01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ʬ̤줿ȤŪ˥åץǡȤĤľҲ𤷤Ƥ Oxford Bibliographies ꡤ"Semantic-Pragmatic Change" ιܤȤʤ٤Ƥɤˤϥ֥饤֤ɬסˡʬνäȤ Elizabeth Closs Traugott ˤǡǿι2020ǯ128ȤʤäƤ롥 "Your Best Research Starts Here" ȤŪͽۤ뤫⤷ʤºݤˤŪʿʸ¿ޤޤƤ롥 *
ϤΥȥѤʬθΤޤҲ𤹤ˤȤɤ롥
Semantic change is the subfield of historical linguistics that investigates changes in sense. In 1892, the German philosopher Gottlob Frege argued that, although they refer to the same person, Jocasta and Oedipus's mother, are not equivalent because they cannot be substituted for each other in some contexts; they have different "senses" or "values." In contemporary linguistics, most researchers agree that words do not "have" meanings. Rather, words are assigned meanings by speakers and hearers in the context of use. These contexts of use are pragmatic. Therefore, semantic change cannot be understood without reference to pragmatics. It is usually assumed that language-internal pragmatic processes are universal and do not themselves change. What changes is the extent to which the processes are activated at different times, in different contexts, in different communities, and to which they shape semantic and grammatical change. Many linguists distinguish semantic change from change in "lexis" (vocabulary development, often in cultural contexts), although there is inevitably some overlap between the two. Semantic changes occur when speakers attribute new meanings to extant expressions. Changes in lexis occur when speakers add new words to the inventory, e.g., by coinage ("affluenza," a blend of affluent and influenza), or borrowing ("sushi"). Linguists also distinguish organizing principles in research. Starting with the form of a word or phrase and charting changes in the meanings of that the word or phrase is known as ???semasiology???; this is the organizing principle for most historical dictionaries. Starting with a concept and investigating which different expressions can express it is known as "onomasiology"; this is the organizing principle for thesauruses.
̣ѲλǤνȤƤϡ3ۤˡ#4544. ñΰ̣ѲỌ̇̄椷褦Ȼפäݤμóݤʲǡˡ ([2021-10-05-1]) Τǡ⻲Ȥ줿
͡ǯhellog?Ѹ˥֥Τդ礤꤬Ȥޤ褤ǯޤ
ε#4629. Shakespeare 2ӵ顦Ǿ ([2021-12-29-1]) ǡѸεʸˡǤϵƤʤ2ӵ顦Ǿ餬 Shakespeare ˤäƻȤƤ
Ȥϰۤʤ륿פǤ more, most ֤뱪ѤȤ Shakespeare Ǥ -er, -est դѤƤ䡤εդλѻ롥ˤϡǤӵǾˤʤʤŪפʰ̣ķƻ졦줬Shakespeare ǤϤθ¤ǤϤʤäȤ⤢롥 Shakespeare ˤ400ǯλ뤳ȤͤСΤ褦ʰ̣ŪѲäȤƤä٤ȤǤϤʤ
Shakespeare ȸθˡǰۤʤΤ Crystal and Crystal (88--90) 褦
[ ѸǤϱˡShakespeare Ǥ϶ˡ ]
| Modern comparative | Shakespearian comparative | Example |
| ---------------------- | ----------------------------- | ----------- |
| more honest | honester | Cor IV.v.50 |
| more horrid | horrider | Cym IV.ii.331 |
| more loath | loather | 2H6 III.ii.355 |
| more often | oftener | MM IV.ii.48 |
| more quickly | quicklier | AW I.i.122 |
| more perfect | perfecter | Cor II.i.76 |
| more wayward | waywarder | AY IV.i.150 |
| Modern superlative | Shakespearian superlative | Example |
| ---------------------- | ----------------------------- | --------------- |
| most ancient | ancient'st | WT Iv.i10 |
| most certain | certain'st | TNK V.iv.21 |
| most civil | civilest | 2H6 IV.vii.56 |
| most condemned | contemned'st | KL II.ii.141 |
| most covert | covert'st | R3 III.v.33 |
| most daring | daring'st | H8 II.iv.215 |
| most deformed | deformed'st | Sonn 113.10 |
| most easily | easil'est | Cym IV.ii.206 |
| most exact | exactest | Tim II.ii.161 |
| most extreme | extremest | KL V.iii.134 |
| most faithful | faithfull'st | TN V.i.112 |
| most foul-mouthed | foul mouthed'st | 2H4 II.iv.70 |
| most honest | honestest | AW III.v.73 |
| most loathsome | loathsomest | TC II.i.28 |
| most lying | lyingest | 2H6 II.i.124 |
| most maidenly | maidenliest | KL I.ii.131 |
| most pained | pained'st | Per IV.vi.161 |
| most perfect | perfectest | Mac I.v.2 |
| most ragged | ragged'st | 2H4 I.i.151 |
| most rascally | rascalliest | 1H4 I.ii.80 |
| most sovereign | sovereignest | 1H4 I.iii.56 |
| most unhopeful | unhopefullest | MA II.i.349 |
| most welcome | welcomest | 1H6 II.ii.56 |
| most wholesome | wholesom'st | MM IV.ii.70 |
| Modern comparative | Shakespearian comparative | Example |
| ---------------------- | ----------------------------- | --------------- |
| greater | more great | 1H4 IV.i77 |
| longer | more long | Cor V.ii.63 |
| nearer | more near | AW I.iii.102 |
| Modern word | Shakespearian comparison | Example |
| ---------------------- | ----------------------------- | --------------- |
| chief | chiefest | 1H6 I.i.177 |
| due | duer | 2H4 III.ii.296 |
| just | justest | AC II.i.2 |
| less | lesser | R2 II.i.95 |
| like | liker | KJ II.i.126 |
| little | littlest [cf. smallest] | Ham III.ii.181 |
| rather | ratherest | LL IV.ii.18 |
| very | veriest | 1H4 II.ii.23 |
| worse | worser [cf. less bad] | Ham III.iv.158 |
ܥ֥ΰʲεǽƤShakespeare most unkindest cut of all (JC III.ii.184) Τ褦ʡεʸˡǤ˳ʤȤ2źǾʤ2ӵ (double_comparative)ˤѤȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ºݤˤϡShakespeare Τ褦ɽȤ櫓Ѥ櫓ǤϤʤΤȤäƤ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥
#195. Shakespeare ˴ؤ Web resources ([2009-11-08-1])
#3615. Ѹ2ӵ顦ǾԸˤʤ ([2019-03-21-1])
#3619. Lowth Ф2ӵȲǾ ([2019-03-25-1])
ǤϡShakespeare ¾ΤɤΤ褦2ӵ顦ǾȤäΤCrystal and Crystal (88) ɽŪƤƤΤǡƸ
[ Double comparatives ]
more better (MND III.i.18)
more bigger-looked (TNK I.i.215)
more braver (Tem I.ii.440)
more corrupter (KL II.ii.100)
more fairer (E3 II.i.25)
more headier (KL II.iv.105)
more hotter (AW IV.v.38)
more kinder (Tim IV.i.36)
more mightier (MM V.i.235)
more nearer (Ham II.i.11)
more nimbler (E3 II.ii.178)
more proudlier (Cor IV.vii.8)
more rawer (Ham V.ii.122)
more richer (Ham III.ii.313)
more safer (Oth I.iii.223)
more softer (TC II.ii.11)
more sounder (AY III.ii.58)
more wider (Oth I.iii.107)
more worse (KL II.ii.146)
more worthier (AY III.iii.54)
less happier (R2 II.i.49)
[ Double superlatives ]
most boldest (JC III.i.121)
most bravest (Cym IV.ii.319)
most coldest (Cym II.iii.2)
most despiteful'st (TC IV.i.33)
most heaviest (TG IV.ii.136)
most poorest (KL II.iii.7)
most stillest (2H4 III.ii.184)
most unkindest (JC III.ii.184)
most worst (WT III.ii.177)
Τʤ more nearer λϤ⤷츻֤Сޤ3ӵ (triple comparative) Ǥ롥#209. near Ρ ([2009-11-22-1]) ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)near ϤȤӵäɤ
Crystal, David and Ben Crystal. Shakespeare's Words: A Glossary & Language Companion. London: Penguin, 2002.
