative-object after acc-obj. |
|---|---|---|
| Nouns | 249 (64.0%) | 140 (36.0%) |
| Pronouns | 674 (82.8%) | 141 (17.2%) |
| Both together | 923 (76.6%) | 281 (23.3%) |
| OE Corpus (900--1000) | Dative-object before the verb | Dative-object after the verb |
|---|---|---|
| Nouns | 95 (27.6%) | 249 (72.4%) |
| Pronouns | 495 (48.7%) | 518 (51.3%) |
| Both together | 587 (43.4%) | 767 (56.6%) |
| EME Corpus (c1200) | Dative-object before the verb | Dative-object after the verb |
| Nouns | 26 (23.0%) | 88 (77.0%) |
| Pronouns | 218 (43.0%) | 288 (57.0%) |
| Both together | 244 (39.4%) | 376 (60.6%) |
[2012-08-15-1]ε³ԡѸɿͤδ֤ǥեαƶϤꤨ˱Ѹ줬Ƥ13ʹߡեο˻ߤ٤եñ콸ʸˡǤ褦ˤʤäդ鸫ȡեθضबФ褦ˤʤäȤȤϡ͡ΥեϤषƤڵǤȤ⤤롥
Rothwell ϡ13ȾФ Walter of Bibbesworth ˤñ콸 Tretiz de Langage ƱȾ T. H. Parisii Studentis ˤʸˡ Tractatus Orthographiae ޤࡤ15ޤǤΥե춵Ĵη̡ǤᤤʳǤ Tretiz ⡤͡ΥեϤοꤨɤȤRothwell ϡ13ޤǤˤǤ˥ե줬оݤθȤʤäƤƤ롥
Rothwell δäƤȡ[2012-08-15-1] Trevisa Polychronicon Ѥ¤ήԸΡֶספ˴ؤ뵭ҤɾѤäƤ롥ƱѤϡ14Ⱦ˥ƥΤ줬ե줫Ѹڤؤ줿¤ҤƤ뤬Rothwell ܤˤϡѸؤڤؤۤ٤äȤԼ˱Ǥ롥1ˤǤ˥եϤοꤨ餫äˤ⤫餺Ѹ줬ˤʤäΤ褦䤯λäȤΤ̯Ǥ롥John Cornwall Pencrich ʤɤ Oxford դȤϡѶŪʡֶספȤƥե줫ѸڤؤȤϡǤ˳δ̢֤䤷ƤǤѸȤƥμˡöŪ˵ĤФȤȤǤϤʤΰѤ˴ؤƤϡĤʶפɤ߹٤ǤϤʤ1ʾˤ錄äѤƤϡѸή¨Ʋ᤹٤Ǥ롤ȤΤ Rothwell (45) ν긫Ǥ롥
Rothwell ϡɤˤȤƤαѸȥեοबƳäӤƼĥƤ롥Ѹʸ˸Ѥ˴ؤ뵭ҤͤˤݤˤϡٿդɬפǤȤȤ⡤Ť˼ĥƤ롥ʸηѤ褦 (45--46)
After some two centuries of this dilution of Norman blood, it would indeed be strange if English (the language of the mother being the dominant factor in a child's early linguistic training) had not by this time established itself as the true vernacular of this country. In all probability the peasants in country districts had never used anything else. The claim that French remained in current vernacular use in England for centuries after the Conquest is based largely on the emphasis placed by historians --- literary, political, and legal --- on the great number of extant works in Anglo-Norman. Mere numbers of themselves, however, prove very little. Moreover, the fact that written documents of this nature survive in French does not guarantee that the majority of people used this language in speech and everyday life. The teaching manuals examined here would seem to indicate that French in later thirteenth-century England was on the contrary an acquired language.
Rothwell, William. "The Teaching of French in Medieval England." Modern Language Review 63 (1968): 37--46.
ε#1210. ѸΥեѸΰ ([2012-08-19-1]) ³ơѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥΰǤ#120. ճ¿äѸΥƥѸ ([2009-08-25-1]) Ǥ57줫ʤñʰBaugh and Cable (185) Ȥơ⤦Ĺ123ΰȤŪǤϤʤץˤʤ
Ѹˤϡƥ14--15濴ɴۤɤѤ줿Ȥ롥طԤؼԤ̤ơäդäΤ⤢뤬ȤʸäΤǤ롥ƥ줫Ѹؤ˺ݤƸѤȤطʤꡤWycliffe ȤμդˤŵBartholomew Anglicus ˤ De Proprietatibus Rerum Trevisa ݤˤɴΥƥ줬äȤ㤬 (Baugh and Cable 184)
abject, actor, adjacent, adoption, allegory, ambitious, ceremony, client, comet, conflict, conspiracy, contempt, conviction, custody, depression, desk, dial, diaphragm, digit, distract, equal, equator, equivalent, exclude, executor, explanation, formal, frustrate, genius, gesture, gloria, hepatic, history, homicide, immune, impediment, implement, implication, incarnate, include, incredible, incubus, incumbent, index, individual, infancy, inferior, infinite, innate, innumerable, intellect, intercept, interrupt, item, juniper, lapidary, lector, legal, legitimate, library, limbo, lucrative, lunatic, magnify, malefactor, mechanical, mediator, minor, missal, moderate, necessary, nervous, notary, ornate, picture, polite, popular, prevent, private, project, promote, prosecute, prosody, pulpit, quiet, rational, recipe, reject, remit, reprehend, requiem, rosary, saliva, scribe, script, scripture, scrutiny, secular, solar, solitary, spacious, stupor, subdivide, subjugate, submit, subordinate, subscribe, substitute, summary, superabundance, supplicate, suppress, temperate, temporal, testify, testimony, tincture, tract, tradition, tributary, ulcer, zenith, zephyr
ʤֻǼϡѸٽ̤1000̰ٸǤFrequency Sorter ˡƥѸ˰ճȿȶ¦̤뤳Ȥ狼