Ѹˤˤǽֻ (spelling_reform) ϤĤäȤ䤤ˤˤֲספȸƤ֤ˤϰտŪʱİ٤ǤʤФʤʤǤ㤨С#2712. ѸθŪ֤ꤿ ([2016-09-29-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸ Ormulum ֻֻפλʪȤȤˤʤ
ֻפȤϡ̤ˤСĿͤˤ뱿ưȤϽŪʼҲưؤΤǤϤʤ˽Сֻפκǽηϡ16Ⱦ17ˤƤΰϢ (orthoepy) ԤγưˤäȤäƤ褤餳Ѹ˾ܳŪֻԤäΤˤĤ Carney (467) Τ褦ɾäƤ롥
The first concerted movement for the reform of English spelling gathered pace in the second half of the sixteenth century and continued into the seventeenth as part of a great debate about how to cope with the flood of technical and scholarly terms coming into the language as loans from Latin, Greek and French. It was a succession of educationalists and early phoneticians, including William Mulcaster, John Hart, William Bullokar and Alexander Gil, that helped to bring about the consensus that took the form of our traditional orthography. They are generally known as 'orthoepists'; their work has been reviewed and interpreted by Dobson (1968). Standardization was only indirectly the work of printers.
ˤĤ Carney ϡŪ Brengelman 1980ǯνפʸ˰͵ƤȤäƤ褤Brengelman ʸˤĤƤϡʲεǤƤΤǡ碌ɤǤ
#1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1])
#1384. ֻɸಽ˹Τ17ؼԤȶա ([2013-02-09-1])
#1385. Caxton ֻɸಽ˹ʤäȹͤ뺬 ([2013-02-10-1])
#1386. Ѹʹߤ˳ΩƤɸֻηϤħ ([2013-02-11-1])
#1387. 츻ŪֻκѤ17 ([2013-02-12-1])
#2377. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (1) ([2015-10-30-1])
#2378. ԤĹ첻ɽ魯 <e> (2) ([2015-10-31-1])
#3564. 17ؼԤˤֻɸಽؤι ([2019-01-29-1])
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Brengelman, F. H. "Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling." JEGP 79 (1980): 332--54.
ε#4626. μø̡ ([2021-12-26-1]) ˰³Woll ˤøؤˤȤʤ롥äΥХꥺ (bilingualism) ˴ؤƶȤΰյˤĤƤ1ɤߡ˻ɷŪʼ٤Τ褦ʻȡ츦ⲻäƤ櫓ˤϤø (sign_language) Ϥ㡼 (gesture) 䤽¾ΥѥŪ (paralinguistics) ޤŪ˹ͻɬפ뤳Ȥ褯Τ߹褦ˤʤ롥
2Ĥβ줬ؤХꥺˤĤƤϡDz⤹ޤǤʤ褯ΤƤ롥code-switching code-mixing ʤɤθݤФȤʤ롥2Ĥμø줬ؤХꥺˤĤƤϡΤ褦ʥХθĿͤȤǤʤ¤ꡤۤȤɼ֤Τ뵡Ϥʤˡ1Ĥβ1Ĥμø줬ؤХȤʤȡDzƤΤĶ롥ȼøʸ̤Ʊ˼¸뤿ᡤcode-switching ʤ "code-blending" ɬפΤ "cross-modal", "multimodal", "multichannel" Ȥäɤפ⤫Ǥ롥Хꥺγǰ쵤˳ĥ줿ꡤݤƤޤä
Ȥ Woll (102--03) 1ΤޤǺܤƤ
Until recently, all studies of bilingualism were studies of individuals and communities in which two spoken languages are used. With the development of research on sign languages, it has become clear that bilingualism can exist in two forms: cross-modal (or bimodal) bilingualism and unimodal bilingualism.
Unimodal bilingualism occurs when either two spoken or two sign languages are used (e.g. Irish and British Sign Language); cross-modal or bimodal bilingualism occurs when the two languages are perceived by different sensory systems and there are two different output channels; they thus exist in different modalities: one signed and one spoken. Recognition of bimodal bilingualism leads to a necessary re-evaluation of models of bilingualism. Cross-modal bilingualism differs from unimodal bilingualism with respect to the temporal sequencing of languages. Bimodal bilinguals often produce code blends, rather than code switches, producing sign and speech simultaneously when in a bilingual mode of communication . . . . Since in unimodal spoken-language bilingualism, just one production system (the vocal tract) is utilized, there is a bottleneck in processing, which has been identified both in behavioural and in neuroimaging studies. For production, this is evident in constraints on serial output: only one utterance can be produced at any one time: selection between two competing languages with respect to the common output path may impose a greater cognitive burden than selection of items within one language. For perception, similar constraints may apply---the speaker's utterances are usually processed through the ear and require serial analysis to be understood. For cross-modal bilinguals, vocal-tract (speech) and manual actions (signing) can---in principle---be processed simultaneously, as they use separate sets of articulators which are seen to be spatially separated. The processing of speech and sign, within a single proficient user of both languages, can therefore offer a unique insight into core language processes . . . .
ʬߤʬ˾ؿӤƤߤ뤳ȤϡȤƤפȻפä补
Woll, Bencie. "The History of Sign Language Linguistics." Chapter 4 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 91--104.
(sign_language) äȤ1֤Ǥ뤳ȤˤĤơ#1662. äϸǤ (1) ([2013-11-14-1])#1663. äϸǤ (2) ([2013-11-15-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
Woll (96) ˤСäθˤ17ˤΤܤ뤬ܳŪʼø椬ϤޤäΤϡĤǶȤ⤤1950--60ǯΤȤǤ롥Tervoort (1953) Stokoe (1960) θ椬ŪȤƤ롥θ1970ǯʹߤϡήɸؤø椫ɷΰؤδؿƤʲʬؤΥѥȤ礭ä褦Woll (104) ۩
. . . sign languages are the creation of humans with 'language-ready' brains. Thus it is inappropriate to view sign languages as comparable to the communication of pre-linguistic humans. Perhaps the most important contribution of sign linguistics to language evolution theory is the recognition that human communication is essentially multi-channel.
μøؤ70ǯۤɤˤĤȤˤʤ뤬ηи̤Ƽä3Ĥħ⤭ĦˤʤäƤ Woll (92) ϽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Sign languages are complex natural human languages.
Sign languages are not related to the spoken languages of the surrounding hearing communities.
Sign languages can be compared and contrasted in terms of typology and modality with spoken language.
øϲ줫ʪǤϤʤäȤ1֤ǤꡤӤǤ¦̤ȤǤʤ¦̤ġȤȤ
ʤߤ˼øϤĤΤEthnologue 2009ǯǡˤǤ170μø줬Ƥ뤽̤Υǡ١ˤȿΥȥǧǤȤ (Woll 93) ¿ͳǡƱͤˡݤʾˡΤ˿夲ΤϺʤ褦
Woll, Bencie. "The History of Sign Language Linguistics." Chapter 4 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 91--104.
Tervoort, Bernard T. Structurele analyse van visueel taalgebruik binnen een groep dove kinderen. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers Maatschappij, 1953.
Stokoe, William C. "Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American deaf." Studies in Linguistics Occasional Papers 8 (1060): 1--78. University of Buffalo.
#4623. 㡼Ȥϲ ([2021-12-23-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǯؤȤؤοʬȤƥ㡼椬ˤʤäƤƤ롥㡼γػˤ֤ȡ19ޤǤϼ˸쵯ȤδϢǥ㡼ؤδؿϳͷߤä20Ⱦ˹¤λ夬Ϥޤȡܤ뤳Ȥʤʤä
¤λˤϡؤ϶ŪʴؿĤäᡤ쵯ȷӤĤζ㡼θⲼФˤʤäΤǤ롥ޤؤμΧȤ˼ĥ줿ˡؤȤΥܥ졼Ȥ른㡼ϡϤ꿶ʤʤä
塤㡼뤲롥طʤˤϡؤӴϢسˤؿΰܹԤäKendon (81) λΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
In the first years following the Second World War, certain changes eventually produced a climate in which gesture again became relevant for theoretical issues related to language and thought. First, information theory and cybernetics, developed as solutions to problems in communication engineering, were applied in the study of communication within and between living systems, with the result that much thought and investigation came to be devoted to social communication. Not unrelated was the emergence of semiotics which, especially in North America, greatly broadened attention to sign processes, enhancing an interest in visible modes of signification, including gesture. Further, the question of language origins once again began to be taken seriously. When experiments with chimpanzees suggested that they might use gesture symbolically, as in a sign language, the idea of gesture as a first form of language was discussed once again . . . .
At the same time, in psychology, complex mental processes once again became legitimate objects of investigation. Psychologists took an interest in language and the field of psycholinguistics was established. Noam Chomsky's work was especially important. He showed the inadequacy of a behaviourist approach to language and argued that linguistics should focus on 'competence', the mental apparatus making the acquisition and use of any language possible, rather than on descriptions of specific languages. Although neither Chomsky himself nor his followers showed interest in gesture, their mentalistic orientation was influential. When, later, psycholinguists looked at gesture, they did so for what it might reveal about the mental operations of utterance production.
ΰʸ顤㡼ؤδؿ᤹Τ˹θؤȴϢʬĬήɽ魯ɤ¤٤С"information theory", "cybernetics", "semiotics", "origin_of_language", "sign_language", "Chomsky" դȤ櫓塼ϻϤ¤ؤäƥॹ˿ؤ褵Ȥΰյ礭ˤȿӤĤƤ褤Ȥ줿Ǥ롥
Ϣʬγػˤɤ϶̩ϢȤƤΤȼ´碌ơ#252. ʸˡȸ쵯 ([2010-01-04-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
Kendon, Adam. "History of the Study of Gesture." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 71--89.
ܸĹ¥Τ褦ü첻ǤϡǤϰ̲Ȥβ (syllable) 뤳ȤϤǤʤΤΡܸüԤˤȤäƤϻ¾β1ñ̤ȤǧƤ롥ǧƤȤ⡤ܸβδפΤΤǤꡤ줬ʤܸβ²ΤжΩʤȤۤɤɬǤȤ롥
?ס֤áס֤פɽ蘆벻Ǥ֤ס֤ס֤פƱñ̡ʥ⡼ˤȤߤʤޤ礦ȤäȤǡܸ2ȤƳؽԤˤȤäƤ褦Ǥ롥ؿܸ춵ŵ٤ p. 16 ˼Τ褦ʰ롥
ܸ춵θǤϡüΥ⡼鴶Ф뤳ȤκĤޤꡤü1⡼ȤƤĹȯˤϤɤ褤뤳ȤĤȤ˻ŦƤ롥Ҳ뤤첻1ĤüϡҲ첻̾μΩʤȤСܡ/me/ֺ/sa/ʤɡˤ³֤ûΤΡܸüԤˤ1⡼ʬĹĤγФ롥⡼ȤǰϡܸΤߤѤ櫓ǤϤʤ⡼ȤܸǤϡ⡼Ȥñ̤ԲķǤ뤳Ȥءİвء쿴ءءǾʳؤʤɡޤޤʬθ椫餫ˤƤ롥
ܸˤȤäƤΥ⡼ȤϲʤΤܸؤˤǤꡤ䤬ʾ櫓ˤ⤤ʤȤƤľѤҴŪʸѸˤäư֤ŤȤħȤơ夲ƤߤΡ#4621. ⡼ --- ܸ줫ΰ̲ؤι ([2021-12-21-1]) εȡ
ؿܸ춵ŵ١ܸ춵ز ԡ罤۽Ź2005ǯ
㡼 (gesture) ϸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤƱ뤳Ȥ¿ؤҲؤʤɤʬǤϽפʸоݤȤʤäƤ롥Ȥ櫓ǯǤϡ֥ޥƥ⡼ʬϡ (multimodal analysis) ȸƤФ롤ѥŪ (paralinguistics) Ū˴ѻˡԤ߽ФƤƤ롤㡼ϡε (origin_of_language) (sign_language)ȤäȤꡤؤȤηӤĤ϶ºݡܲɤ߿ʤƤػˤΥϥɥ֥åǡ㡼ˤ1Ϥ䤫Ƥ롥Kendon (71) ꡤճȴˤ֥㡼פƤ
'Gesture' here refers to the wide variety of ways in which humans, through visible bodily action, give expression to their thoughts and feelings, draw attention to things, describe things, greet each other, or engage in ritualized actions as in religious ceremonies. 'Gesture' includes the movements of the body, especially of the hands and arms, often integrated with spoken expression; the use of manual actions, often conventionalized, to convey something without speech; or the manual and facial actions employed in sign languages. All this is part of 'gesture', broadly conceived. Expressions such as laughing and crying, blushing, clenching the teeth in anger, and the like, or bodily postures and attitudes sustained during occasions of interaction, are less likely to be so considered. 'Gesture' is not a well-defined category. Although there is a core of phenomena, such as those mentioned, to which the term is usually applied without dispute, it is not possible to establish clear boundaries to the domain of its application, and some writers are inclined to include a much wider range of phenomena than do others.
ܥ֥Ǥϡ#2921. 㡼ʬ ([2017-04-26-1]) ǥ㡼夲Ȥ٤ǻ糰ǤդȻפäΤ˥㡼ؤȤΤ¸ߤΤ㤨бΥѥեޥܿܤʤɤλʤɤ顤餷椬ΩĤΤ
Kendon, Adam. "History of the Study of Gesture." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 71--89.
ñʬ (distinctiones) 뤫³ (scriptura continua) 뤫ϡʸʸȤ˰ۤʤäƤ뤷ƱʸʸǤӤˤäѤ뤳ȤäѸǤʬΤȻפƤ뤬űѸѸǤñ֤˥ڡۤȤɸʤʸϤˤäcf #3798. űѸδˤʬ ([2019-09-20-1])ˡդܸǤ³ΤȻפƤ뤬ĻؽѤ˽줿ʿ̾ΤߤʸϤǤϡɤߤ䤹뤿˰տŪʬ뤳Ȥ⤢cf. #1112. ʬ (1) ([2012-05-13-1])ˡ
ŪˤСΤ褦ɽʸ䲾̾Τ褦ʲʥ⡼ʸ³뤳Ȥ¿ΤФñʸʥե٥åȡˤʬ뤳Ȥ¿ϤޤηˤʤդˤʤȤϡ餫ˡǸȸζ뤳ȤǤ롥ñ֤˥ڡȤϡ¸ˡ1Ĥˤʤ
춭뤿ǤС⥹ڡˤɬפϤʤʸʸϤȡ㤨̥ʸˤƤʤɤǸڤȤˡƤץȾݷʸǿ̾ȤǰϤ५ȥ (cartouche) Τ褦ˡ⤢äˤĤƤϡ#3044. űѸˤʬ ([2017-08-27-1]) ⻲ȡˡ
ޤˡʤ뤤ϤФСʸǽȤ§Сʸ춭Ȥˤʤꡤʬʤɤ¾ˡäɬפȤʤʤºݡꥷǤϸ˾ʸʤᡤʬɬܤǤϤʤäإ֥饤䥢ӥʤɤǤϡƱʸǤǤäƤѤ뤫ʳѤ뤫ˤۤʤʸηϤ⤢롥
ܸδʸʸǤϡǽ뤳Ȥ¿Ωʿ̾ǽ뤳Ȥ¿°줬ߤ˷֤ȤħġΤŵŪˤʿ̾ڤؤȤ춭Ȱפ롥ʬŪˤǤϤ졤춭θʬΤˤȤȤ
Ǹˡ#1114. ̾ϢʤϷѤ ([2012-05-15-1]) Ǹ褦ˡ꤬θñ̡㤨иˤȤǤäɮ夲ʤɤδȯã뤳Ȥ롥ȡڤפΤޤ춭Ȥˤʤ롥
Τ褦˸źʸʸįƤߤȡ춭ɽ魯ˡ¿¿ͤǤ롥ѸǸƤʬͣФˡǤϤʤȤõƤ⤽ѸθνˤʬνΤŪˤϸȯŸʤΤcf . #1903. ʬˡ ([2014-07-13-1])ˡ
Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.
ʸˤ⤷Ƥ Daniels (63) ˡܸβ̾ʿ̾Ҳ̾ˤ⡼˴ŤʸǤ뤳ȤڤƤ롥λ¤ΤΤܸؤǤ뤵ƤܿȤǤⲿǤʤ (syllable) ǤϤʤ⡼ (mora) ȤŪñ̤ؤ˻ޤ줿ۤʤܸ츦ˤäȤȤΤäܸβ̾ɽ䲻Τ˥⡼ȤǰȤɬפݡޤˤΤƳ줿ǰäΤ
The term 'mora' was introduced into modern linguistics by McCawley (1968) to render a term (equivalent to 'letter') for the characters in the two Japanese 'syllabaries' ('kana'), hiragana and katakana, which denote not merely the (C)V syllables of the language but also a syllable-closing nasal or length.
⡼Ȳۤʤñ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥϡʲ㤫ʬ롥פˡĹ¥Τ褦ü첻ǤϡΩˤϤʤʤΩ⡼ˤϤʤ롥
֤ʤ (Nagasaki) 4⡼4
֤ (Ōsaka) 4⡼3
֥åȡ (roketto) 4⡼3
֤֤ (shimbun) 4⡼2
Ȥϰۤʤ뤬ܸüԤˤȤäƤ餫ΩʤȤߤʤƤ⤦1ĤβŪñ̡줬ܸΥ⡼Ǥ롥̾γʸˤϡ褽줤1ĤΥ⡼餬бƤ롥
Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.