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Ѹ˥ե줫Ѥ줿ñꥹȤϤɤαѸ˳ˤǺܤƤ뤬ܥ֥Ǥؤ˻ȤǤ褦˰ġäƤߤ
եѸδʰץǡ١Baugh and Cable (169--74, 177) ˴Ťƺ̣¾δ9ĤΥƥʬ (Miscellany; Fashion, Meals, and Social Life; Art, Learning, Medicine; Government and Administration; Law; Army and Navy; Christian Church; 15th-Century Literary Words; Phrases) 954Ĥθ礫ʤǡǼƥȥե顤ƥȤ10˼ФΤʲΥꥹȤǤ롥ΥꥹȤ˰ʤС
please, curious, scandal, approach, faggot, push, fierce, double, purify, carpenter
train, pullet, mustard, sugar, enamel, mackerel, sole, fashion, jollity, russet
pulse, color, cloister, pen, pillar, ceiling, base, lattice, cellar, sulphur
rebel, retinue, reign, duchess, allegiance, treaty, nobility, court, tax, statute
mainpernor, arson, judge, property, culpable, amerce, convict, bounds, innocent, legacy
arm, array, arms, soldier, chieftain, portcullis, havoc, brandish, stratagem, combat
incense, faith, abbey, passion, immortality, cardinal, friar, legate, virtue, convent
ingenious, appellation, destitution, harangue, prolongation, furtive, sumptuous, combustion, diversify, representation
according to, to hold one's peace, without fail, in vain, on the point of, subject to, to make believe, by heart, at large, to draw near
ѸˤեѸϡfrench loan_word ʤɤ¿εǰäƤäѸ˥եѸ줬̤˼Ѥ줿аޤȤμѤ®٤ˤĤơ#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1]) ڤӡ#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1]) ǵҤѤ®٤Ǥߤȡ13Ӥեѻˤ1ĤžȤʤäƤ뤬ǤϥեѤˤĤƲɤۤʤäƤΤBaugh and Cable (168--69) ˤꡤ줾λħ⤷褦
ΥޥȤ1250ǯޤǤΥեѸϡ(1) 褽900ȿʤ(2) Anglo-Norman βħ(3) ήο͡²Ȥ̤ܿΤ褦ˤʤäáȤ櫓̳ʸء˴Ϣä¿ȤƤϡbaron, noble, dame, servant, messenger, feast, minstrel, juggler, largess; story, rime, lay, douzepers ʤɡ
1250ǯʹߤΥեѸħϼ̤ꡥ(1) 1250--1400ǯȯޤ1ȾΤ˱ѸˤˤեѸ4䤬ήʤѸ˸¤1Ķ줬ѸήߡΤ75%ߤˤޤǻĤ (Baugh and Cable 178) (2) ե¿ʤȤⴷƤή餬Ѹڤؤ (language shift) ݤ˻Ȥܤθä¿ϡѸθäǤɽǤʤǰФƥեѤȤ⤢äѸν٤㤤˥եѤȤȤ⤢äƤեˤѸȤ³ȤȤ⤢ä(3) ŪˤˡΧήԡʪҲ衤ݽѡ䡤ؤʬθä¿Τ褦ʶʬޤʤۤɤ˰Ūܶʸä¿ѤƤ롥
С1250ǯȤλϡïɤΤ褦ưǥեѤȤˤоŪǤȤȤBaugh and Cable (169) ϡ䤫Ƥ롥
In general we may say that in the earlier Middle English period the French words introduced into English were such as people speaking one language often learn from those speaking another; in the century and a half following 1250, when all classes were speaking or learning to speak English, they were also such words as people who had been accustomed to speak French would carry over with them into the language of their adoption. Only in this way can we understand the nature and extent of the French importations in this period.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ѸեϱѸθäƶڤܤޤֻˤƤαƶڤܤ֤ʤʸˡ˵ڤܤƶ礭ʤ
Ѹ˵äʸˡѲΤΤϡƿä̾졤ƻ졤̾졤ưζηϤϡξüʿѤˤάʤ줿ʸˡϤʤʤä礬SVOظ경ƤäΤ褦ʸˡѲ˥ե줬ľܤ˴ͿȤȤϤʤ
ˡɽ (idiom) ˡȤạ̈ǤǡեαƶʤβǽˤĤŦ뤳ȤϤǤ (Baugh and Cable, p. 167 15ȡˡե줬Ѹäʬ˵ڤܤƶȤ٤٤ʤΤȤơեαѸؤľŪʱƶ϶ϾǤ롥
ŪʱƶȤȤǤС[2012-07-11-1]ε#1171. եȤθܿȶޤοפǼ夲եĴʤФʤʤեαʸˡؤαƶϡޤפȸθĤĬή߳˿ʹԤ뤿μҲŪˤ롥Baugh and Cable (167) ɾѤ롥
It is important to emphasize that . . . changes which affected the grammatical structure of English after the Norman Conquest were not the result of contact with the French language. Certain idioms and syntactic usages that appear in Middle English are clearly the result of such contact. But the decay of inflections and the confusion of forms that constitute the truly significant development in Middle English grammar are the result of the Norman Conquest only insofar as that event brought about conditions favorable to such changes. By removing the authority that a standard variety of English would have, the Norman Conquest made it easier for grammatical changes to go forward unchecked. Beyond this it is not considered a factor in syntactic changes.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
[2009-09-05-1]ε#131. ѸפǯɽΤʤǿ줿ˤʤ1414ǯHenry V ɲȤƽƱѸǼȤäɤˤơʤɤλŪ뤤ȾŪʸեǤϤʤѸǽ褦ˤʤäΤϡ15ˤʤäƤǤ롥
14ȾФˤϡӤǡեλѤǹĬãƤ14Ⱦ˺ǽαѸμ椬뤬ޤȤޤäΤȤƤϡޤ1420ǯ夫νʽ The Paston Letters ԤʤФʤʤä1450ǯʸˤϡѸǤμ椬Ȥʤ롥
ƱǤ롥ǺǽαѸˤϡ1383ǯ˸롥1400ˤϵä15 Henry IV, Henry V, Henry VI ΰ٤ƱѸäȤϡ˽դαѸ첽쵤˿ʹԤȤ