McCawley, James D. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
䤬ؤôƤ34ǯоݤȤ를ߤϡֱѸ˥ߡפ뤤ϡ֥եߡפȤȤˤʤäƤޤʸ祼ߤˤϡŪĤˡˡָפȸƤФ뤿ᡤǤϡֱѸ˸פ֥եסϤޤôԤ̾ȤäơĸפʤɤȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢ޤʺǸΤΤϡ伫Ȥ椵ƤޤΤ褦ǡ߹ɤʤɤޤߤڤХ䥻ߥʡŽФȾѤǤˡޤرǤбѸˤΥߤޤ
1ǯΤλϡ2ǯǯٰʹߤ˽°祼ߤ˾ͤФơ褽ꤹǤǯ٤αѸ˥߽°ͽԤ⡤̵˳ꤷޤǯ٤⥼ߤǤϹѸˡѸؤνäƤȹͤƤޤ
ơءرαѸ˥ߤθС´λʤɤ濴Ȥ륳ߥ˥ƥȤơkhelf (= Keio History of the English Language Forum) ȤȿΩ夬äƤޤۤ2ǯ2020ǯ1ȯƱǯ11ˤۡڡ⥪ץޤʡ#4212. ߤΥۡڡץޤ ([2020-11-07-1])ˡإСʤȿǤϤޤǤαѸ˳ؽ桦ͻҤϲǽϰϤǰ̤˸ɽƤȤˤȤäƤޤ2ǯ֤Υ߳ưפ⡤ĤƥIJ줿Τ嵭ۡڡ˸ƤޤΤǡ߽°ͽԤϤäɤǤƤޤޤܥ֥ɤǤƤ̤⡤ʤȤޤǤ⤬ѸˡѸؤˤʤΤȡ̣äƤߤƤ
Ȥ櫓ѸˡѸؤΤɤΤ褦˴ؿäƤ뤫įƤ館ФȻפޤ11ˤơҲڡߤޤơҲȤʤ륳ƥĤκäƤϡƥäƥ־Ǥΰ̸ȤΤʬ䤹Ҳ𥳥ƥĤȤʤ褦˹פƤȽҤ٤ƤޤǤΤǡرθơޤʤɤ⡤ϤŪʥơޤǤϤޤ̾⤺äʬ䤹Ҳ𤵤Ƥޤǯ٤Υʡ´ˤ´ܤʤɤǺܤƤޤǯ٤Υ´ܤˤĤƤϡ碌 sotsuron γƵ⤴Ȥ
ϱѸˤؽ椷Ωˤ롥Ω줫ֱѸ˶פȤɽФѤΤɽϼºݤˤ¿ŪȹͤƤ롥̾ϡֱѸ뤳ȡפȲᤵ뤬ֱѸʲ̤ΤȤ˶פȲ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥ԤŵϡֱѸˤθѤƱѸפȤΩ줫餹СֱѸΤפ뤤ϡֱѸΤפȤ㤤Ǥ롥
2Ĥζ̤ǰƬ֤Ĥġï̤ơïˡΤˡΤפȤʸγƹ˸ήǤȡ䤬פĤ¤ꡤͤȤܤȤ߹碌5ढä
(1) Ѹ˸ԤѸˤѸ칶ˡѸ˸Τˡ롥
(2) Ѹ˸ԤѸˤѸ춵ˡѸ춵Τˡ롥
(3) Ѹ˸ԤѸˤѸؽԤˡѸؽΤˡ롥
(4) Ѹ˸ԤѸˤ̤ο͡ˡܤΤˡ롥
(5) Ѹ춵Ѹˤ̤ơ̡ˡѸ롥
Ѹ˸ԤǤ⤢Ѹ춵Ǥ⤢λŪʸˤʤΤǡ¾ˤ͡Ȥ߹碌βǽʤжƤˡ伫ȤȤƤ5ĤΤ٤ƤˤĤ¿쾯ʤ첿餫ζи롥ܥֱ֥Ѹθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)⡤ǤϤ뤬褽5ĤΤ٤Ƥ˴ؤäƤ롥ȤϤʤγưδܤ (1), (3), (4) դ֤ƤȼʬϤƤ롥
(4) ǡֶܡפȤɽѤ줬ؤϰϤϤƹ졤ʸءˡʸˡѸˤܤǤƱܤǤ⤢뤳ȤˤĤƤϡ#3641. ѸˤΤ (1) --- Ѹˤ϶Ūʳΰ ([2019-04-16-1])#3642. ѸˤΤ (2) --- Ѹˤ϶Ūʳΰ ([2019-04-17-1]) Ȥ줿ޤ#4329. ֱѸˤθ褫Ѹ춵פˤĤƻʸĤ ([2021-03-04-1]) ⤴
ޥե٥åȤѤǤϡѲս䶯Ĵʬʤɡʬ̤˺Ω뤿ˤФХå (italics) Ѥ롥̾ΥޥΤǽ줿ʸΤʤǺٿȤΥåΤϤ褯ΩĤǤ롥ΤθŪˡȤäƤ褤cf. #574. punctuation 4Ĥεǽ ([2010-11-22-1])ˡ
åΤϡ1501ǯμܽΤ˴ŤΤȤƥ٥ͥǸ줿椬äٿȤǷкŪʽΤȤ߽Ф줿ΤǤ롥åΤ餫ΩͿ뤿Ѥ줿櫓ǤϤʤΩΤ˻Ѥϡ16ȾΥեǤοȤ줬ɤˤꡤ1611ǯζ (Authorised Version) ˤʸνΤȤѤ˵ڤӡ˻äˤϥåΤλȤϳ餹Ԥ⸽줿褦ǡۤɤޤǤ˻Ѥ̲ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
嵭 Daniels (68--69) ɤǽΤäȤǤ롥Ѹˤ륤åλѤδΩ˰äƤ¤ˤϡä˶ä줿ƱαѸ˾ΰյ礭ƳǧǤ롥
Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.
ѲŤȻ (diffusion) Ȥơޤ˴ؿ³Ƥ롥ˤĤƤ˻פ⤫֤ΤϸóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ѲѲäδ֤˥褦˿ʹԤƤȤݤǤ롥ѲͤͤءؤʪŪŪ˹äƤȤ̣ǤŤȻ⤢cf. #1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])ˡޤǤϥͥåȤʤɤͳʪŪŪ˹äƤѲȤΤⵯäƤ褦Ǥ롥Ѳ diffusion ˤ͡ʥץȤȤʬ
diffusion ȤϡȤȿʸ (human geography) ֳ (epidemiology) ˤܤƤǰǤꡤۡʪʪʬۤƤݤؤ㤨С뵻Ѥ¸ݤˤƼϤŤȻƤȤͻʤƤʸؤʬǤ19˻Ϥޤ븦ˤꡤȤ櫓ƶϤ礭ԤȤƤ Torsten Hägerstrand (1916--2004) ̾롥ꥸʥϥǥǽ줿1967ǯ˱ѸǤ Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process Ǥ˹Τ뤳Ȥˤʤäʸػŵ diffusion ιɮ Gregory (160) ˤȡγŪʰյϼ̤ꡥ
Hágerstrand's work had two catalytic consequences: it set in motion the frozen worlds of SPATIAL SCIENCE, and it opened the door to sophisticated computer modelling of spatial processes.
Hägerstrand ηˤ diffusion ϰŪΤΡ䤬ƼҲŪʴ¿Ŧ褦ˤʤꡤdiffusion Τڤ褦ˤʤäGregory (161) ꡤξǧƤ
Just ten years after the translation of Hágerstrand's magnum opus, Blaikie (1978) could speak of a 'crisis' in diffusion research, which he said arose from its preoccupation with spatial form and space-time sequence, while Gregory (1985) attributed the 'stasis' of diffusion theory to a pervasive unwillingness to engage with SOCIAL THEORY and social history to explore the conditions and the consequences of diffusion processes. Critics argued that the spatial circulation of information remained the strategic element in most applications of the Hägerstrand model and its derivatives, and while flows of information through different propagation structures and contact networks were exposed in more detail, the primacy accorded to the reconstruction of these spatial pathways obscured a crucial limitation of the Hägerstrand model: it operated within what Blaut (1977) called a 'granular region', 'a sort of Adam Smithian landscape, totally without macrostructure'. In particular:
(1) The Hägerstrand model begins with a pool of 'potential adopters' and does not explain the selective process through which they are constituted in the first place. This suggests the need for a model of biased innovation, where (for example) CLASS or GENDER circumscribes access to innovations. 'Non-diffusion' is then not a passive but an active state arising directly from the structures of a particular society (Yapa and Mayfield, 1978). Critiques of this sort required diffusion theory to be integrated with fields such as POLITICAL ECONOMY and FEMINIST GEOGRAPHY that pay attention to the social as well as the spatial.
(2) The Hägerstrand model assumes a 'uniform cognitive region' and does not explain the selective process through which information flows are interpreted. This matters because 'resistance' to innovation is not invariably a product of ignorance or insufficient information: it may signal a political struggle by people whose evaluation of the information is strikingly different to that of the 'potential adopters'. Critiques of this sort required diffusion theory to be reconnected to a more general cultural geography (Blaut, 1977).