ɤĮεϿѸǼ褦ˤʤäΤ⡤ȻƱ롥ɥθܥɤ1345ǯȤᤤ˥ե¤DZѸǤ۹ФƤ15ΩФ1450ǯʹߤϱѸǤεϿŪȤʤ롥
IJεϿΤ⡤1423ǯ˥ե줫ѸؤڤؤäƤ椯1489ǯˤϥեϴ˻Ѥä
ΤȤơѸѤ夷 Henry V ֤Ǥ1413--22ǯդˤѸλѤθäƤȤľ1425ǯդѸνդžȤߤʤƤ褤ΤǤϤʤ
ʾ塤Baugh and Cable (153--55) ǵҤ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
[2009-09-12-1]ε#138. ¤ȱѸδطˤĤƺƹ͡פǡֹ¤ˤäǯۤΥե춵դʤʤäˡեƥΤʤͤӤȤѸȯ뵡פȤɤˤѸȥեο˹ΤǤϤʤȤҲ𤷤
¤;Ȥ˶줷14ȾΥɤ grammar school ǡƥ᤹뤿ȤƥեǤϤʤѸ줬Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤϡ¤Ǥ롥Oxford ǥƥƤ2ͤζ John Cornwall Pencrich ΰΡֶספˤĤơJohn Trevisa ζ̣ȤĤƤ롥Baugh and Cable (150) ΰѤƸ褦 (from Polychronicon, II, 159 [Rolls Series], from the version of Trevisa made 1385--1387)
Þis manere was moche i-vsed to fore þe firste moreyn and is siþþe sumdel i-chaunged; for Iohn Cornwaile, a maister of grammer, chaunged þe lore in gramer scole and construccioun of Frensche in to Englische; and Richard Pencriche lerned þat manere techynge of hym and oþere men of Pencrich; so þat now, þe ȝere of oure Lorde a þowsand þre hundred and foure score and fyue, and of þe secounde kyng Richard after þe conquest nyne, in alle þe gramere scoles of Engelond, children leueþ Frensche and construeþ and lerneþ an Englische, and haueþ þerby auauntage in oon side and disauauntage in anoþer side; here auauntage is, þat þey lerneþ her gramer in lasse tyme þan children were i-woned to doo; disauauntage is þat now children of gramer scole conneþ na more Frensche þan can hir lift heele, and þat is harme for hem and þey schulle passe þe see and trauaille in straunge landes and in many oþer places. Also gentil men haueþ now moche i-left for to teche here children Frensche. (150--51)
1349ǯι¤ήԤθ塤2ͤζդȤαƶ¾ζդϡեǤϤʤѸˤƥܤȤضڤؤȤ롥ơ1385ǯޤǤˤϤοˡŪˤʤäƤȤɤ롥Trevisa ΥȤϡƬľܤ˻ٻΤǤϤʤ¤ȶդη˳Ȥΰ̴طƥ춵ʤɤˤĤƤιͻ¥ƤפʻǤ롥
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
[2009-08-22-1]ε#117. եѸǯʬۡפǡJespersen Koszal ˤ롤եѸήΨ̻ŪѲեѸ1314ȯޤ뤬λϤ礦ɱѸ줬ե줫뤲Ƥ椯Ǥ[2009-09-05-1]ε#131. Ѹפȡˡ츫ȡ̷⤹褦˻פ롥ˤĤơεǤϡ֥եȤƤ²Ѹ˾괹ݤˡ줫̤θäĤľ괹ȹͤйפȽҤ٤
⤦ܤҤ٤뤿ˡSchmitt and Marsden (84) Ѥ褦
Our records for the 11th and early 12th centuries are sparse, but it appears that the words entered quite slowly at first, came at a greater rate later in the 12th century, and then flooded in during the 13th and 14th centuries. One reason for this is that it was not until the 13th century that English was finally becoming established again as the language of administration and creative literature (replacing French), and many specialist terms and words to express new social structures and new ideas, unavailable in the native language, were now needed.
³ơBaugh and Cable (135) ꡥ
Instead of being a mother tongue inherited from Norman ancestors, French became, as the century wore on, a cultivated tongue supported by social custom and by business and administrative convention. Meanwhile English made steady advances. A number of considerations make it clear that by the middle of the century, when the separation of the English nobles from their interests in France had been about completed, English was becoming a matter of general use among the upper classes. It is at this time . . . that the adoption of French words into the English language assumes large proportions. The transference of words occurs when those who know French and have been accustomed to use it try to express themselves in English. It is at this time also that the literature intended for polite circles begins to be made over from French into English . . . .
Ѹե줫Ѹ˾괹 (language shift) äơ͡ϡƤǤ¿ΥեñȤƾ괹ȤȤǤ롥
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
1066ǯΥΥޥȤ餪褽1ȾλϡΥޥīӸ³Υץͥåī (Plantagenet) ν롥λϡΤϥե²Ǥ륤ɤβɤषեڤݻȳ忴äλ奤ɲȵ²θѤȡθѤǤФŪưϡѸˤͤݤˤյѸϥե٤ǤȤѤϡѸνդʤ뤤³ˤͶǼͳãʸѲ¥Ȥˤʤä[2012-07-11-1]ε#1171. եȤθܿȶޤοפȡˡ
ǡθϼԤ˥եʸˤŻ뤷Ū˥ɡʱѸˤڻ뤷Ƥڵߤʤ롥12ΥɲΥեʸˤؤλľܡܤ˼¤Baugh and Cable (116--22) ˽äơ4ۤ褦
Henry I ϡ1100--35ǯ֤Τ17ǯ;եDzᤴΤȤ顤եŻλ餫Ǥ롥ϱѸǽϤϤäȤ롥
Henry II ϡ1154--89ǯĹ֤3ʬ2եDzᤴʤʤ Eleanor of Aquitaine ϡʥ˥եʸؤΥѥȥǤꡤѸϲʤä
Richard I ϡ1189--99ǯ֤ΤۤοɤںߤʤäѸѤȤϤʤȤߤʤƤ褤