Gregory ϡѲ diffusion ˤĤƤϰƤʤοʸؤˤ diffusion ˤΤäƤȡͭפƶ롥Ѳ diffusion ⡤塤ҲŪ "macrostructure" ǰƬ֤ץޤޤɬפˤʤäƤ
Gregory, Derek. "Diffusion." The Dictionary of Human Geography. 4th ed. Ed. Derek Gregory, Ron Johnston, Geraldine Pratt, Michael Watts, and Sarah Whatmore. John Wiley & Sons, 2009. 160--162.
ƻθ (positive degree) ӵ (comparative degree) ΰ̣Ūʴطϰ츫ȼΤ褦ˤߤ롥ʲ (1) (2) ٤Ƥߤ褦
(1) John is tall.
(2) John is taller than Peter.
ѤŪʸ (1) 顤ӵѤŪʸ (2) Ū줿Τ褦ˤߤ롥ϤñǤϤʤ(1) ϥʸʤؤι⤤Ȥްդ뤬(2) ǤϥϥԡĹȤͤȤ⤵ۤؤ⤯ʤˤȤ롥С(1) μϥŪĹǤΤФ(2) μϥŪĹǤ롥(2) (1) ñ줿ΤǤϤʤ
ˡƻ tall θΰ̣ܤƤߤ褦 (1) ϥŪĹȤƤȽҤ٤褯ͤƤߤȡ⵿路ȤΤϡؤ⤤פȤŪ˵ꤵΤǤϤʤޤŪ˵ꤵΤ(1) ̣Ƥ뤳ȤϡʿŪʿ͡ʤ뤤¿ο͡ˤؤ⤤Ȥ¤ǤꡤˤӤ˻ޤƤΤǤ롥Ʊͤˡ־ݤ礭ס֥ͥߤϾפ⡤줾üԤǤʹ֤ΥۤδȤƤ־ݤϡʿʹ֤礭ס֥ͥߤϡʿʹ֤˾פۤɤްդƤȹͤ롥
ȡtall δŪʰ̣ taller αŪʰ̣ŪȤȥ졼ȤʸϲʤФʤ餯ʤ롥षդ taller ΰ̣ץߥƥǤꡤtall ϤŪ줿̣ǤʤФʤʤʤޤ˵žȯۤ (Klein 2)
̣Ū taller Τۤ tall ŪǤȤϡľѤȿ롥Ѹޤ¿θǷŪ̵ɸʤΤӵǤϤʤΤۤǤꡤºݡָפȤѸ줬ΤȤƤ (cf. #3843. ʤƻ졦Ρָפ "positive degree" ȸƤФΤ ([2019-11-04-1])ˡ
츫Ʋ꤬ʤ tall taller ̣פΤۤäƤ뤳Ȥ˵Ť
Klein, Ewan. "A Semantics for Positive and Comparative Adjectives." Linguistics and Philosophy 4.1 (1980): 1--45.
NHK饸ֺ¡δñѸ in Englishפ1ΥƥȤȯȤʤޤϢΡֱѸΥܥʵפ10ϡ֤ʤѸˤϾά줬¿ΡפǤpiano, bus, cute, sport, Paralympics, AI, CEO, GDP, EU, USA ʤɤαñϡۤܤΤޤܸˤäƤƤȤäƤ褤ǤʤȤⲿ餫ǾάƤʤΤǤ줾쥪ꥸʥĹǤǤ礦ʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦

Ѹˤܸˤ⤽¾θˤά¸ߤޤ٤ƤˤˤĹä餷ɤ̤ͤޤäƤͭѤɽȤΤϡΤǤ͡Τ褦ɽäƴʷ1ñ˾άǤС˰㤤ޤˤϾά줬դΤǤ
άˡˤĤƤмϸ¤ƤޤϢܵǾܤҤ٤ƤޤܤȤʤΤϡڤȤסڤŽס֥˥פ3Ǥ줾ƤޤΤǡɤ
ˤϾά줬դΤȤϽҤ٤ޤѸ˴ؤ¤ꡤȤ櫓20ʹߤˤӤά줬߽ФƤȤ𤬤ޤˤޤƸϾάλȤäƤ褤ۤɤǤʤʤΤǤ礦ϢܵǤϡϪƤޤ
#4612. εȯã ([2021-12-12-1]) ǰѤ Mufwene (51) ϡεȯãˤĤơǶᲿƤФƤƤȤ¤ϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ֽפ18ůؼԤμˤꡤǤ˽ФäƤȤǧ
For instance, the claim that language is what distinguishes mankind the most clearly from the animal kingdom is already evident in Condillac. It is also hard to sharply distinguish eighteenth-century arguments for the emergence of human language out of instinctive cries and gestures from Bickerton's position that the predecessor of his 'protolanguage' consisted of holistic vocalizations and gestures. The idea of gradualism in the evolution of language is not new either; and Rousseau had already articulated the significance of social interactions as a prerequisite to the emergence of language. And one can keep on identifying a number of current hypotheses which are hardly different from earlier speculations on the subject.
ǤϡȤäƤΰˤ븦椬ʤǤʤȤС櫓Ǥʤ Mufwene (51--52) ϵ³롥18ůؼԤ19θؼԤȡβ桹Ȥδ֤ˤϽפʰ㤤ĤȤ
1ܤϡ桹10--20ǯβпȲ桹Ȥ˶ŪˤֳŪˤۤʤä¸ߤǤ뤳ȤǧƤ뤳ȤεȯãǡǧϽפǤ롥
2ܤϡ桹εȯã⤬ "speculative" ʵǤȤȤǧƤ뤳Ȥ̤θС桹Τۤ夲äƲʳŪμθ³˼ŪʤΤǤ롥
3ܤϡ桹ϸȯãˤĤƳͥ˥ƤȤȤ줬ˤäͿ줿ǽϤǤȤΩԤ⡤ɤǤȤϤ¸ߤ롥ήθǤϡǽϤѰۤˤäƤΤȤƤ롥
4ܤϡ桹ϸι¤⥸塼벽줿ΤǤ (modular) ȹͤƤ롥ĤƤΤ褦˸ιǤ٤ƤȤƱȯȹͤɬפϤʤȤȤߤϡ줬ȯãƤȤȤƤ褤롥
Τ褦ˡˤʤäƲ⤬Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ18--19ˤȤƤʤäȤǤȤƤ褦ˤʤäȤȤϡ줳ʤΤ
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
ѸˤΥߥ˥ޥ२åʤȤ줿顤ɤΤ褦ʹܤ뤫#4084. ѸˤΤɬפʥߥ˥ޥʸŪμ ([2020-07-02-1]) #4143. ѸˤΥɤ10ĵʤȤ줿顩 ([2020-08-30-1]) Ǥ褦夲Ƥϻ伫Ȥ˹ͤΤǤ
ɤȤϥե졼ǤιȤʤä1ؤͤиФ5ܤޤǤ˰̤롥2ؤޤǿȡФ20ܤȤʤ롥3ؤޤǤ٤ƴޤȡФ34ܡ
30ʬۤɤǺäƤߤǤλƤ夳̲ƥåץǡȤΤ⤪⤷ǹԤʤäƤ뤳ȤϡפˡѸ˳ιֵܤȤʤä顤ɤΤ褦ʾΩƤߤ뤫ȤȤǤ롥ƿͤαѸ˴Ѥǡ¤ȿǤ줿ΤˤʤϤǡǽФäƤߤȥƥαѸ˥ߥ˥ޥ२åϤǤ礦
εȯãˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ origin_of_language evolution εǼ夲Ƥ夫鸽˻ޤ䤤³ƤŤƿȤ櫓ϳغŪʥץԲķǤ롥ޤ˿ΰǤꡤˤ̤˾ΤۤɤMufwene (14--15) "The Origins and the Evolution of Language" ꤹͤǡϢΰüꥹȤǼƤΤǡѤ롥
1. Was language given to humans by God or did it emerge by Darwinian evolution?
2. From a phylogenetic perspective, did language emerge abruptly or gradually? If the emergence of language was protracted, what plausible intermediate stages can be posited and what would count as evidence for positing them? Assuming that the structure of modern languages is modular, would gradual evolution apply to any of the modules, only to some of them, or only to the overall architecture? What is the probable time of the emergence of the first real ancestor of modern language?
3. Does possessing Language, the non-individuated construct associated exclusively with humans, presuppose monogenesis or does it allow for polygenesis? How consistent is either position with paleontological evidence about the evolution of the Homo genus? How did linguistic diversity start? Assuming Darwinian (variational rather than transformational) evolution, can monogenesis account for typological variation as plausibly as polygenesis?
4. What is the chronological relationship between communication and language? What light does this distinction shed on the relation between sign(ed) and spoken language? Did some of our hominin ancestors communicated by means of ape-like vocalizations and gestures? If so, how can we account for the transition from them to phonetic and signed languages? And how can we account for the fact that modern humans have favoured speaking over signing? Assuming that language is a communication technology, to what extent are some of the structural properties of language consequences of the linearity imposed by the phonic and signing devices used in their architecture.
5. Is the evolution of language more biological than cultural? Or is it the other way around, or equally both? Are languages as cultural artifacts deliberate inventions or emergent phenomena? Who are the agents in the emergence of language: individuals or populations, or both?
6. What is the relationship between language and thought? Did these entities co-evolve or did one cause the other?
7. Is there such a thing as 'language organ' or 'biological endowment for language'? How can it be characterized relative to modern humans' anatomical and/or mental makeups? What are the anatomical, mental, and social factors that facilitated the emergence of language?
8. Can we learn something about the evolution of language from historical language change, especially from the emergence of creoles and pidgins? Can we learn something from child language and/or from home sign language? And what can be learned from 'linguistic apes'? Does it make sense to characterize these particular communicative 'systems' as fossils of the human protolanguage . . . ? In the same vein, what can modelling contribute to understanding the evolution of language. This is definitely the kind of thing that scholars could not do before the twentieth century; it is important to assess its heuristic significance.
į䤤ȤȤ褯ʬ롥θ椷ƤѸˤѲ (language_change) ϡΤʬߤ¸ߤˤ⤳ʬľŪ˻뤫ʬʤٻǤ롥
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
ε#4610. marriage, carriage, verbiage ([2021-12-10-1]) ˾Ĵ٤ƤߤȤDobson (Vol. 2, 308) ˴Ϣ뵭ҤĤʲ "Syncope of the pretonic vowel" ȸФΤĤ줿ᤫΰѤǤ롥
When two vowels occur in hiatus there is a marked tendency towards syncope of the less stressed vowel, especially when it is the first of the two. The commonest case in ModE is in words with the ending -iage (carriage, &c.), in which syncope of the i occurs; the surviving vowel is ME ă . . . , which becomes [ə] and then unstressed [ɪ] . . . . This syncope is not shown by Bullokar; but Gil has mariǧabl 'marriageable', Price, Lye, Cooper, The Compendious School-Master, Cocker, and Brown say that i is silent in marriage, &c., and Coles (followed by Strong and Young) has the 'phonetic spellings' carridg, marridg. Pharaoh has silent a in Hodges. Atheist and atheism have syncope of the e in Lye, WSC, Brown, and the shorthand-writer Everardt. Geometry is commonly said to have 'silent e' by seventeenth-century spelling-books; exceptions are Brooksbank, who says the e was not sounded 'till of late', and The English Schole-Master (1646), which says that in geometry and George the eo has the sounds of both vowels, but not so distinctly as when they are apart---a remark which, in this source, may mean no more than that the e serves to 'soften' the g.
Ѹˤϡmarriage, carriage Τ褦ʲĶĸǤϸ治ü (syncope) ̤˵äƤȤʬ롥ȯǤϤΤ褦ʸ治üФƤʤΤ褦ʸĤäƤꡤξȯֻϤˤݻ줿ǽ⤤Ĥޤֻȯ (spelling_pronunciation) Ǥ롥
(323) ˤ marriage, carriage ˴ؤ뵭ҤĤѸξ嵭βĶǤθ治üȤơʲƤ롥
carriage / marriage / atheist / collier>collar / saviour>saver // creature / diamond / violet / vehment / vehicle
ޤ (423) ϡmarriage, carriage ʤɤѸ [j]- (yod-dropping) ȤƤƤ롥
tedous(=tedious) / genus(=genius) / delirous / comisson / recomendacon(=recommendation) / passonate(=passionate) / queston(=question) / experence(=experience) / carrage(=carriage) / marrage(=marriage) / opinon(=opinion) / curous(=curious) / varous(=various)
ϡֲѲΥ롼ȡפˤ1Ȥơּ岽ûƱפȤɽѤDobson ϡ־üפȤߤʤƤ뤳Ȥա
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957. 2 vols.
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
դȻפĤ䡥marriage/ˈmærɪʤ/ carriage /ˈkærɪʤ/ 2ȯ뤬Ʊ <-iage> ֻ verbiage /ˈvəːbiɪʤ/ 3ȯ롥ʤʤΤ
-age ϥե̾ͳ褹롥̤ȥƥ -āticum ƻˤˤɤĤѸǤ13鸫졤14--15ʹߡ¿Ѥ褦ˤʤäեͳǤ뤫顤ѸǤ϶ȼä /-aːʒ/ ȯƤ14˥ե줫Ѥ줿Ѹ mariage, cariage ⡤եˤۤɶᤤ /mariˈaːʒ/, /kariˈaːʒ/ ۤɤ3ȯäϤǤ롥
ȤȤˤ2ϡֱѸ첽פƤäѲΥ롼Ȥˡ(1) 1˰ܤꡤ(2) 23ᤫ鶯å -iage /-iɪʤ/ Ȥʤꡤ(3) Ʊʬ˼岽ûƱФ /-ɪʤ/ ȤʤäΤñΤȤƤߤ3ᤫ2ûʤäȤˤʤ롥
verbiage 3ݤäƤ롥嵭Υ롼ȤǤ (1), (2) ޤǤϷФ (3) ϷФƤʤȤʳǤ롥ñ marriage, carriage ⤺ä٤18˥ե줫ѤƤˡֱѸ첽פʬ˿ʤǤʤȤȤʤΤ
ʤߤƱ <-iage> triage /ˈtriːɑːʒ, triˈɑːʒ/ 18˥ե줫Ѥ줿ֱѸ첽פΥ롼ȤǤ (1) ʳˤ뤫뤤Ϥޤ롼Ȥ˾äƤʤʳˤȤ
<-iage> ȤֻбȯμϡǯȴˤϢưĤġ¿ͤǤ롥
Ѹˤ˴ؤäˤĤƤϡǶ#4604. ŪʱѸ˵Ҥ2Ĥ --- ޥͳɸѸŻ ([2021-12-04-1])#4605. ϱʸˡʤ̵ϱѸˡ ([2021-12-05-1]) ʤɤǹͤƤƤȤƤϤη֤Ǥ⤢ΤMilroy ŦƤ2Ĥνפʿáʤɸ쿮ġפȡָ쿮ġפˤĤƲƹͤƤߤ
ޤMilroy (25) ɸ쿮ġפˤĤơ
. . . the typical history has been influenced by, and sometimes driven by, certain ideological positions. The first of these implicitly suggests that the language is not the possession of all its native speakers, but only of the elite and the highly literate, and that much of the evidence of history can be argued away as error or corruption. The effect of this is to focus on what is alleged to be the standard language, but this is actually the language of those who have prestige in society, which may not always be a standard in the full sense. Of course, it may often be the same as the standard language, but this elitism can also mislead us into believing that speech communities are far less complex than they actually are and that the history of the language is very narrowly unilinear. We need a more realistic history than this.
ˡMilroy (25--26) ָ쿮ġפˤĤơ
The second position can be briefly characterised as an ideology of nationhood and sometimes race. This ideology requires that the language should be ancient, that its development should have been continuous and uninterrupted, that important changes should have arisen internally within this language and not substantially through language contact, and that the language should therefore be a pure or unmixed language. I have tried to show that much of the history of English is traditionally presented within this broad framework of belief. The problem, I have suggested, is that, prima facie, English as a language does not seem to fit in well with these requirements. For that reason much ingenuity has been expended on proving that what does not seem to be so actually is so: Anglo-Saxon is English, the development of English has been uninterrupted and the language is not mixed. The most recent strong defence of this position --- by Thomason and Kaufman (1988) --- is merely the latest in a long line. It demonstrates that this system of belief is --- for better or worse --- still operative in the historical description of English.
2ĤοáĤƤϤ褯狼뤷İͤ롥
1ˤʤ뤳Ȥ롥ǽΰѤ Milroy Ūʸ̮ǤϤΤΡ"the language is not the possession of all its native speakers" ȽҤ١줬üԤνͭʪȤȤƤΤˤƤθϤüԤ˺Ǥ¿ͿΤǤꡤޤäüԤνͭʪǤȤϰ츫Τ褦˻פ롥αѸΤ褦ʥեˤĤƸʸ̮ˤäƤϡüԤνͭʪǤ뤳ȤȤƤ褤ΤüԤޤѸüΤνͭʪǤȤȯۤ⤫ФʤäΤMilroy ŪʱѸˤȤμͤαѸäƤȤƤ뤬Milroy αѸ˴ѤȤơüԤαѸȤȤƤ뤫Τ褦ʹ´Ĥ롥
Milroy, Jim. "The Legitimate Language: Giving a History to English." Chapter 1 of Alternative Histories of English. Ed. Richard Watts and Peter Trudgill. Abingdon: Routledge, 2002. 7--25.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ε#4607. Ѹν ([2021-12-07-1]) ǡ"Middle English lyric" ȤħˤĤƸħ1ĤȤơ"I" "you" ˸꤫פȤƤˤĤơѤ Greentree (388--89) Τ褦˲äƤ롥
The 'lyric I' who addresses the 'you' implied in Middle English lyrics is a general, typical figure, an 'I' without ego, who may make the reader a participant in the poem. Anonymity helps efface the poets of many medieval lyrics, removing distractions to focus attention on the poem itself. Aspects of style may suggest a particular poet, place or time of composition. Some political verses recount historical events, and some poets describe their situations, but a manuscript's time of compilation does not necessarily reveal the dates when its contents were written, and biographical details may be fictions. These factors can enhance or diminish the reader's appreciation of a work. Acrostics and other devices sometimes reveal a poet's name or the place of composition. However, the lack of details of a poet's life and state of mind spares the reader fruitless speculation, since it is both easier and more profitable to concentrate on the lyric 'I'.