1087--1100ǯ William II1135--54ǯ Stephen1199--1216ǯ John ˤĤƤϡѸäǽϤäϤ狼ʤ
Henry I 15Ⱦ Edward IV ˻ޤǤΥɲϡïͤȤƥɤǺʤʤä
12ΥɲˤϡơֱѸϡפϤʤäȸβȤϥɤˤƤäȤŪʽĤǤäȤդ٤Ǥ (Baugh and Cable 118, fn. 21) ̤㤱㤤ۤɡֱѸϡפʿŪ˾徺ȹͤ롥ѸΥɷαѸѤˤĤƤϡ#131. Ѹפε ([2009-09-05-1]) ǤƤΤǡȡ
ʤ13ˤʤäơ߰1216--72ǯ Henry III Ϥ餯ѸǤȻפ졤λ Edward I ʺ߰1272--1307ǯˤ̾Ū˱ѸȤäƤȸ (Baugh and Cable 137) Edward III Richard II ʤ14β⡤Ѹ (Baugh and Cable 148)
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
ΥޥȰʸ塤ɤˤʩ2 (bilingualism) ȤʤäȤϡѸˤˤƼפǤʺϥƥѤˤĤƤϿʤˡѸΤߤñ (monolingualism) äȤˡǡȤƥեѤδȤȤϤɤȤ¿ѤȤˤޤߤΤʤԤˤȤäƤϡΤ⤷ʤѸˤμȤǤդФȡҲ𤷤ΤǤϤʤȤȿʹ롥θ̱²۸ˤΤ顤Τ褦˻פΤ
伫ȡ2Ѥ˴ؤϤ˳ΤǡΥɤθŪ˻פ⤫٤Τ˺롥̱²Ȥδؤ⡤ҲδؤˤƸȤ館ȡɤˤʩδط褯Ǥ褦˻פ롥
ΥޥȤλȤľλˤϡԤΥޥ͡ե vs Ԥ륤ɿ͡ѸפȤΩιޤäȤϴְ㤤ʤǤϡ̱²ȸ줬ʬӤĤƤ롥Фξ̱²κήʤˤĤ졤ʩѤ̤뼴̱²пϤȤ顤ҲؤȤؤȰܤäƤ12̤ơɤθϡˡ־ήե vs ֲήѸפȤΩιޤؤȰܹԤƤäΤǤ롥ܹԤͻҤʶ٤ˡñ㲽ƿСΤ褦ˤʤ֤եѤɽ魯ˡ

ήȤϤ12Ǥ֥Υޥϡήס֥ɷϡήפȤ褽ƤϤޤΤϻ¤Ǥ롥ʩλȤʬμ̱²пϤַϡפ顤ؤȤƤΡ־岼פ˰ܤä뤤ϡּҲפȹͤȡ䤹ˤĤơBaugh and Cable (114--15) Ѥ褦
For 200 years after the Norman Conquest, French remained the language of ordinary intercourse among the upper classes in England. At first those who spoke French were those of Norman origin, but soon through intermarriage and association with the ruling class numerous people of English extraction must have found it to their advantage to learn the new language, and before long the distinction between those who spoke French and those who spoke English was not ethnic but largely social. The language of the masses remained English, and it is reasonable to assume that a French soldier settled on a manor with a few hundred English peasants would soon learn the language of the people among whom his lot was cast.
Baugh and Cable ϳ̻ˤɾΤѸˤȤ櫓ΥޥȰʸѸμҲŪ˴ؤơҤϤäƤ롥
Ϣơ[2011-02-17-1]ε#661. 12ɿͤäդȽաפ⻲ȡ
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
[2011-08-20-1]ε#845. ѸθäεȳפǡѸκѸѸ̤ʬ̤ͤҲ𤷤Τ褦ʸפϡ˻ȤäɤΤ褦ˡĴʤɤˤäƷ̤ưǤ뤿ᡤʣĴ̤Ȥ餷碌ɾΤ褤Schmitt and Marsden (82) ϡBird ˤĴ̤ͤͿƤ롥ղƤߤʿͥǡϡHTMLȡ
³ Schmitt and Marsden (83) ϡѸΤߤǹ줿ݿ1Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
But with all its manifold new words from other tongues, English could never have become anything but English. And as such it has sent out to the world, among many other things, some of the best books the world has ever known. It is not unlikely, in the light of writings by Englishmen in earlier times, that this would have been so even if we had never taken any words from outside the word hoard that has come down to us from those times. It is true that what we have borrowed has brought greater wealth to our word stock, but the true Englishness of our mother tongue has in no way been lessened by such loans, as those who speak and write it lovingly will always keep in mind.
[2010-04-20-1]ε#358. ɸȱѸδطפΤʤǡ"Though they are both weak fellows, she gives them gifts." Ȥ̲ñΤߤǹ줿ʸʤ츻ˤĤ̲Ϥɤ路ޤޤƤˤϤԼǡʸѸǹ줿ʸϤϽʬ˼
եѸΤߤǹ줿ʸϤϲǽǽȤƤ⡤ɤΤ餤
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
[2011-11-30-1]ε#947. Ѹֻפǵ褦ˡѸˤϿ¿ֻ줬¸ߤ롥¾ʻ줫žѤ줿ΡȤ߹碌ʣŪʤΡѤ줿Τʤɡ츻μϤޤޤŪʤΤ٤㤤Τ碌ȡä200Ĥۤɤ롥
Ǥϡֻ줬Ť餢äȤȡǤϤʤűѸǤϡ[2009-05-28-1]ε#30. űѸֻȳʡפǾҲ𤷤30Ĥۤɤǧˤʤȡ¾¿ֻѸʸȯȤˤʤ롥ŪˤϡĤäΤ
MED Spelling Search ꡤ"\(prep\.|prep\.\)" ȸƤߤȡ254ֻФȤǤʤѸֻ줬ȯȤȡäϤñǤϤʤꥹȤįȡǤȤ߹碌ʣŪֻ䤽ΰ۷¿ɸѸäƤʤΤ¿ѤƤ¿ֻϡѸʹߤ˸줿ȹͤ롥
ġֻνǯ OED ʤɤðǰĴ٤Ƥ椱Ф褤ΤޤǤϹԤʤäƤʤˡ˿Ƥ Schmitt and Marsden (66) εҤѤ褦
In Early Modern English, many prepositions still had a far wider range of meanings than they do today. Now they are quite restricted in use, with consequent difficulties for learners. One reason for the changes is that many new prepositions and sprecialized prepositional phrases came into use in later Middle English and Early Modern English, meaning that the scope for each word became smaller. For example. several earlier functions of by were taken over by near, in accordance with, about, concerning, by reason of, and owing to; for came to be replaced often by because of or as regards; and prepositional but became almost wholly replaced by unless, except, or bar (though it survives in the phrase all but you).
εҤˤȡȯϸѸ줫ѸˤƤǤꡤ¸ֻΰ̣ζȼäƤȤȤˤʤ롥ǰʤ餳θڤٻŵ Schmitt and Marsden ˤϵƤʤä¾ʸǤñĴ٤ƤߤϢʸڤˤϤɤĤʤäGelderen (176) ˡƥͳ褹ֻ per, plus, via Ѹ˸줿ȤƤ餤Ǥʤ줾1528ǯ, 1668ǯ, 1779ǯˡǤϤʾܤȤϤ狼äƤʤ
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Gelderen, Elly van. A History of the English Language. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2006.
#24. ʤѸˤؤ֤ ([2009-05-22-1]) ӡ#1199. ʤѸˤؤ֤ (2) ([2012-08-08-1]) Ǽ夲ƤѸ˳ؽνˤĤդäSchmitt and Marsden (71--72) ϡѸˤηä˱Ѹ춵رѤ٤ȤФơ˿ͤƤ롥Ρֶפʲ褦
ФгؽԤ䤹褦Ե§ʤɤϡˤζλʪǤ롥㤨С3ñ -s ʤĤäΤï狼ʤۤȤʤꤦ뵬§ˤϡʸˡȤǤиǺФΤ¿ϱѸϤΤ褦ä٤뤳Ȥ˴ؿꡤѸ줬ºݤˤɤΤ褦äƤ뤫Ȥ¤ˤܤʤäʬΥ (split_infinitive) shall will λȤʬ[2010-07-22-1]ε#451. shall will λȤʬ˴ؤ The Wallis Rulesפȡˤʤɤ
Τ褦ԿԤʵ§ΤΤƱ餤ϤǤΤϡͣʸˡȤäͤ٤ϳؽԤˤⶵդˤդƤ롥ؽԤⶵդ1ĤԤƤ뤬ºݤˤϸηϤǤꡤѲŬѤ褦ȤʣѲ٤ηϤǤ롥ĤޤꡤʸˡȤŪʵ§ǤϤʤʸˡܤΤʤˤŪѤιܤ⤢ꡤ§ȤƶȤȤϤ褤ȤǤʤѲʸˡܤ⤢롥Ԥξˤϡ§ȤƤȤ館ΤǤϤʤ¿ξѤ뵬§ŪʷϤ뤱ɤ˱Ѱۤ뵬餤ˤȤ館ƤΤ褤
դϡѸʸˡν褯Ѱۤʸ̮Ūװ̤Ƥɬפ롥ääդȽդζ̤ϽפǤꡤ줾˰ۤʤäʸˡ¸ߤΤǧƤȤפ
Schmitt and Marsden ϡμĥٻ뤿ˡʸˡ Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English ԤμθդѤƤ롥
It would . . . be wrong to assume that standard English is fixed, with little or no variability. In fact, one of the major goals of the LGSWE is to describe the patterns of variation that exist within standard English, and to account for those patterns in terms of contextual factors. . . . In particular, the notion that the standard insists on 'uniformity'---allowing just one variant of each grammatical feature---is a serious fallacy, arising from a misleading application to language of the notion of 'standard' and 'standardization' taken from other walks of life. (18--19)
ơĥѸ¾Τ٤ƤθƱͤˡŪŪʤΤǤϤʤ̻ŪˤѤ뤷ŪˤؤήưΤǤ롥
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
[2009-05-22-1]ε#24. ʤѸˤؤ֤פؤդäȥꥢDZѸˤƤ Schmetterer αѸ˶ȤͤɤSchmetterer ϡѸˤΤʤǤѸȽѸˡȤ櫓1500ǯʹߤαѸɸಽηаޤؤӡ뤳Ȥɬפ⤹롥Ūμ夤Ѹ줫顤εʲؾФѸؤѤǤѻ뤳Ȥǡ줬경줿ŪʤΤǤϤꤨʤȤǧ˻뤳ȤǤȤĥǧȤˤĤơSchmetterer ϶Ū3Ƥ롥
(1) "language change is both inevitable and necessary in order to meet the requirements of the world around us" (372)
(2) "right" and "wrong" can be applied to language utterances only with the greatest possible caution" (372)
(3) "a language consists of various levels, regional, social, and temporal" (373)
Ȥ̻ŪѤ (change) ΤǤꡤŪҲŪŪװˤ궦Ūˤؤ (vary) ΤǤ롥Τ褦ήưŪоݤɾäȤΤϡ衤ԲǽǤ롥ʹ֤μҲˤζ̤ܼŪǤꡤˤĤƤ⤢٤εȤߵϡä˶ȤȤι̱ˤȤäơΤʤȤ褦ȤΤ顤ݤˤ⡤ƤǤ줿Τɾݤˤ⡤¤դʧʤФʤʤ
Ѥ⤹Сؤ⤹ΤǡĤʬǤεϤǤСΩġΤ褦ʸѤη˺ǤΩĤΤɬѸˤȤϤ鷺Ȥ˸ˤǤϤʤ
Schmetterer, Victor. "The History of the English Language and Future English Teachers." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 371--77.