Ѹ "I" ϻܿͤؼȤ⡤ɤꡦʹǺʤƱ1;ñ̾ȤƵǽƤ롤ȤˤꡤͤïȤ䤤طʲƤΤΤ˾Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʤؤͶ1;ñ̾ʸŪˡȤǤ
ѸħʬϤƤ
Greentree, Rosemary. "Lyric." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 387--405.
ܲرμȤ Bennett and Smithers ΥѸν (Middle English lyrics) ɤǤ롥Ǥ褯ΤƤΤϡؾβλ Sumer is icumen in cf. #1438. Sumer is icumen in ([2013-04-04-1])ˡβΤˤؾİȤ뤬ĴҤȲλ줬뤯ؾˡƬǤ뤰äƤޤޤˤϤʤ롥
ѸνȤäƤ⡤ȤƤ¯ŪʤΤ⤢нŪʤΤޤǤ롥ΤޤᥫСϰϤϹSumer is icumen in Τ褦˲ڤ˺ܤΤ⤢СǤʤΤ⤢롥͡Ūû¿դˤûǤ "lyric" ȸƤǤޤΤǤϤʤȤ롥ºݡΥŤǤϲȤ䤤ФơüŪˡûǤפȤ⤢褦Greentree (388) "Characteristics of Lyrics" ˴ؤɤǤߤ褦
There are some constants in the genre. Ann S. Haskell notes a 'cluster of characteristics' including brevity, metrical pattern, rhyme scheme, theme and occasional hints of a plot. To John Burrow, the term 'usually means no more than a short poem', but he emphasizes 'the most characteristic axis of lyric poetry: the "I" addressing the "you", and distinguishes that 'I' from any other personal utterance, since the lyric 'I' 'speaks not for an individual but for a type' (Burrow 1982: 61). The voice of the lyric 'I' is always present, sounding many notes: laughing, weeping, expressing countless human feelings, praying, teaching or passing on scraps of knowledge.
ΥŤߤޤʤΤϡǤȿΤ¸Ƥ뤫Ǥ롥ष줳ѸνħʤΤ⤷ʤΤȤ Greentree (387) Τ褦ɽƤ롥
'Oh, to vex me, contraries meet in one'
Anyone who seeks the essence and boundaries of the medieval English lyric may find John Donne's line an apt expression of the task's pleasures and exasperations. The Middle English lyric attracts contraries of matter and manner, metre, diction and form. The slightest of structures may bear the weight of serious content with a paradox or exploration of holy mysteries in a form equally suited to celebration. Apparently artless forms may prove sophisticated and lavishly allusive. The disparate members of this genre vary from the glorious to the mundane . . . . Vexation comes from attempts to define the genre, to confine its members within a few descriptive sentences. Every statement can be questions, every adjective is ambiguous, every category has exceptions.
Ѹνϡ˰ηϸˤ衤ʤˤȤȤ館ƤƤ褤
Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Greentree, Rosemary. "Lyric." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 387--405.
Burrow, John. Medieval Writers and their Work: Middle English Literature and its Background 1100--1500. Oxford: OUP, 1982.
2021ǯ125俷ʹī8̤ε֥ץ̳ʺ֡ʡ̱ήʬǡפɤ
衼åѤͣʬǹȡץ (Republic of Cyprus) 泤ǡȾʬۤɤѤϤ120ͤ餷Ƥ롥ץϡ16ꥪޥΤȤʤäƤ1878ǯ˥ꥹ˳졤θ1960ǯ˥ꥹΩ1974ǯ˥ꥷϽ̱¦ˤΥǥˡȥ륳Ͻ̱¦ˤȥ륳ݸΤȤΩεᡤ1973ǯˡ̥ץȥ륳¹פȤΩʹߡʬDzäϤ³ƤܲʲҤˤήθˤäΤƤȤºݡɻߤΤ˸ĺƤ褦¦γˤϥ⥹Ω¦γˤϥꥹޥΥߥ͡ƤȤ


ޤΤƤʤץϥ衼åѤǤϿʤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ϰ1ĤǤꡤϢˮˤ°Ƥcf. #4474. ESL ϰγѡ ([2021-07-27-1])#1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1]) Ǥ EFL (English as a Foreign Language) ϰʬवƤꡤʬ̯꤬ؤäƤ褦ˤ衤McArthur (277) "English widely used" Ȥ̤ꡤҲŪ˹Ѹ줬ѤƤˤѤʤ
ʤߤˡ泤ϰǤϡۤ˥ޥ륿 (Malta) ȥ֥륿 (Gibraltar) ESLϰǤcf. #2228. ޥ륿αѸ (1) ([2015-06-03-1])#2229. ޥ륿αѸ (2) ([2015-06-04-1])#2920. Gibraltar English ([2017-04-25-1])ˡ
ץθ𡤤Ȥ櫓ѸѤμ¾ˤĤƤϾܤĴ٤ƤʤŪطʡ̱²ȤʣʼҲΤ褦Ǥ롥塤ؿƤ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ε#4604. ŪʱѸ˵Ҥ2Ĥ --- ޥͳɸѸŻ ([2021-12-04-1]) ˰³ŪʱѸ˵ҤФ Milroy ȽˤĤƹͤƤߤ Milroy ͤƬ1Ѥμ¤˥ѥȤĥƬ줿褦ʵ
This conventional history, as it appears in written histories of English for the last century or more, can be viewed as a codification -- a codification of the diachrony of the standard language rather than its synchrony. It has the same relationship to this diachrony as handbooks of correctness have to the synchronic standard language. It embodies the received wisdom on what the language was like in the past and how it came to have the form that it has now, and it is regarded as, broadly, definitive.
Ūʥ٥ˤƵϱʸˡɸѸʸƤΤƱ褦ˡ̻Ūʥ٥ˤŪʱѸ˵ҤʤֵϱѸˡפɸѸˤʸƤΤȤŦˤϡͤ줿θˤȡŪʱѸ˵Ҥ졤뤳ȤϡʤɸѸʤˡˤ졤뤳ȤˤĤʤ롥ΤȼΤϤȤ⤫ȤơʬǧŪʱѸ˵Ҥ줿ꡤꤷƤȼ伫ƤޤäɸѸʳˤ͡ʱѸ줬ΤƱͤˡŪʱѸ˵Ұʳˤ͡ʱѸˤϤǤ롥
"the history of English" ¸ߤʤ"alternative histories of English" Ǥ롥ҤȤȤΤϡ "a history of English" Ǥ롥λ͡ˤΤ椫顤ɤ1ĤΤκϲΤ褦䤤˾˰ռŪǤꤿ
Milroy, Jim. "The Legitimate Language: Giving a History to English." Chapter 1 of Alternative Histories of English. Ed. Richard Watts and Peter Trudgill. Abingdon: Routledge, 2002. 7--25.
ѸˤȤʬϡ켫ΤˤĹΤǡŪʡֱѸ˵ҡפȤ٤뤬ΩƤ롥Ѹˤ¿뤬¿εˤϰפƤ롥Ѹ줬²ΤʤΥޥɤ°ǤȤϤᡤȤ櫓ʹߤɸѸ (Standard English) Ȥ1ѼˤΤܤơޤǤˤȤΤ
ŪʱѸ˵ҤδˤϡؤαѸ˳μȤǤѤƤޤǽƤѸ˴ϢνҤ䵭ǤȤƤ٥뤫ȴФƳؽŪ˱Ѹˤ˸礦ʤС嵭Τ褦ŪʱѸ˵ҤΤ줷Ƥ櫓ˤϤʤȤϽšΤƤ롥ŪʱѸ˵ҤвɬפȾפäƤ롥
ŪʱѸ˵ҤȽŪɾäơ#3897. Alternative Histories of English ([2019-12-28-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ʊ̾ͽꡤ1Ϥɮ Milroy (7) Ƭ1ѤƤˤ줿褦ˡμήɤαѸ˵Ҥˤϡ2ĤȤŦ
The word 'history' is often understood simplistically to mean an accurate account of what happened in the past; yet, the writing of history can depend on differing underlying assumptions and can lead to differing interpretations. There can therefore be alternative histories of the same thing, including alternative histories of language. This chapter is about what may be called the conventional history of the English language, as it appears in many accounts, e.g. Jespersen (1962) and Brook (1958). This is seen as a particular version of history, which is one of a number of potential versions, and it is assumed that this version has reasonably clear and recurrent characteristics. The most prominent of these are: (1) strong emphasis on the early history of English and its descent from Germanic and Indo-European, and (2) from 1500 onward, an almost exclusive focus on standard English. Thus, the functions of this history are primarily to provide a lineage for English and a history for the standard language (in effect, the recent history of English is defined as the history of this one variety). Plainly, if we chose to focus on varieties other than the standard and if we did not accept the validity of the Stammbaum model of language descent, the version of history that we would produce would be substantially different.