űѸ1;ñ̾ ic ϡɤΤ褦ʷаޤǸѸ I ؤȯŸΤʽŪȤƤϡѸǸҲ /ʧ/ æĤä첻Ĺ첻줬Ѹ첻ܤФ /aɪ/ ȤʤäȤ롥ŪˤϤǤ褤ʤҲæΤʤ첻ĹΤȤϻĤ롥üȤȼĹ (compensatory_lengthening) Ȥǽ⤫֤⤷ʤ;̾ŵŪˤߤ붯ȼθؤȤƹͤΤ褵
ǽ̤ˤ뤳Ȥ;̾ˤ϶ȼζ̤ȯã䤹㤨СɸѸˤ;̾ζΩȤơ them Ф 'hem ʤξԤľŪʸ츻طˤϤʤˡƱ you Ф ye ʤɤ롥ɸܤܤС;̾ˤʤƻؼ̾Ǥ˶ΩϤ餳˸뤷Ūˤ¿ǧ (Yokota 9--11) ե1;ñ̾ me ФơĴ moi ̤ѤΤݤ
η˾Ȥ餻Сic I ȯãϡҲæȡ³ĹǤŤϡҲæˤȤƵǽƤ /i/ 顤Ĺˤäƶ줿 /iː/ ȯã줬ɸಽŤۤϤΤǤϤʤҲ /ʧ/ æϡ¤櫓ǤϤʤŪʲѲ̾ΤȤŤ褦Ȥ뤳ȤϤǤʤषǽζξΩȤۤϤ롥
Yokota (8) ϡBrook Ȥʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
As we know, variation of stress has greatly influenced the development of pronouns. Strongly-stressed and lightly-stressed forms coexist for a time with only one form eventually becoming generally accepted by the majority of people. This general acceptance, however, does not lead to permanent fixation. Minor forms can at anytime gain popularity, a process that is repeated in history. For instance, the regular ME development of the OE first person singular ic was ich. Along with this strongly stressed ich, all dialects of ME has the lightly stressed i /i/ (later written I). When ich disappeared, i started to be used in all positions, developing a strong-stressed pronunciation /i:/ for the stressed positions. From this lengthened /i:/, through the Great Vowel Shift, the present-day pronunciation /ai/ was created (Brook 1965: 104).
Yokota, Yumi. "Some Thoughts on the Origin of They, Them and Their."س쳰ʸ١ʹδس쳰ʸԡˡ205--13ǡ
ܸδɽˤϡ겾̾Ȥ롥겾̾νפ1Ĥϡ§ȤľδɤߤǤ뤳ȤȤǤ롥⤦1ĤνפϡѸξˡѷȤǤ롥㤨Сָפ겾֤̾פϡδɤߤǡ֤פǤϤʤɤߤǡ֤פɤޤ٤ȡӤư줬ߡϢѷȤƵǽƤ뤳ȤƤ롥1ܤѸʳˤǧ졤Ȥ櫓פǤ롥פǤС֤ˡפɤबġפǤС֤դġפɤɬפ롥겾̾ϡ ([2012-03-04-1]ˤʬ ([2012-05-13-1], [2012-05-14-1]) ȤؤäƤꡤðۤʽȤäƤ褤
ðۤȤϤäƤ⡤źͣδǤϤʤ㤨С (Sumerian) ˤäƵ4ǯνȯ줿Ȥݥߥܸʸ (cuneiform) 2400ǯ˷Ѿåɿ (Akkadian) ϡ˴Ťɽʸˡåɸζб겾̾פꡤåɸȤɤ߲ƤΡ겾̾פ phonetic complement ȸƤФƤ롥1600ǯޤǤˤϡåɸܸʸΰ郎ҥåȸ (Hittite) ؤѾ졤Ǥ褦 phonetic complement դ줿 (Fortson 160)
ȤϤäƤ⡤"phonetic complement" 뤤ϡ겾̾פϡϤ⤽ⲻζ̤Ūˤ¸ߤʤѸˤäƤϡ[2012-03-04-1]ε#1042. Ѹˤβɤߤȷɤߡפȡˡ겾̾Τʤɤ櫓ʤȻפ뤬¤ϡ˼ŪʤȤݤΤǤ롥άȤƹԤʤƤ 1st, 2nd, 3rd ʤɤפǤС֤ˡפɤǤġפǤС֤դġפɤǤȤܸδƱ褦ˡ1 Ǥ "one" ɤǤ1st Ǥ "first" ɤǤȤǤ롥Ʊפʤ 1 ʤȤɽաʸѤƤ뤬겾̾Ρ֤ġפ st ̵ͭˤäơȯͽۤĤʤۤɤ礭ۤʤ롥st, nd, rd ϡ줾졤ľɽʸַɤߡפƤȤޡȤƵǽƤ롥
1st, 2nd, 3rd ȡ겾̾ʬդǽΤ뤳Ȥ롥ϡ礦ɴʸ겾̾ʤǾΤ˻ƤƤ⤷ᥤɽʸǤꡤ겾̾Ϥޤǥ֤ǤȤ̤Ƥ롥ޤδ "(phonetic) complement" ȤѸΰ̣̣ͤ襤OALD8 ˤȡcomplement Ȥ "a thing that adds new qualities to sth in a way that improves it or makes it more attractive" Ǥ롥겾̾ϡӤɤۤȤȤ
ܸδˤʤ겾̾ɤʡֹԤʤפ뤤ϡֹԤסˤϡ˱ѸˤϤʤ1t Ȥ 1rst ϸȤʤ
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
[2012-07-29-1]ε³ԡѸǤϡ##1172,992,984 εˤ褦ʶդñ줬³ȸ줿Ūʶ뤳Τ褦ʶդñ줬Ѹɸಽ䵬ϼĬήΤʤ졤äƤäΤ⡤ƱΤȤäˤϡŪ˵ǽη֡ŵŪ -lyˤäƤ٤ǤꡤƻƱΤΤȤƵǽΤʤȤ "correctness" ȯۤǻǤ롥Strang (138--39) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Secondary modifiers or intensifiers differed considerably. The old forms, full, right, were still in general use; newer very was known, but not used by everybody even in the 17c. For a more forceful degree of modification, wonderous and mighty were inherited, but such terms wear out quickly, and changes have been considerable. During II [1770--1570], pretty, extraordinary, pure, terrible, dreadful, cruel, plaguy, devillish, take on this role, and most of them have lost it again since. We must distinguish here the built-in obsolescence affecting such items at any time, from the particular factors operating between II and I [1970--1770]. These arose from a sense of correctness which prescribed that forms with the appearance of adjectives should not be used in secondary modification. Very was all right because it did not have this form; but instead of extraordinary, terrible, dreadful, etc., the corresponding -ly forms came to be required.
Strang ϡȤƤ extraordinary terrible Ѥϡո˺Ѥָ³ˡ§ ([2012-01-14-1]ε#992. ոȡָ³ˡ§ספȡˤˤΤȤϡϼŪ "correctness" ˴ŤˤΤȹͤƤ褦2Ĥװ "distinguish" ɬפϤǰȤƶ̤٤ȤȤǤгΤˤ̤¤ˤϡξԤ䴰äƤΤǤϤʤոϤȤ櫓äաˤȯã䤹ǤϡؤΩؤ꿷ո줬ƤϵäƤ椯ǡϼϤäѤաʸ˴ŤѤǤ롥Ǥϡ경褦ȤտޤǻǤ롥ξԤδطϿΤ褦ʴط˸뤬СʵϼˤʸŪʶΰ۾ȯãˤɽΤŬڤȤΤ褦˻פ롥ˤñλѤոȯãˤΩäƤФۤɡϤˤоݤȤʤ뤷֤Ȥơ -ly 줬夵褦ˤʤäΤǤϤʤʤȤѲȯǤˤޤ줬Ǥ롤ȤȤ⤷ʤ
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
ֻ <gh> Фȯ¿ͤǤ뤳Ȥϡ#15. Bernard Shaw äɤ "ghotiy" ? ([2009-05-13-1]) #210. ֻȯЪΥˤ ([2009-11-23-1]) Ǽˤ /f/ бϾʤʤ[2012-06-29-1]ε#1159. MRC Psycholinguistic Database SearchפθȤƵchough, clough, cough, enough, laugh, rough, shough, slough, sough, tough, trough ʤɤҥåȤʤΤΤĤϰۤʤȯΤ⤢ˡHough Brough ʤɤθͭ̾ˤ /f/ 롥ΰǡborough, bough, dough, plough, though, through ʤɡ̵ΤΤ⾯ʤʤޤ/t/ ³ĶǤ̵¿ (ex. aught, bought, daughter, naught, ought, slaughter, sought, thought, tought)
¿ͲˤΤ뤿ˡ<gh> βˤĴ٤Ƥߤ (443--44) ˤС/x/ > /f/ ѲϡĶˤäưۤʤ뤬14ѻ롥 /rx/ 뤤 /lx/ ȤҲϢ³Ȥʤˤϡ14 /rf/, /lf/ ؤȤ줾ѲűѸ dweorh ϡѸ dwerh Ф dwerf "dwarf" ϤθˤĤƤϡ̤Ȥɽ줿ȯ˹碌 <f> ֤äΤǡ <gh> ľܤˤϴطʤ
ˡ餯15˻Ϥޤäꤵ뤬/uː/ /aʊ/ ԤĶ /x/ /f/ ؤѲ첻ȤƱˤ /x/ /xw/ ؤȿ /f/ ؤѲȹͤ롥줬 enough laugh ΥǤ롥ͳǤ뤬δԤѲʤäbough, through Ǥ롥
/t/ ³ sought, daughter ʤɤˤĤƤϡ/x/ ϰ /f/ ؤѲ17ˤ /f/ Τ¿ä˺줿Ω餯ˤꡤ/f/ ݤ줿 laughter draught ⤢ꡤñǤϤʤ
plough ˤĤư<plough> ϡűѸ plōh ͳ褹뤬ѸǤʣ plōwes ˴Ť <plow> ¤Ωä17ʹߡꥹѸǤ <plough> 졤ꥫѸǤ <plow> 졤ߤʬۤ˻äƤ롥<enough> ȸŷ <enow> Ʊ͡Ǥ롥<gh> ˤޤĤ뤽¾ξܺ٤ϡUpward and Davidson (182--84) ȡ
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
Upward, Christopher and George Davidson. The History of English Spelling. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
##1067,1072,1073 εǰѤѸԡѸȽԤǤ¼ꡤѸμҲŪͥΩ˴ؤԤʬϤɸΥȤĤҲ𤹤롥ޤϡαѸѤˤĤơ
αѸѤˤ礭4Ĥ롥(1) ٤ˤѸѶŪ뤤ϾöŪɾΩ졥(2) ѸΡֹ٤ʸפɾΩ졥(3) ʼȤƥեꥫˤơ̱²줢뤤ϹȷȤƱѸɾΩ졥(4) Ѹ (171)
ˡܤˤѸμƤϡѸδżȼ긷αѳؤãϤŪƥȤˤƤϤɾĤĤ⡤Τ褦ȽƤ롥
ŰоݲϡƱ첽ؤδϤࡥǥ˶ŤȤɸȤ硤ǥ˶ŤϤꡤǥ˶ŤȺФꤹʹ֤ޤ롥ʹ֤Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ̱²ܤ̤뤳ȤǤäơۤ뤳Ȥ϶ˤƺǤ롥⡤Τζ岽λʪǤʾ塤ΤǥȤƱ褦˶岽ָСƱ褦ŪۤȤˤĤƤä餷ơܤƤΤޤͤơѤϤٽάΤεʤΤǤ롥(148)
̤ȤơܤθѤϤӤĤʤΤȤʤäƤäȤ롥
Τ褦ʡ֥濴 (Anglo-Saxon-centricism) ϡ100ǯκ˻ʧƤ餺ֳȤСͤΡ˥ꥫסʥ饹ߥ1981ˤȤܿͰ̤γѤȤƼѤƤ롥ƤλۤϡѸݸȤѤȤƤѤƤ롥(149)
ֹȡפʤ̱²ֹȡפظ˻ġֳפȤȤФǸƤ֤ʤȤȤܿͤθռֳ졤ֳ״ѡʰʸˤˡƤ⤦ıѸ춵Ѥˤ⡤礭ʱƶͿƤΤǤϤʤ줬ɮԤǯͤ³ƤǤ롥(191)
ΤӤĤʸѤѸ춵ˤαƶͿʤϤϤʤȤĥλϤΤۤǶ⤫Ƥ롥
ΤȤʤ鳰춵Ͽ֤ǹԤʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥줬Ф졤ξǤγ춵Υꥭ뤳Ȥϡθ줬¾θټҲŪͥǤäơθζ餬ʤľܴܤ˹뤳ȤԤƤ뤫Ǥ롥⡤ϹפΤˤλιݾˤäƷΤǤ뤫顤ϡθвͤȤ̵ط˼ҲŪʲͤιˤäФ롥äơ⤷˶ԤμҲŪͤɤ餯Τ̵ΤǤäȤСθζؽԤˡ¾θȤθλȤ䤽θظˤʸФиळȤˤʤѸμҲŪäƤ٤ȹͤ椨Ǥ롥(21)
ɽϿ¼νҤ٤ƤݤˤϻƱ롥ߤαѸμҲŪͤˤޤƤˤλ¤ȤƲʤ뤳ȤͤˤȤäƽפʲǤ롥ơˤäȤΤѸˤȤμդʬ¼ϡ°̤αѸ˳ǤϤʤäȤѸˤνȹͤ롥
¼ ɡرѸϤɤʸ줫ѸμҲŪ١Ʋ1989ǯ
ѸˡեαƶǡѸŪʸǤ줿ꡤ֤줿ꡤѲ;ʤ줿ˤȤޤʤΥ٥ǤϤäȤ⸲ǤꡤեѸή椨˸űѸä¿Ѥؤɤޤ줿̾ˤĤƤƱȤ뤷ֻ¿ʬˤĤƤꡤΰ̣ˤƤ⤽ ([2009-09-01-1]ε#127. deer, beast, and animalפʤɤȡˡ
ޤΩʤȤǤϡˤĤƤƱȤȤŦ롥ʸ (238) ˤСѸǤϡǤǤ̾ -ness "action of A", "quality of A", "thing that is A", "place of being A" ʤɤι̣äƤꡤбեǤǤ -ity "quality of being A" ΤߤäȤѸˤʤȡ-ness "quality of being A" ΤߤؤỌ̇̄ꤷդ -ity "quality of being A" "aggregate of being A" ΰ̣碌Ĥ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤ̣ιȤ餹ȡ-ness -ity Ω줬žȤˤʤ롥оݸΰ̣ܤƤϡɬ⤳γäƤ餺ѸξȤ¿ǤäΤǤϤʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤϤ-ness Ѹʹߤ˰̣ñ㲽ͭΰ̣ʤ顤Ĥˤ̾ȤŪĤΤߤȤʤä¡ʡʸˡ "grammaticalisation"ˤߤСʤȤ̣ϰϤȤǤϡˤ錄äơ˥ե -ity ˶ƤΤ褦
ˤѸȥեз褪ӵžݤȤɤߤʤͤƤΤϡ[2012-05-01-1]ε#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤פǽҤ٤ƻΰ̣ϰϤθˤ뺹ˤĤƤβǤ롥β֤
űѸǤϡƻϤۤΤߤǤꡤ̣ˤä Class A, B, C 3बäѸʹߡեƥ줫̤ηƻ줬Ѥ[2011-02-16-1]ε#660. ѸΥեѸηƻΨסˡ¿ϵŪäƤᡤClass A Class C °ƤϤΰϤ˶б뵭ŪäƤäĤޤꡤϼȤɾŪä Class B Ĥ줿Ѹ⼡ɾŪӤӤ Class B Class C ؿǤη̤ȤƤθߡѸϥ饹ˤ餺ʬۤƤ뤬ϼפʤΤ Class B °ƤФǤ롥
-ness -ity ΰ̣ϰϤΩ deer, beast, animal ΰ̣ξ붥ϡθΰ̣˴ؤñȯŪ礭ʸäȤ٥Ǥ⡤ʩϤ絬ϤʵžݤäƤΤǤϤʤ
忡ָѸˤ-ity-nessξ硽סؤȤФΡʸؤȸؤλߡ ԡҡ2012ǯ213--48ǡ
Ѹ (Early Modern English; 1500 or 1450 -- 1700) ȤʬϡѸ˸ǤϤǤ˰̲Ƥ롥űѸ졤Ѹ졤ѸȤŪФ3ʬ˳äۤɤϤϤʤ⤷ʤѾﲽƤȤäƤ褤ΤȤϡEarly Modern English ˴ޤ¿蘆졤¤ꤢ̤夲Ƥ¤狼롥
Ѹʬߤϡ[2009-12-18-1]ε#235. Ѹˤλʬ (4)פǸ褦ˡŤ19餢롥20Ⱦˤ⡤Zachrisson Karl Luick ʤɤѸȤʬƤƤ롥λʬǧФΤϡBaugh, Görlach, Penzl ʤɤȿǤƤȤꡤ20ȾǤ롥ˤϡɥĸˤˤΩʬ "Frühneuhochdeutsch" 䤬ƶƤ뤫⤷ʤ (Penzl 261--62)
ˤˤƻʬ䤬Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ[2012-06-12-1]ε#1142. ѸϤĻϤޤä (1)פǤ⤤Penzl ƱݤǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
A "period" is by definition a part of a language continuum; it should be a "natural" stage within the documentable history of a language. Its historical reality is not simply assured by scholarly tradition or practice, but only by definitely established, describable initial and terminal boundaries and by criteria applicable to the corpus of the entire period in question. (261)
A major advantage of specific and maximal periodization is the fact that it by no means handicaps the description of the transition to adjacent periods, but on the contrary forces the historiographers to consider internal change as well as internal cohesion and the impact of external historical events. (266)
Penzl ϡˤζʬˤƤϡŪʴबͣδǤꡤ쳰ŪʴϻȤʤȤͤΤ褦Ǥ롥¾ȤθܿʤɤμҲŪװϡŪʴˤ줿Τʤǡαƶͻ٤ΤǤꡤդǤϤʤȤΩ
ǡGörlach Τ褦ˡ̻ˤȳ̻ˤΥХäʬ褷ȤԤ⤢롥Görlach ϡѸλϤޤ1500ǯȤ쳰ŪʺȤơѤγ (1476) Хν (1471) ʸγ (1485--1510) ѹΥޤȤʬΥ (1534) ꥫȯ (1492) ʤɤŪƤ롥
Penzl (266) ˤСѸνǤ1700ǯˤĤƤϡѸȯŸľܤ뤤ϴܤαƶڤܤŪȤΩäΤϤʤŪˤߤСû첻 <a>, <u> ߤβĤ˻äƤȤ¤䡤ʸˡǤ˸ǤޤäƤȤ¤ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
ʬϸΤˤΤǤꡤʬΤ˸椬櫓ǤϤʤȤƤ߰¸δطǤΤΤѸȤ˴Ť¿̤ФƤƤȤ¤ϽŤ٤
Penzl, Herbert. "Periodization in Language History: Early Modern English and the Other Period." Studies in Early Modern English. Ed. Dieter Kastovsky. Mouton de Gruyter, 1994. 261--68.
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