νФ餷ơҲؼ Milroy ˤŪʱѸ˵ҤؤεǰäƤ롥¿αѸ˳ؽԡʤƸԡˤȤƤ2ˤĤơ⤷äƤߤ顤ɤʱѸ˵ҤˤʤΤѸ줬ȤʤäƤ븽ߡλͼ¸ϤȤƤפǤ롥
Milroy, Jim. "The Legitimate Language: Giving a History to English." Chapter 1 of Alternative Histories of English. Ed. Richard Watts and Peter Trudgill. Abingdon: Routledge, 2002. 7--25.
ε#4602. Barbados Ω鶦ء ([2021-12-02-1]) ǡֳϰαѸ1ĤŵХХɥˤάҤѸȴϢƱϰ⤦1ĽפʹΤǤСְ㤤ʤޥ#1680. The West Indies θ ([2013-12-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡХХɥƱͤ˥ޥǤѸ١Υ쥪뤬ԤʤƤ롥

ޥǤϡJamaican Creole ϲظ (basilect) ȤѤƤꡤФɸʥޥ˱Ѹ줬ظ (acrolect) ȤƻȤƤ롥ξԤδ֤ˤظ (mesolect) ¿Ѽ郎ǧ졤ŵŪ post-creole_continuum) ƤҲȤäƤ褤Ϣ³ΤˤĤơSand (2125) ȤƸƤߤ褦cf. #385. Guyanese Creole Ϣ³Ρ ([2010-05-17-1]) Ȥӡˡ
| Standard (Jamaican) English | he went down there | Acrolect | |
| he wen dong de | |||
| (h)im go dong de | |||
| (h)im dida go dong de | Mesolect | ||
| (h)im neva go dong de (negative only) | |||
| Jamaican Creole | im ben go dong de | Basilect |
121դǡɽξƥˤХХɥ¹ȤʤäϢˮˤϻĤΤΡꥹΥꥶ٥ȤΩ鶦˰ܹԤȤˤʤcf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡƱֽ͡פȤĤ̳Ƥɥ顦ᥤХХɥνΤȤƽǤǤˤϥꥹΥ㡼륺Ҥ⻲äʿ¤ʽ˲ǤϤäطʤˤϥꥹ̱ϤȤƤǧθľä

ϤؤΥꥹͤӥɿͤˤϡ4ۤ1627ǯˤΤܤ롥ǯϫƯԤˤ륿Хݤ˱ɤ1642ǯˤϿ37ͤޤƤ¤ήԤȺʤΥȥӤؤžˤꡤ꤬ѤȥӤϹץơǺݤ졤ϫƯäˡϫƯϤեꥫпȤιˤä֤줿ΤǤ롥̤Ȥơ1685ǯˤ2ͤФƹ46ͤȤȤʤäƤߡХХɥο29ͤΤ9ʾ夬ͤǤ롥
17ȾοεѲϡХХɥθˤ¿ʱƶڤܤޤǥꥹͤȥɿͤäѸ줬ŤƤλʹߤ줬쥪벽ΤǤ롥Barbadian Creole ʤ뤤 BajunˤȸƤФ뤳Υ쥪ϡߡХХɥˤɸѸȤȤѤƤ롥ХХɥαѸˤϡϰΤαѸˤɽƤȤäƤ褤 (Sand 2121)
ХХɥ1966ǯ˥ꥹΩζؤΰܹԤϡ2ΩפȤħŪʰյġۤˤ⥨ꥶ٥ȤΩϥꥹʳˤ14ĤäƤꡤ¿ơֳϰ˰֤롥ΥХХɥζܹԤˡս³ƤΤǤϤʤȤ¬ʤƤ롥
ֳϰˤѸˤϡؤʣǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ#1679. The West Indies αѸ ([2013-12-01-1])#1700. ꥹȯαѸγȻǯɽ ([2013-12-22-1])#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1])#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1]) ۤ caribbean γƵǼ夲ƤΤǡȤ줿
Sand, Andrea. "Second-Language Varieties: English-Based Creoles." Chapter 135 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2120--34.
ʸˡˤĤѤɸ3ĤѸϡ褽ƱƤؤΤȤƤ褦˻פ롥ĿͤˤäƸ촶ϰۤʤ뤫⤷ʤ伫Ȥޤ̤ռ3ԤѤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤷ͳ˸Ƥ륱ʤʤ
ƹͤƤߤȡ̯˥˥奢ۤʤ褦˻פ롥餫ǤϤ뤬ƱǤϤʤ3ԤȤؼоݤƱʤȤϸ鷺Ȥ⡤ʤȤ⤪褽ŤʤˤΤؼ٤ۤʤ롥ե졼ήˤС3Ԥϡְ̣ (Bedeutung) ۤƱǤְյ (Sinn) ϰۤʤcf. #2795. ְ̣ؼоݡ ([2016-12-21-1])ˡθĿŪʸ촶Ǥ뤳ȤǤĤġ3Ԥζ̤ˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ֵʸˡ (prescriptive_grammar) ϡѸ˸ԤǤˤȤä˱ѸѸǤ롥17νФơλȤ18˶δ쵬ϼ (prescriptivism) ΩӤոΥޥʡȤƼʤФʤʤϢθˡ뤤϶ܤȻפʤз褷ȯƤϤʤʤ֤٤餺פȤƤαʸˡǤ롥Robert Lowth (1710--87) Lindley Murray (1745--1826) ˤʸˡȤ롥Ǥϵʸˡ (descriptive grammar) ֤뤳Ȥ¿ʸˡǤϤʤȤơФȽоݤȤ롥Ѹʳء˻ˤ˰֤ŤʤСʸˡܼϡǤ˱ѸƤꡤ̤˻ȤʤѸüԤǰƬˤոΥޥʡǤȤˤȻϹͤƤ롥
ֳعʸˡפϰ "school grammar" ȱͿ뤳ȤϤǤΤΡŪˤܤαѸ춵ʻˡ˾ѸǤϤʤʸֳ̤عdzؤ֡ʸˡפȼʤС嵭18εʸˡ˴ŤƤʤ⡤ŪʴäƸ˥åץǡȤ줿ܤγعαѸ춵ˤ븽αʸˡؤΤȤȤ館뤳ȤϤǤ롥ʸˡȤƼºݤ⤫ƤȤƤϡʸˡعʸˡʬϤưۤʤʤؼоݤƱȤϸ鷺Ȥ⡤ʬ˶̤Ƥ롥عʸˡܼϡѸȤʤѸؽԤعˤƽ٤ʸˡǤȤˤ롥ʸˡܼȤƿָոΥޥʡפϡ˱ʸˡƤѸüԤˤȤäƤؿȤʤΤФơعʸˡȤϤޤ2ȤƤαѸ뤿˳عǼ갷ʸˡǤ롥褽ƱƤؤƤȤϤξԤΥ礭ۤʤ롥
ǸˡʸˡפˤĤơ"traditional grammar" ȱ뤬ؼƤƤϡʸˡعʸˡ礭ۤʤ櫓ǤϤʤ褦˻פ롥18εʸˡ21ޤǶƤعʸˡδ֤Υΰ㤤ϾҤ̤ŪˤξԤϡפȤϢ³ƤȤ¤ĴˡԥäѸǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥˴Ťǿαʸˡ֤Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢ˤȤäƤϡ18εʸˡήߤĤġޤǡʳعʸˡˤƤ˱ƶϤ³Ƥ륿פαʸˡȤްդ롥ΤᡤѸüԤˤȤäƤüԤˤȤäƤȤѸʤΤǤϤʤ
ʾޤȤȡʸˡعʸˡʸˡ3ĤѸϡؤƤʸˡܤƤΤΤ礭ۤʤʤɤȤ館뤫Ȥ˱ơ伫ȤϡʻȤʬƤˤϡ˻ȤʬƤ褦˻פΤǤ롥
ߤʤϡ3ĤѸɤΤ褦ˤȤ館Ƥޤ
2026 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2025 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2024 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2023 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2022 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2021 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2020 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2019 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2018 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2017 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2016 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2015 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2014 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2013 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2012 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2011 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2010 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
2009 : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12
ǽ: 2026-07-01 06:06
Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow