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Ȥ̾դˤɸʣʷֲФƷ줿ư줬롥˶С t graft hoist ΤȤ
ε#3777. set, put, cut Τۤˤ⤢ä̵ѲѤư ([2019-08-30-1]) Ȥط뤷#438. ƻӵ餫ưؤž ([2010-07-09-1])#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1])#3763. ƻ -ate εȯã ([2019-08-16-1])#3764. ư -ate εȯã ([2019-08-17-1]) Ȥ̩ܤ˴ؤ롤θǤ롥
graft ܤڤ롤ܿˤϥե grafe ̤ꡤȤȸ t ϤʤäѸ˼Ѥƺ줿ʬ graft 餯 set, put, cut ʤɤθ촴 -t ̵ѲưǥȤơΤޤȤƲᤵ줿Ȥ櫓ꥸʥ˶ᤤ graff ȤԸդǤϤ뤬˳ǧ롥
Ʊͤ hoist Ȥ롤夲ˤ⡤ hyssen ѤΤѸƳ줿ǡ t դȺƲᤵ줿ȹͤ롥ꥸʥ˶ᤤ hoise ⡤ߡȤ¸ߤ롥
ʾ Jespersen (38) ľܰѤƤ
graft: earlier graft (< OF grafe). The ptc. graft was mistakenly interpreted as the unchanged ptc of an inf graft. Sh has both graft and graft; the latter is now the only form in use; it is inflected regularly. || hoist: originally hoise (perhaps < Middle Dutch hyssen). From the regular ptc hoist a new inf hoist sprang into use. Sh has both forms; now only hoist as a regular vb. The old ptc occurs in the well-known Shakespearean phrase "hoist with his own petard" (Hml III. 4.207).
Ƭ̾դˤֲȽҤ٤ʬ (metanalysis) Ȥʬ (reanalysis) ΰȤƸƤФ褤
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
set, put, cut त̵ѲѤưˤĤơ#1854. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. ([2014-05-25-1])#1858. ̵ѲѤư set -- set -- set, etc. (2) ([2014-05-29-1]) εǼ夲ƤǤϡưοѸβˤ˾Ȥ餻СϤΤͿ뤳Ȥߤ
촴 t d ñǤ롤ȤΤưζ̹ŪˤϡξƤ¤ˤơۤưƱ̵ͤѲѤƤȤäȤСfast, fret, lift, start, waft ʤɤǤ롥Jespersen (36) Ƹ褦
4.42. The influence of analogy has increased the number of invariable verbs. Especially verbs ending in -t tend in this direction. The tendency perhaps culminated in early ModE, when several words now regular had unchanged forms, sometimes side by side with forms in -ed:
fast. Sh Cymb IV. 2.347 I fast and pray'd for their intelligense. || fret. More U 75 fret prt. || lift (from ON). AV John 8.7 hee lift vp himselfe | ib 8.10 when Iesus had lift vp himselfe (in AV also regular forms) | Mi PL 1. 193 With Head up-lift above the wave | Bunyan P 19 lift ptc. || start. AV Tobit 2.4 I start [prt] vp. || waft. Sh Merch. V. 1.11 Stood Dido .. and waft her Loue To come again to Carthage | John II. 1.73 a brauer choice of dauntlesse spirits Then now the English bottomes haue waft o're.
Jespersen Τ褦ˡŪˡ뤤ϲѲˤäǤ륿פ̵ѲưȤϡޤ set ʤɴ¸Ū̵Ѳư˿ȯ줿 (analogy) η̤Ȥ̵ѲưȤߤ٤Ǥ2Ū̵ѲưȸƤǤ褤⤷ʤϸޤǤˤɸѸ줫ϾäȤϤʤ櫓ǤϤʤȤΤϡ餬ΥǥȤʤäơʤƤǽ⤢뤫Ĥޤꡤ촴 -t ǽ뤬θΤ褦ñǤʤХޥͳǤʤΤˤ顤Ʊݤĥܤ뤫ǰƬ֤ƤΤϡεǤꤢ -ate ưʤɤǤʡ#3764. ư -ate εȯã ([2019-08-17-1]) ȡˡ
Ʊ Jespersen (36--37) ꡤλݤ˴ؤսѤ褦
4.43. It was thus not at all unusual in earlier English for a ptc in -t to be = the inf. The analogy of these cases was extended even to a series of words of Romantic origin, namely such as go back to Latin passive participle, e. g. complete, content, select, and separate. These words were originally adopted as participles but later came to be used also as infinitives; in older English they were frequently used in both functions (as well as in the preterit), often with an alternative ptc. in -ed; . . . A contributory cause of their use as verbal stems may have been such Latin agent-nouns as corruptor and editor; as -or is identical in sound with -er in agent-nouns, the infinitives corrupt and edit may have been arrived at merely through subtraction of the ending -or . . . . Finally, the fact that we have very often an adj = a vb, e. g. dry, empty, etc . . ., may also have contributed to the creation of infs out of these old ptcs (adjectives).
ѤθȾǡΥǥ뤬ۤˤ2Ĥ˿ƤΤפǤ롥corruptor, editor פε (back_formation) dry, empty פư졦ƻѤñ¸ߤǤ롥#1748. -er or -or ([2014-02-08-1])#438. ƻӵ餫ưؤž ([2010-07-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
#3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡǽˤñǶȼäƤΤ¿ơɤΤ褦ʾѤ뤫ϡȤƤŪ˱Ʒꤵ롥ŪˤСñΤѤȤʸ˵Ȥˤ϶ʳξˤϼѤΤ§Ǥ롥顤٤ȤưŪ˾äƤ뤳Ȥ狼ŵŪ (121) 褦
| ñ | ʸ | ʸ | |
|---|---|---|---|
| am | [æm] | Indeed I am [æm]. | I am [əm/m] leaving today. |
| is | [ɪz] | I think she is [ɪz]. | The grass is [əz/z] wet. |
| do | [duː] | You earn more than I do [duː]. | What do [də] they know? |
| will | [wɪl] | No more than you will [wɪl]. | That will [wəl/wl̩/əl/l̩] do. |
| can | [kæn] | But you can [kæn]. | George can [kən/kn̩] go. |
| at | [æt] | Who're you looking at [æt]? | Look at [ət] that. |
| for | [fɔr] | What did you do it for [fɔr]? | They did it for [fər/fr̩] fun. |
| to | [tuː] | The one we are talking to [tuː]. | They're going to [tə] Spain. |
| of | [ɑːv] | What are you thinking of [ɑːv]? | a lot of [əv/ə] apples |
#3719. ܸϳ졤ѸIJ ([2019-07-03-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸŪˤͭɸβפǤIJ¿ĸǤ뤳Ȥϻ¤ǤѸβѲĬήįƤߤȡѸ̵ɸγָƤȹͤ줽Ǥ롥
ƣ߷ĤϸѸˤߤ r Ʋ (flapping; city, data ʤɤ t [ɾ] Ȥʤ븽)l ΰƬ (pharyngealization; feel, help ʤɤ l Ť [ɫ] Ȥʤ븽)Ҳæattem(p)t, exac(t)ly, mos(t) people ʤɡˤȤä夲ⲻλҲؤäƤꡤβ˶ŤƤΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ʲβѤ褦 (70)
Ʋϡ˳ /t/ 첻ŪʶIJѤ븽ݤǤꡤϰ첻 (vocalization) ȹͤ롥ᤤäǤϡbetter [bɛ́r] Τ褦ˡƲ줿 /t/ æ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ޤ/l/ ΰƬǤϡΤ˰ưä뤬ܼŪ첻ŪưǤꡤ/l/ ܸΡ֥פΤ褦첻˶Ťºݡfeel [fíːjo] Τ褦ˡ/l/ 첻ˤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥äơ/l/ ΰƬ⡤IJ /l/ 첻˶Ť첻ȹͤ롥Ҳæϡ첻ǤϤʤIJˤ벻λҲϢñ㲽븽ݤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡĤθݤϡ⡤λҲ첻ꡤæ뤳ȤˤäơǸ夬첻ǽ볫˶Ť褦ȤƤ븽ݤǤꡤǽŪˤ϶̤Ƥ뤳Ȥ狼롥άܼŪ˳ָѸϡޤޤʲݤʤ顤IJ˶Ť褦ȤƤȹͤ롥
ϲѲṽ¤ΤȴϢƤȤβṽ¤Τ켫ȤϡꥺȤäΧˤäƷꤵƤȤ⤤롥ϲѲ˴ؤʲǤ롥#3387. ʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻Ѳ¿Τ ([2018-08-05-1])#3466. űѸ첻β̤Ѹʹߤ첻βŻ뤷 ([2018-10-23-1]) ȡ
ƣ ͺ߷ رѸ١ҡ2001ǯ
831ڡˤ14?1791ˤ10?12ˡͧˤơֱѸˤ鸫븽Ѹפꤹ2ιֱԤʤޤϡYMCAʸ33ǤΰǤ
绨ĤʱǤϤޤϡѸ˴ؤ͡ѤʵŪ˼夲Ѹˤδ褷ƤȤݤäʤͽǤֱθȾˤϡäƤ볧εդ˵ƤȤȤͤƤޤϢơƱݤܥ֥#3677. Ѹ˴ؤѤʵפƤߤޤ ([2019-05-22-1])뤤 sobokunagimon γƵ⤴
2ܤΥåϡѸˤĤƹͤޤ⤽ȤϲȤϤɤۤʤΤȤäϤᡤܸνȤĤġɤäƤ븽ѸϰΤƤߤޤ졦λࡤ̡͡ʱѸ졤ȤƤαѸΤĵῴϤȱϤʤɤ˿ʤ顤ѸˤȤɤޤ餺졦¿ˤĤƹͤƤȻפޤε̤ơ䤿ؤӡѤƤɸѸ줬ˤƤɤΤ褦Ω֤ˤ뤫褯ʬ褦ˤʤȻפޤαѸȤդ礤ͤǻͤˤʤϤǤ˴ؤƤϡdialect world_englishes ʤɤεȤ
2֤ε ([2019-08-24-1], [2019-08-25-1]) ˰³Wittgenstein θѤˤĤơWittgenstein 쥲 (Sprachspiel, language-game) ȤȤ館ȤˤäơηŪ椬ԲǽǤ뤳ȤƤȹͤ롥쥲ȸ츦ԲǽϤɤΤ褦˷ӤĤΤ (206--08) ιͻѤ褦
ȥ奿ϤʤΤ褦˹ͤΤεФ餫ǤϤʤĤͳʤȻפΡˤ仡뤳ȤϤǤ롥
ȥ奿ϸѤˤʤ館ƹͤΡ쥲פȤɽ¿Ѥ롥㤨Сָ쥲ˤ֤פȤĤϤä̾ؤƤΤס̾ؤȤϤǤϸ쥲ˤưǤϤޤäʤסȤ쥲ȸΤ٤Ƥ˶̤벿ĤΤΡʤ쥲ܼʤɤȤΤϡˤСʤΤǤ롥ˡ͡ʸ쥲ϸߤ˻̤äƤϤ뤬˶̤Τ¸ߤʤ²ŪƤʤΤǤ롥ֻϤ²ŪȤˤʳɤħŤѤΤʤסϻˡ⤷ʳŪõ椬Ǥ츦оݤܼ¸ߤõ椹ΤȤʤСˤܼʤɤ⤽ʤΤǤ뤫顤ˤĤƲʳŪõȤȤϤꤨʤȤˤʤ
ޤΤ褦ʤȤͤ롥ʳؤDzƤ뤫ȤȤõ椹롥ȤȤФ줬ؼΤʸ̣ΤȤ褦䤤ϸδ֤δط䤦Ƥ롥äơϥȥ奿ˤвʳŪ䤤ǤϤʤϡٰ͡बѤƤ븫Ǥ롥ȤС⡤ˤĤƤβʳŪõؤŪ٤ФǤ
뤤ϤޤΤ褦ȯۤ⤢Τ⤷ʤˤϵ§ʤˡ§ȤФи롥勞˴ؤˡ§ε§̣ε§ơºݡؼԤůؼԡʤΰˤϤˡ§䵬§Фȯ褦ϤƤΤǤ롥ʤ顤ˤΤ褦ʵ§ȤƤ⡤ϲʳŪõоݤȤʤ褦ʼΤΤʤΤȥ奿ˤСѤ˴ؤꡤ֤٤ƤϤभФˤˤΤǤ뤫顤٤ΤϲʤסʰϻˤΤǤ롥ФơαԤˡ§丶ҤοˤĤƤˡ§ʤɤϡ֤भФˡפƤϤʤäơפᤵ뤳ȤäƤ
ʳؤˡ§ȸ츽ݤ˸뵬§---Τ褦ʤΤȤƤäǤ뤬---δ֤ˤϤ˸㤬褦˻פ롥ȤΤϡԤε§ϤȤƤäƤ뤫Ǥ롥ȤСʪؤˡ§˽äƱưƤʪΤϤΤ褦ֱư٤פ餽Τ褦˱ưƤ櫓ǤϤʤñˤʪΤαưˤϤΤ褦ʵ§ФˤʤФơڤפȤ褦ɽ̾ѤʤȤˤϡñˤΤ褦ʵ§ȤǤϤʤïֻڤ٤ȤפȽҤ٤ʤС֤ϤסѤɽס֤Τ褦ʸϤ٤ǤϤʤסȻŦ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥ƱΤ褦뤳ȤǤ롥ʤʳؤˡ§ξ硤ˡ§ˤ褦ʻ---ȿڻȸ---Ф줿ʤСˡ§⤽ˡ§ǤϤʤäȡΤФơ츽ݤ˸뵬§ξ---ǤϤʤ¿μҲݤ˸뵬§ξ---ˤϡȿڻȸΤФ줿Ȥˤϡλ˴Ϳ͡㤨Сֻڤ٤Ȥפȸäͤϡֵ§ˤäפȤȽ졤פ褦ΤǤʸ츽ݤǤʤҲݤƱͤΤȤäˤϡֹŪǤʤסŪפȤȽ뤫⤷ʤˡƱʼξʤĤβҤ䤵ƤȤˤϾԤʤ¤㤦Ȥ§ĥ줿Ȥ褦ΤȤͤ⤤äʤСε§ʤäȤΤǤϤʤषοͤŪǤʤäȤ櫓Ǥ롥
ȥ奿θۤˤСˤܼʤäƲʳؤоݤȤϤʤʤȤȤˤʤ롥ϳصŪоݤˤϤʤޤǥθˤΤ¸ߤӸݤˤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
͵ظů١Ҧ˼2003ǯ
ε ([2019-08-24-1]) Wittgenstein 쥲 (Sprachspiel, language-game) ˿줿Bussmann (262) Ѹ켭ŵˤȼ̤ꡥ
language game
L. Wittgenstein's term referring to complex units of communication that consist of linguistic and non-linguistic activities (e.g. the giving of and complying with commands in the course of collaborating on the building of a house). Signs, words, and sentences as 'tools of language' have in and of themselves no meaning; rather meaning is derived only from the use of these items in particular contexts of language behavior.
¾ڼ (logical positivism) ž Wittgenstein ΡΤ褦 ƥȽŻθѤ̣Ѥϡů (ordinary language philosophy) 礭ʱƶͿȯù (speech_act) ޤ (pragmatics) ȯŸˤ"the meaning of a word is its use in the language" Ȥ̣ΤȤ館ϡʤ꤬ΤΡ1ĤθȤߤʤƤ롥
̣ΰ̣˴Ϣơ#1782. ̣ΰ̣ ([2014-03-14-1])#1990. ͡ʼΰ̣ ([2014-10-08-1])#2199. Bloomfield ˤȤäƤΰ̣ΰ̣ ([2015-05-05-1])#2794. ְ̣ ([2016-12-20-1])#2795. ְ̣ؼоݡ ([2016-12-21-1]) ʤɤƤȤӤ줿
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) Ǵñ˿줿٤ȥꥢޤůؼ Wittgenstein (1889--1951) ϡ1953ǯ˽Ǥ줿ˤơ Sprachspiel "language-game" ȤȤ館쥲͡ʳưʤͷӤǡΤ褦ʳưޤޤʰƣ߷ġp. 18 ˡ
᤹̿롤̿˽
ʪγҤ롤뤤Ϥ¬
𤹤
ˤĤƿ¬
Ωơڤ
ʪ롤ɤ
ؾζʤΤ
̤
ºŪʿؤ
¾θ
䤹롤դ롤ΤΤ롤Ĥ롤ʤ
ϡ̣Ǹνǽ¤٤ꥹȤȤ롥εǽˤĤƤ¿ε뤬#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) ϤȤ function_of_language γƵȤ줿
ƣ ͺ߷ رѸ١ҡ2001ǯ
#1281. ū ([2012-10-29-1])#1327. ҥȤθ˶̤7Ĥ ([2012-12-14-1]) ʤɤǿʹ֤θħƤ¿ʣ뤬ƣ߷ (10--16) ⤷ʤƤ8ħ伫ȤΥȤäʤ鼨
(1) ΤȤƲѤ
դǤʸΤȤʤ뤷θ (body language) ȿ (gesture language) ⤢С (sing language) ʤɤ⤢Τϻ¤Ǥ롥ϤŪʵ (semiotics) ǰоݤȤ٤Ǥ롥ʹ֤νˤߤŪħȤƤϡΤȤƤ뤳Ȥ롥#1063. ʹ֤θϤʤ˰¸ƤΤ (1) ([2012-03-25-1])#1064. ʹ֤θϤʤ˰¸ƤΤ (2) ([2012-03-26-1])#2535. (sign) μ --- ʤˤʬ ([2016-04-05-1]) ȡ
(2) ŪʵǤ
ƽפʸħǤ롥#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1])#2224. 塼ˤ ([2015-05-30-1])#2445. ܥˤ̵ռ ([2016-01-06-1]) ۤ arbitrariness γƵȡ
(3) Ϲ¤η (system) Ǥ
ˤƤϡǤǥ¤Ǥ櫓ǤϤʤηޤˤä¤٤Ƥ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2245. Meillet "tout se tient" --- ηϤȤƤθ ([2015-06-20-1])#2246. Meillet "tout se tient" --- Ҳˤ ([2015-06-21-1]) ȡ
(4) ϼҲ٤Ǥ
ϡ춦ƱΤǰμҲȤƺ줿ηϤǤ롥ĿͤѤΤǤϤʤҲŪۤ줿ηϤǤ롥
(5) Ϸ (form) Ǥäơ¼ (substance) ǤϤʤ
塼ϡ쵭ͤǷȼ¼̤٤ȤĥˤƤϡޤݲˤȤäƤ̵طǤ롥ˤȤäʤΤϡΥ롼Ƥ륳ޤεǽ뤤ϲͤǤ롥ξ硤ޤεǽͤꡤޤκ¼롥Ϣơ#1074. Hjelmslev θء ([2012-04-05-1]) ȡ
(6) žܸ (displaced speech)
˴ͿΰʳΤȡʺΤȤ䡤̤ξǵäƤ뤳ȤʤɡˤȤ뤳ȤǤΤȤǤ롥ưʪĤʤɤϡλξ˸¤ƤꡤŪŪΥ줿ΤؤȤǤʤʹ֤θϡŪŪΥ줿ΤˤǤФ꤫¤ˤʤȡʤ̡ˤɽ魯ȤǤ롥
(7) ¤ (creativity)
ǤͳŪȤ߹碌ơ̵¤˿ʸ߽ФȤǤ롥
(8) ʬ (double articulation)
#767. ʬ ([2011-06-03-1])#1062. ʬˤ뤫 ([2012-03-24-1]) ȡ
ưʪΥߥ˥ˤϡ(1) ʳħߤʤȤդ
ƣ ͺ߷ رѸ١ҡ2001ǯ
(linguistics) ȥե (philology) ϡȤ˸椹ʬǤʤ顤֤ª뤳Ȥ¿ԤϡʸءפƤаޤ뤬餤뤳Ȥ顤ФФΤޤޡ֥եפȲʸǾΤ롥
츦Ū˥եȸƤФƤ19--20ʹߤ˰̲ؤȯŸƤȡԤ̤ؤȸƤ֤褦ˤʤäξԤδ֤ˤϰʲΤ褦㤬롥
| ե | ||
|---|---|---|
| о | ʸʸؤôΤȤƤθʤäơ̱²ʸȤ | 켫Ρʤäơʸʸؤ⤿ʤоݤȤʤ |
| ظ | ƥȻظŪǡ濴Ū | ƥȻظŪ濴Ū |
| Ū | ܻؤȤСֱѸפ餫ˤ褦Ȥ | ̲ηϤιܻۤؤ |
| Ū | Ū |
ε#3767. ܤ̡ ([2019-08-20-1]) ˰³İθѤˤĤơİϡܸɽΥαưˤͿƤʤäإܥܼȤˤͤùޤʤä褦Ʊβοͤǡإ٤ڤؿҲˤϤäȤʤäȲۤƤ뤬ʰġp. 176--77ˡȼҲϢŤƹͤƤ롥̸䥫ʤǽäƤİˤȤäơܸƱˤʤȤפäΤ⤷ʤ
(177) ϡİΥѤ䲾̾ѡӤ֤ȤƤδѤˤĤơΤ褦˰ѤƤ롥
¸٤סʰȬˤǡֺ椬ɽ̾ȤʤĤƹԤޤȤʤĤƹԤĤơΤޡФ줿顤ܤθ줬ɤդȤˤʤǤ餦פȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȯΤޤޤ˽褦ˤȡˤ⤿餵ΤϺʬǤʤȤǧȤȤǤ롥ҲΥȤϢưƤΤǤϤʤ϶İˤȤäƤϡְפȤ¿ͤʲߤʤ롤פμʤäΤ⤷ʤ
źθˤˤơʤ븢ϤäƤƤ⡤͡äդ¿ޤळȤǤᤷϤʤդˤơΤ褦äդ¿ߤʤ뤳ȤϤǤ롥ºݡʸĶҲ¿Ǥϡդɸಽ̾ΤȤˡޤˤΤȤԤʤäƤΤǤ롥κݤˡɽʸѤۤȯ¿ߤʤ䤹ȤϤޤǤʤɽʸϡ̤ȯȥ졼Ȥɽ路Ƥޤˡȯ¿ʤȤŪˤСɽʸɽʸȤǤϡԤΤۤɸಽ˸ƤȤȤ⤷ʤ¿ʤȤƤɽʸȤȤ館ŪͤƤȻפ
˽Ҥ٤ƤȯΤޤޤ˽褦ˤȡˤ⤿餵ΤϺʬǤʤȤǧפϡ䤿ˤⶦ䤹ΤǤϤʤѸˤߤСѸޤˤΤ褦ʺʬλäΤǤ롥θˤƤɸŪֻȯãƤȤˤʤ롥#929. ѸɸδפȤʤäͳ ([2011-11-12-1])#1311. ֻɸಽϤʤɬפ ([2012-11-28-1])#1450. Ѹֻ¿ϤϤؤǤ ([2013-04-16-1]) Ϥ me_dialect γƵȡ
ϯضİܸζ١ʿҡʿҿӡ2008ǯ
#3603. ²ۡ ([2019-03-09-1]) εǡꥹʤˤˤȤäơ²ۤ䤽Ÿ͡ʪϡʬγۤƤ뤳Ȥԡ뤹ʤäȤߤϯˡضİܸζ٤ɤǤơ褯˽Ф路ܤ˹ԤʤƤ륢̡ʸˤޤ͡ʰۼ̱²Ÿ뤳ȤˤäơȤƤϤԡ뤷ƤΤǤϤʤȤĤϡİ⤽Τ褦ʴ饢̡ʸˤȤ館ƤȤߤƤ롥İκǽܤǤؿء١1912ǯˤΡּפˡΤ褦ˤʰġp. 71--72 ¹ˡ
̴ʸƸγؽȤֶԤϡס㡹˳ͤˤưפʤºʤĤƤ롥ϡäγؼԤ˵ȡν̵θɴ¿˾뤬Ѥ¶˻ġʰϻͤġˤ礭ŵ롥졦졦Ω줳Ǥ롥Ѹ졦ʩ¶γͼθϡޤƶ°ϸΩˡܸ°롥
Ƹȡ͡ʷ֤Τΰ̳ǰϡξ줿ܡ̿ͤ͡ϡͤˤʤˤϼĻͤ˽Ƥ롥
⡤ͤĤŵ˴ѤˤϡλĤξˡȤդΤäؤ롥ȡܤˤϡ̤Ȥ²äƹڤ˹ԤϤƤ롥ޤѤˤν٤ΩäƤΤǡܤȤչϤʤƼθθܤؤĤۤδѤ롥¤˸츦Ω˱ƤϡܿͤŷͿøäƤΤǤ롥
ĤޤꡤܤϡڤĥȤˤꡤΤޤȤ٤¸ߤȤʤäȤ櫓Ǥ롥ȤϡŪʰ̣ǸäƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤΤϡ1912ǯ10˾ǡפ졤ǥ̤ޤ١䡼ī˴ؤ븫ʪºݤŸ줿ΤǤ롥ơİϡŸ٤ˤäƤ̸ΥեޥȤѤơΥ̸츦ʤ뤳ȤǤ
ȸػˤˤϡפΤۤ¿ηˤĤƤϡ#3020. οҤȤƤӸ (1) ([2017-08-03-1])#3021. οҤȤƤӸ (2) ([2017-08-04-1])#3376. οҤȤƤαѸʸء ([2018-07-25-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ϯضİܸζ١ʿҡʿҿӡ2008ǯ
ɸ bend -- bent -- bent, lend -- lent -- lent, rend -- rent -- rent, wend -- went -- went ʤɤȤȤ˸ -nd -- -nt -- -nt Ȥʤ륿פԵ§ưʤʬˤ̵ -t ΤϡŪˤɬ餫ˤƤʤfeel -- felt -- felt, keep -- kept -- kept ʤɡʬȤ -t ¾ư줫 (analogy) ˤΤ⤫뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ۤϤ櫓Ǥʤ
Ūˤϡsend βʬ sent ȤʤͳϤʤűѸˤơsendan βŵŪ sende Ǥ sent(en) ˤȯŸʤƱͤˡʬ (ge)send(ed) ǤꡤϤ sent ˤϤʤʤΤäơ -t ϲη̤Ȥߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ겿ʤηֲˤäƤ⤿餵줿ȤȤˤʤ롥
º -t ʬΤϡ13ˤʤäƤΤȤǤ롥űѸǤ3ñ sendeþ (contraction) sent Ȥʤ륱ˤˤäϤޤ3ñǤꡤǤʬǤʤJespersen (33--34) ϰʲΤ褦ˡѤ줿3ñη֤ʬˤžѤ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ˾öŪͿƤ롥줷ȸ虜ʤ褦˻פ롥ΤȤȤۤʤ
In the send--sent group OE suppressed the d of the stem before the ending: sendan, sende, gesend(ed). I have often thought that the ME innovation sent(e) may originally have stood for sendd with a long, emphatic d to distinguish it from the prs form. This explanation, however, does not account for felt, meant, left, etc.
There is a remarkably full treatment of Origin and Extension of the Voiceless Preterit and the Past Participle Inflections of the English Irregular Weak Verb Conjugation by Albert H. Marckwardt in Essays and Studies in English and Comparative Literature by Members of the English Department of the Univ. of Michigan (Ann Arbor 1935). He traces the beginning of these t-forms back to the eleventh century and then follows their chronological and geographical spreading from century to century up to the year 1400, thus just the period where the subject-matter of my own work begins. There is accordingly no occasion here to deal with details in Marckwardt's exposition, but only to mention that according to him the first germ of these 't'-forms lay in stems in -nd, -ld and -rd. The third person sg of the present of such a verb as OE sendan was often shortened into sent from sendeþ. On the analogy of such very frequently occurring syncopated presents the t was transferred to the prt and ptc. It must be admitted that this assumption is more convincing than the analogy adduced by previous scholars, but it is rather difficult to explain why the t-forms spread, e.g., to such verbs as leave : left. From the point of view of Modern English Grammar, however, we must be content to leave this question open: we must take forms as we find them in the period with which we are concerned.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
[ | ѥڡ ]
814ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ9ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ6Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤưεʸʸˤ do ΤפǤ do λѤϡѸ礤ʤȤäƤ褤ΤǤŪˤߤƤ⡤ʤΤ褦ɽdo ˡȸƤӤޤˤиΤˤĤƤ͡ʲ⤬ꡤʤǮоݤˤʤäƤޤ

ε#3763. ƻ -ate εȯã ([2019-08-16-1]) ˰³ -ate ꡥư -ate ˤĤƤϡ#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) Ǽ夲ϤεȯãˤĤơOED -ate, suffix1 Ȥʤ顤⤦ܺ٤˹ͤƤߤ褦
Ҥ٤褦ˡ-ate ϥƥ1ưβʬܼ -ātus, -ātum, -āta ̤뤫顤ưθȤϡʲʬ˷ƻθȤ٤ΤǤ롥ư -ate εȤƤΤϡ-ate ˴ؤƷƻ줫ưؤʻž (conversion) äȤȤǤ롥ƻ줫ưؤʻž¿θǧ졤ºݤ˸űѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤˤȤޤʤȤСűѸǤ hwít hwítian, wearm wearmian, bysig bysgian, drýge drýgan 졤줾Ԥư϶ѸˤƶԤȷŪͻ礷Ȥаޤ롥
ƥǤƱͤˡƻ줫ưؤʻžӤäȤСsiccus siccāre, clārus clārāre, līber līberāre, sacer sacrāre ʤɤ줿˥եǤǡsec sècher, clair clairer, content contenter, confus confuser ʤɤ줿Ѹϥƥե줫餳θѤηƻưϤοˤ15ޤǤͻ礷
ήΤʤǡ16ˤϥƥβʬƻΤޤưȤѤ륿פʻžŪˤߤ褦ˤʤädirect, separate, aggravate ʤɤ㤬롥ѸǤΤ褦㤬Ƥȡƥ -ātus ŪˤϲʬбƤϤŪˤϤФбѸưθˤҤŤ褦ˤʤäĤޤꡤʬƻŪʵǽβߤʤˡ-ate ľܤưθȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥
ηդޤȡƥʤեˤư촴ڤƤơ -ate ĤСѸ¦ǿưñƳǤȤ1θˡȯã16ˤ fascinate, concatenate, asseverate, venerate ޤɴ -ate ư줬߽Ф줿
äˡΩƤޤСºݤ˥ƥʤեˤ¸ߤɤ鷺֥ƥʤեŪǡפǤСäƤ -ate դ뤳ȤˤꡤȤ⤿䤹ưǤ褦ˤʤä櫓ˤ nobilitate, felicitate, capacitate, differentiate, substantiate, vaccinate ʤ¿ -ate ư줬ḽ߽Ф줿
ΤȤ -ate ȯãϡȤ̤ȤƤ -ate ư췲Ȥδ֤Ρ䤨֤ʤѤȵ§ĥˤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ѸŵŪư1ĤȹͤƤ -ate ϡ¤ϤĤηƻˤߤ롥aspirate, desolate, moderate, prostrate, sedate, separate ưȤƤˡ⤢뤬ƻǤ⤢롥 innate, oblate, ornate, temperate ʤɤϾ˷ƻǤ롥ƻȤƤ -ate εȯãɤäƤߤ褦
ϥƥ1ưβʬܼ -ātus, -ātum, -āta ̤롥եϤˤߤܼ -us, -um, -a æѸƥݤˤæδޤƥեΤ̤ȤơѸ1400ǯ餤顤ƥ -atus ʤɤ -at ʤΤԤ첻ĹȤ e ź -ate) ȤƼཬƤä
嵭Τ褦 -ate εưβʬǤ뤫顤ѸǤʸ̤ưβʬΤۤƻȤƤⵡǽƤȤ̵ʤǤ -ate ưθʬϤ˵ڤǡŪʲʬϡ¿˵§Ū˺줿 -ated Ȥ֤˼ä졤ʬʷƻˤȤƤ -ate ¿ѤȤʤäƤޤäƻȤƼŪ˻ĤäΤ⤢äƬ˵ -ate ƻϡΤ褦ʷаޤǡĤäפΤǤ롥
ʾή⤷սOED -ate, suffix2
Forming participial adjectives from Latin past participles in -ātus, -āta, -ātum, being only a special instance of the adoption of Latin past participles by dropping the inflectional endings, e.g. content-us, convict-us, direct-us, remiss-us, or with phonetic final -e, e.g. complēt-us, finīt-us, revolūt-us, spars-us. The analogy for this was set by the survival of some Latin past participles in Old French, as confus:--confūsus, content:--contentus, divers:--diversus. This analogy was widely followed in later French, in introducing new words from Latin; and both classes of French words, i.e. the popular survivals and the later accessions, being adopted in English, provided English in its turn with analogies for adapting similar words directly from Latin, by dropping the termination. This began about 1400, and as in -ate suffix1 (with which this suffix is phonetically identical), Latin -ātus gave -at, subsequently -ate, e.g. desolātus, desolat, desolate, separātus, separat, separate. Many of these participial adjectives soon gave rise to causative verbs, identical with them in form (see -ate suffix3), to which, for some time, they did duty as past participles, as 'the land was desolat(e by war;' but, at length, regular past participles were formed with the native suffix -ed, upon the general use of which these earlier participial adjectives generally lost their participial force, and either became obsolete or remained as simple adjectives, as in 'the desolate land,' 'a compact mass.' (But cf. situate adj. = situated adj.) So aspirate, moderate, prostrate, separate; and (where a verb has not been formed), innate, oblate, ornate, sedate, temperate, etc. As the French representation of Latin -atus is -é, English words in -ate have also been formed directly after French words in --é, e.g. affectionné, affectionate.
Ĥޤꡤ-ate ϡߤФषƻˤդ路Ȥ٤Ǥꡤưˤդ路ؤѲΤϡѸʹߤοȤȤˤʤ롥ʤ -ate ŵŪưȤʤäΤȤäƤϡʣŪ𤬤롥ˤĤƤϡ#2731. -ate ưϤɤΤ褦 ([2016-10-18-1]) ȡʤޤεǤⰷͽˡ
-ate ˤĤƤϡ֤ȯʤɤδ#1242. -ate ưζܹԡ ([2012-09-20-1])#3685. -ate ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-30-1])#3686. -ate -ment ư̾졦ƻȯΰ㤤 ([2019-05-31-1])#1383. ƥñѸ첽ֵ§ ([2013-02-08-1]) Ϥᡤ-ate εǼ夲ƤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿
Ȥԥɥ륤 (Druid) ϡ۶ŪʥʤȤ롥ɴʻŵ2ǡ٤ˤС֥ɥ륤 (Druide)פϼΤ褦롥
ΥȿͤοĤĤɤäԡʺ׳顥7Τ˻Ѥ1ΥΡԥꥢﵭդˤСɥ륤ɤϵ²ؤ°οȽ̱ζʤɤĤɤꡤʸҤͭȿͤǤưʪλѤȤҡ俹Ȥ˥ɥꥮ뤷ꤤʤäƳΤȸǸҥڤΤäƤ͡Ӥ̣ɥ륤ɤǤä夳οĤκ濴Ϥϥ֥˥Υ(ߤΥ륺Υ륷)ǡ˲ȥȥˤС61ǯȤᄀ褿¿Υɥ륤ɤ()ʼڤݤƤ롥λĤηˡȤνɥ륤ɤϿꤨꥹȶڤȤȤ˾ǤǤ̱äŪ˻¸ƤȤ롥
ŵꥷ졦ƥˤƤϡdruides, druidae ʤɤʣѤΤǤꡤɥ륤ɤĤȤƳƤȤ롥θ츻ˤĤƤϡ͡ʲ⤬Ƥ롥ġᲬ (33--34) ˤС̤ꡥ
Υɥ륤 Druid druidai (Gr.), druidae, druides (L.), druvis, darach (Gaelic)͡
ץ˥⡡<A man of the oak> ֳߤڤο͡
ڥ⡡drus (Gr.) = oak ʳߡߥʥ
doire (Gaelic) = grove ʿ
ȡ⡡<Inhabitant of oak> ֳߤ˽͡
dairaoi, draoi, dair (Gr.) = oak
aoi = A stranger, guest ˬ͡
ե졼⡡<The wisdom of the oak> ֳߤڤθԡ
dair, duir (Ir.), dru, daru (Scot.), drew (WI.) = oak
wid or uid (Indo-German) = wisdom, knowing
ܥ⡡<Very wise man> ְʸԡ
Dru ʶĴˡvid, wid Τ = very + uid = knowing μ
ȡ⡡<Truth-teller> ֿ¤ԡ
dryw (WI.) = wren (bird, spirit of oak)
dryw (Ger.) = treu, true (Eng.)
⡡<A servant of truth> ֿ¤˻Ťԡ
drus = oak
¿˶̤Τϡɥ륤ɤμͥ줿ָԡפǤȤޤߤڤ俹ؤθڤꡤϥɥ륤ɤʤ뿹ǺԤʤäƤǤ뤳ȡȤ櫓ߤڤѤƤȤȴطȤʳߤڤȴϢŤ츻Ǥϡdru- ڡפȲᤵƤꡤϱѸ tree ȤƱȤˡ
θ츻ˤ衤Ѹؤϥƥե𤷤16Ƴ줿Ǥ롥
Წ ݡˡإȤܡ١Ź2000ǯ
ɸ2Ĥ̾ƱǤꡤŪˤñ˶ᤤȤˤȤɤޤ餺ۤȤƱǤ뤳ȤˤĤƤϡ#734. panda Britain ([2011-05-01-1]) Ǽ夲ܸǤȤΥꥹΡ֥֥ƥˡפȥեΡ֥֥륿˥ȾˡפϡѸǤ Britain, Brittany ̡θˤʤäƤ뤬եǤϸߤ Bretagne 1ǤޤʤäƤ롥2ĤϰϥȷϤΥ֥ȥ (Breton) ̾Ʊ̱²Ȥ˽ߤĤϰǤꡤƶ̤ʤСʤƼºݤŪ˶̤Ƥˡ֥ƥפȡ־֥ƥפȸƤʬ٤ϰʤΤǤ롥
ŪʸˤС5ΥͤΥ֥ƥ翯ȼäơ轻̱Ǥ֥ȥͤϥ֥ƥΥɤͤ줿ΰϡϤäƸߤΥ֥륿˥ȾؤȰܽȤ֥ȥͤȵʤܽԤϡοŷϤιƱ֥֥ƥפȸƤӡΤȤ֥֥ȥͤȸƤ³ˤꡤ˻ޤdz̤Ʊ̾2̾ݡˤǧΤǤ̤Υ֥ƥΥ֥륿˥ (Britain/Bretagne)̤ΥΥ̥ (Cornwall/Cornouaille)ˡ
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ݡإ֥륿˥ؤι --- եʸδؤơ١īʹҡīӡ1992ǯ
Წ ݡإȡλ ---ϥ̿۴ġ١˼Ҥӡ2017ǯ
ε#3759. Ϥޤä¯ʸ ([2019-08-12-1]) ǰѤꡤϢ夲ǤϤۤ¯ʸȯãȤȤȼʸΩޤħŪʤȤȤ (213--14) Ѥ롥
ʥӥǤϡޤϤݤäƤ˥롼ʥ롼͡ʸ̥ɥĤǤϻ˥եʤηˤäơʸѤ르ȸ쿷ߤ줿ʸκʸؤȼνʸϽФǤꡤޤ˥ǤθŪϽФλߤȤȤǤ롥ǤϥȸΥʸ⤽ߤΰĤȤ뤬ȬäʤɤʸѤ줿ˤʤäΰ̣ǤϤϼԻȤäۤ
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ʤǼˤʸΡּԻפɾƤ륪ʸˤĤƤϡ#2489. ʸ ([2016-02-19-1]) ȡ
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Ūˤ˼˰֤륢ɸˤĤƤϡ¸ǸŤʸ1106ǯΡإʡ̥ɥ٤1160ǯΡإ饰ͥåؽ٤Ȥ뤬ε6ˤޤǤΤܤȤ6Υ顼ե륮ˤ֥७СΡפǤ褯ΤƤ롥Ʊ륺ˤĤƤ⸽¸ǸŤʸ13ʹߤ֥ͥס֥ꥨפʤɤλΤε6ˤΤܤ餷ˤ¯ʸȯãۤᤫäΤϤʤ (213) Τ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
ϤޤˤʸŪˤȤäƤեμҲؼԥХåˤƤ뤳ȤμʥˤȤӡʤ֥˥硤ɥʥӥܥإߥʤɤǤϡƥ϶ܿͤˤȤäƤ⳰ǤʤλȤʤޤޤǤäҤ줬ͳŪѤʤȤʤǡϸΤȤФѤȤͤޤ졤ƥ˻ȤФǤλѤϤޤäȤ櫓Ǥ롥
äơ衼åѤǤϡμ⳰ǺǽˡŪѤ¯ˤȤФ¯줬ι졦̱²ΤϤäȤǤҥ٥˥ǤϡϻˤϻΤФǤʤǯ嵭ˡŪʸޤǥǽ褦ˤʤäˡŪʸϰ졻ϥƥ줫ǰˤʤäо줹Τǡ٤Ȥλ٤㤤ꥢϥäȤȤطƤ
ǤϥƥθҤŬ٤˼夫äȤפǤ롥ƥȵΥ֤¯λѤ¥ΤǤ롥̤δߤСμҲϡƥ줫ɷ㤳ƥΤޤѤۤɤˤϥƥ줫֤줷ʤäȤθ캹⤢äƸؾΥϥǥƤȤȤǤϤʤ
ơΤ褦ʸؾκǤڤ˾ۤ뤿ˡؽμΥƥ˥å褯ȯãΤħǤ롥#1903. ʬˡ ([2014-07-13-1]) εǡʬϡֳؽԤθɤ߽ưפˤ뤿Ԥ߽ФسؽΥƥ˥åͳ褹פȽҤ٤νγ⤿餷Τϡۤʤ̥ꥹȤ˽ཤƻΤäΤǤ롥
إȤο̮١̼ҡ2007ǯ
[2018-09-20-1]ε˰³ʿ͵ؤѸ̾ John ˤĤơ
John ϡŪˤϺǤ͵ι⤤̾Ȼפ롥1620ǯ˿Φعҳᥤե (the Mayflower) ˤ102̾äƤꡤΤ73̾äΤ215̾ޤǤ⤬̾äƤΩˤϡ25%̾ӤӤƤȤפ餢롥Ǥ John F. Kennedy, John Lennon, John Travolta ʤɿ͵ϿꤨƤʤɽǤ뤫顤Honest John ʤޤľˡˤȤɽ⤢ۤɤ
͵طʤˤϡ츻Ǥԥϥͤˤ䤫ꤿȤפ櫓ۤˤ Jesus ʥإ֥饤Υ奢 Yeshua‘ˤ Yahweh/Jehovah ʥϥۥСˤȤϢƤȤ顤ʸ̤˿Ū̾Ǥ롥Ye- Τϥɽ魯ΤǡκŪʸ캬̵̾Ȥˤʤ (ex. Joseph, Jonathan)
Ѹ John бΤϡåȥɡ Sean, ɸ Sean/Shane, ե Jean, ꥢ Giovanni, ڥ Juan, ɥĸ Johann, Jan, Hans, ϥ János, Ivan Ǥ롥 Joanna, Joana, Joanne, Joan, Jeanne, Jeannette, Janet ʤ͡
ʾ塤 (42--55) ȤƼɮ
̾ʪ١̼ҡҹ̼ҳؽʸˡӡ2012ǯ
#3732. ֺ¡ֱѸˤȸ츻פ2֥ȤפΤ ([2019-07-16-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡ727ڡ15:15?18:30ī㡼ɶˤơֱѸˤȸ츻2Ȥ֤ޤ¿˻äƤ٤֤ߤޤʤۤ夬ޤ꤬Ȥޤ *
(1) ȤȤϲ(2) Ѹˤߤ륱Ūǡ(3) ѸʸδؤȤƤΥȡȤ3濴ˡѸȥȤŪʴطˤĤ͡ʳ٤äƤߤޤ饤ɻ֤Ƥޤ
397ڡ15:15?18:30ˡֱѸˤȸ츻3ο̱ϡꤷƤäͽǤ
1. Ѹˤȸ츻2 ֥Ȥ
2. 2Ȥ
3. ܼ
4. 1. ȤȤϲ
5. ֥ȡפȤä
6. ȿͤʵ1ǯȾ
7. ȸɤη
8. ֥ƥˤ륱ν̾
9. ơΥȸˤĤ
10. 2. Ѹˤߤ륱Ū
11. ѸϾˤȤɤޤ (#3680)
12. ɸ줫μѸǯʬ
13. ѤδŪʷϩ
14. ͤȥȿͤδط
15. ͭ̾˻Ĥ˥ȸ
16. ðʳؤαƶ
17. ɸ줫饢ɱѸءƥꥫѸ
18. 3. ѸʸδؤȤƤΥ
19. إǥեʡ (The Lindisfarne Gospels)
20. إ륺ν (The Book of Kells) (#3680)
21. ʪ
22. ʬȯ
23. ޤȤ
24. ʸ
Ϣȴط³Ƥ뤬#3740. Ƚ줫μѸ ([2019-07-24-1])#3750. Ƚ줫μѸ (2) ([2019-08-03-1])#3749. Ƚ줫μѸ˴Ϣ츻ؤ ([2019-08-02-1])#3753. ʩˤ륱ȼѸӡоȡ ([2019-08-06-1]) ˰³Ѹꡥ
Durkin OED3 ѤĴˤСѸ˾ʤ̸ŪƶͿ25̤θΤʤǡȷϽȤƤϥɸΤߤȤǡѸȤƥɸ˥åȤʤäơѸǯ̤˥ץåȤΤΥդǤ (Durkin 94) OED3 A--ALZ, M--RZ ʬΤߤоݤȤĴǤ롥

19Ⱦ˼ѸΥԡƤ뤬ƱѸˤǤߤ0.2%ۤ٤Ǥꡤ櫓ǤϤʤ¿ΥǥܥϤˤ衤ɼѸϾΩʤ¸ߤǤäȤ狼롥ͻϰϤȽΤ˹ƤߤƤ⡤ѤʤϢ¾θ줫μѸʬۤ٤Ƥ餤
#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])
#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#874. Ѹοˤ륽ʬۡ ([2011-09-18-1])
#2162. OED ˤե졦ƥ줫μѸοܡ ([2015-03-29-1])
#2164. ѸˤǤޤΩʤɥĸ줫μѡ ([2015-03-31-1])
#2165. 20ȾμѸ쥽 ([2015-04-01-1])
#2369. Ѹˤˤ륤ꥢ졤ڥ졤ݥȥ줫θüѤˡ ([2015-10-22-1])
#2385. OED ˤ롤ŵ줪ӥޥ줫μѸä (2) ([2015-11-07-1])
#2646. Ѹ˴ؤס ([2016-07-25-1])
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ε#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1]) ǡȸ줫αƶ꺻ѸθġλƤˤĤ͡ŦƤ껿ݤε蘆Ƥ롥
ŪʻƤ1Ĥˡdo ˡ (do-periphrasis) ȯã˥ȸ¤ؤäƤΤǤϤʤȤ롥ѸǤϤι¤ǽƸ줿Ȥ졤Ūˤϥȸ첾Ĵ¤ǤϤʤ褦ˤߤ롥˻꤬礭ΩϤ롥ѸΤιʸȯã13ʹߤΤȤȤ뤬ظ줿륱ȸ줫αƶȤСϿɴǯʾˤäƤ800ǯˤ˵äƤƤ٤äǤϤʤۤĹظαƶθ̤פƤȤΤϡΤǤϤʤפˡȸαƶꤹˤϻ夬ޤˤ줹ƤΤ¤Ϥȿϡdo ˡ˸¤餺Ѹ줫Ѹˤȯãȸ줫αƶ꺻Ƥ¾ι¤ˤƱͤƤϤޤ롥
Ф륱ȸ첾ʸԤϡƤ̤Ǥ롥
The explanation normally given for this feature [= do-periphrasis] appearing so late in English is that it was in sociolinguistic terms a change from below, affecting first the speech of those people of low social status whose speech was least likely to be reflected in literary usage, and only spreading slowly into the sorts of high-prestige varieties reflected in written sources: the conservatism of the written language in the Old English period is often also cited as a factor. (Durkin 89)
Ĥޤꡤɴǯͳϡ줬 "change from below" Ǥꡤդդˤ٥ǤѲ顤ȤȤΤ褦㤤ѼϡűѸνդȤ⤤ѼˤȿǤʤΤǤȡ
¤ϻ褦ʵϡѸ˾̤ˤĤƤʤƤťΥɸ줫μѸ줬űѸʸˤϤޤ긽줺ܳŪʸоѸԤʤФʤʤäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ͳϡ嵭Ȥ褽ƱǤ롥ºݤαƶϸűѸˤäθ̤ʸ˸ޤǤˤϤ٤λ֤ɬפäȤcf. #2869. ťΥɸ줫μѤϸűѸǤäƤ⡤ʸڤѸ ([2017-03-05-1])ˡ
ȸ줫ι¤ŪѤȸťΥɸθŪѤȤۤʤ2λƤˤĤơ⤽Ʊ褦˵뤳ȤǤΤȤ꤬롥ޤ־Υåפ⡤ȸ첾Τۤڤ礭
ϥȸ첾ˤϤʤ̵Ȼפƶ꺻ġλƤˤĤƤΩƸƤɬפꡤ֥ȸ첾פνΤ礷ऱˤϿŤǤʤФʤʤȤͤƤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
20ǯۤɤδ֤ˡ֥ȸ첾 ("the Celtic hypothesis") ˴ؤ븦椬ƤѸϸðʳˤƤ⡤ͤƤʾˡ֥ƥδظǤ륱Ƚ줫鶯ƶƤȤ1δظƶȤäƤ褤cf. #1342. ظƶؤȽ ([2012-12-29-1])ˡŪˤʤäƤŪˤɤΤ褦ʹ¤Ūʸबȸ줫αƶȤߤʤƤΤƤߤ褦ʲDurkin (87--90) ˤڤˤ뤬Durkin Ȥ⥱ȸ첾ФƤϤȲŪ٤Ƥ뤳ȤҤ٤Ƥ
űѸˤ be ư bēon ̤ȿꡤ³Ѥˡ륺 be ư줬¸ߤ롥
-self κƵ̾ȯãcf. #1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1])
be + -ing οʹԷ¤ȯã
do ѤŪ¤ (do-periphrasis) ȯã
ŪͭԹ¤ŪͭԹ¤ؤΰܹ (ex. he as a pimple on the nose he has a pimple on his nose)
"Northern Subject Rule" ȯãcf. #689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1])
ط줢뤤ܿ٤
it Ѥʬʸ (cleft sentence) ȯã (ex. It was a bike that he bought (not a car).) ʤեбʬʸ⥱ȸαƶȤȤ (Durkin 87)
/f/ /v/, /θ/ /ð/ βŪΩȯãݻcf. #3386. Ѹ˾μפʻҲѲ ([2018-08-04-1]) 2ܡ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ε#3752. եΥȼѸ ([2019-08-05-1]) ǡեˤ륱ȼѸѤϤȱѸΥȼѸȤӡоȤ褦
ѸΥȼѸοۤΰ찮Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ#3740. Ƚ줫μѸ ([2019-07-24-1])#3750. Ƚ줫μѸ (2) ([2019-08-03-1]) ǸƤեǤϺεǸ褦ˡʤȤ100ۤ륱ñ줬ѤƤŪˤϱʩδ֤˺Ȥ⤤ŪˤߤСۤ礭ʿǤϤʤʸ̤ꡤɴȤäƤ褤μҲˤƤ⡤ȸϼҲŪ˰ҿ㤤äȤȤǤ롥
ȼѸμŪʺۤˤܤ٤Τ롥ѸäƤñˤȤ٤ΤϤۤȤɤʤȤäƤ褤եΥȼѸˤϡDurkin (85) λŦ̤ꡤʲΤ褦˹ٸޤޤƤʤˡΤĤѸϥե줫ѤƤˡ
. . . changer is quite a high-frequency word, as are pièce and chemin (and its derivatives). If admitted to the list, petit belongs to a very basic level of the vocabulary. The meanings 'beaver', 'beer', 'boundary', 'change', 'fear' (albeit as noun), 'to flow', 'he-goat', 'oak', 'piece', 'plough' (albeit as verb), 'road', 'rock', 'sheep', 'small', and 'sow' all figure in the list of 1,460 basic meanings . . . . Ultimately, through borrowing from French, the impact is also visible in a number of high-frequency words in the vocabulary of modern English . . . beak, carpentry, change, cream, drape, piece, quay, vassal, and (ultimately reflecting the same borrowing as French char 'chariot') carry and car.
μŪʺۤϲˤΤʤΤŪʸˤС֥ƥΥ֥ȥͤϥͤοˤŪû֤Ƕव졤Ѹؤθ (language_shift) ®˿ʹԤȹͤƤ롥ꥢΥͤϡƥ졦ޥĸüԤ˰Ϥ줿ȤϤĹ֤ˤ錄궦¸ˤǤԻԤǤϥƥ첽ʤȤƤ⡤Ǥϥ줬ä³졤diglossia ξĹ³ϤޤǤäȿʹԤƤΤǤ롥θ塤եˤˤϥޥ⻲Ƥ뤬ǤŪʸϤʤäȤ롥ɤ顤ʩˤ륱ȼѸμκۤϸܿ (contact) ȸμҲŪΰ㤤˵褦ˤĤơDurkin (86) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . whereas in Gaul the Germanic conquerors arrived with relatively little disruption to the existing linguistic situation, in Britain we find a complete disruption, with English becoming the language in general use in (it seems) all contexts. Thus Gaul shows a very gradual switch from Gaulish to Latin/Romance, with some subsequent Germanic input, while Britain seems to show a much more rapid switch to English from Celtic and (maybe) Latin (that is, if Latin retained any vitality in Britain at the time of the Anglo-Saxon settlement).
αʩˤ뺹ۤϡܿǤȤΡ (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ζ̤۵ (see #1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]), #1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])) ֥ƥǤ borrowing βꥢǤ shift-induced interference βơͿƤȤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
եˤθƤȡѸˤΥȼѸħ䤫⤫Ӿ夬äƤ롥줳оȸˤ̥ϤǤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ϢѸˤ륱Ƚ줫μѸˤƤ뤬ƥեˤ륱ȼѸξDurkin (83--87) ˰͵ƤߤƤ
ΥեʥꥢˤǤϡƥ¤Υ (Gaulish) ĹѤƤԻǤϥƥʥޥĸȤ٤˥եȤȤäƤǤϥǴ궯ĤäƤ褦Ĺˤ錄ܿη̤ȤơΥեˤϡѸξ¿ΥȼѸ줬ޤƤȤϤäƤ⡤100ۤ٤ǤϤʸˤä50--500ޤǤγˡ#3749. Ƚ줫μѸ˴Ϣ츻ؤ ([2019-08-02-1]) DZѸξˤĤƵŸ褦ˡѤλ롼ȤưפǤϤʤ褦οˤϡƥ˼Ѥ줿Τ䡤ĤθФƴŪ˼Ѥ줿ΤʤɤޤޤƤꡤեüԤȥüԤľܤܿ˵٤ΤФǤϤʤ
嵭դĤġʲ˰̣ʬ̤ΥȼѸꥹȤΰ褦 (Durkin 84)
ưʪbièvre "beaver", blaireau "badger", bouc "billy goat", mouton "sheep", vautre "type of hunting dog"; chamois "chamois", palefroi "palfrey", truie "sow" ʺǸ3ĤϺ
Ļalouette "lark", chat-huant "tawny owl"
alose "shad", loche "loach", lotte "burbot", tanche "tench", vandoise "dace", brochet "pike"; limande "dab" ʥƬ
Ρ֥եñפΤ˱Ѹ˼Ѥ줿Τ⤢롥mutton, palfrey, loach, tench, chamois ʤɤαñϡ¤ϥȸ쵯äȤȤñ buck, beaver ʤɤϻ𤬰ۤʤꡤե bièvre, bouc ȤϼѤˤΤǤϤʤȤ˰ĸˤΤܤ뤫brasserie ʥӡ¤ˤ cervoise ʸӡˤʤɤϡͤʬƤ褦Ǥ⤷
եˤ륱ȼѸΤ¾θե٥åȽ˵Ƥߤ褦 (Durkin 84)
| arpent | 'measure of land' |
| bec | 'beak' |
| béret | 'beret' |
| borne | 'boundary (marker)' |
| boue | 'mud' |
| bouge | 'hovel, dive' (earlier 'bag') |
| bruyère | 'heather, briar-root' |
| changer | 'to change' |
| char | 'chariot' (reflecting a borrowing which had occurred already in classical Latin, whence also charrue 'plough') |
| charpente | 'framework' (originally the name of a type of chariot) |
| chemin | 'road, way' |
| chêne | 'oak' |
| craindre (partly) | 'to fear' |
| crème | 'cream' |
| drap | 'sheet, cloth' |
| javelot | 'javelin' |
| lieue | 'league (measure of distance)' |
| marne | 'marl' (earlier marle, hence English marl) |
| pièce | 'piece' |
| ruche | 'beehive' |
| sillon | 'furrow' |
| soc | 'ploughshare' |
| suie | 'soot' |
| vassal | 'vassal' |
| barre | 'bar' |
| jaillir | 'to gush, spring, shoot out' |
| quai | 'quay' |
#1216. űѸΥȼѸ ([2012-08-25-1])#3740. Ƚ줫μѸ ([2019-07-24-1])#3749. Ƚ줫μѸ˴Ϣ츻ؤ ([2019-08-02-1])#3750. Ƚ줫μѸ (2) ([2019-08-03-1]) ʤɤDZѸˤŪʥȼѸ˾ƤƤ̾̾ʤɤθͭ̾ˤ륱ȸǤˤĤƤ⡤Durkin (81--82) ˤäƾƤߤ褦
ޤ̾ˤĤơűѸͭ̾ Cædmon ̾˵ʡ#2898. Caedmon's Hymn ([2017-04-03-1]) ȡˡ³ơȥν䵮²̾ Ċerdiċ, Ċeawlin, Ċeadda, Ċeadwalla, Ċedd, Cumbra Ĥ롥ǰʤ顤ΰ̣ˤĤƤ⤬ʤ
̾ˤĤƤϿ̾˭٤ʾڵꡤȸǤƱꤷ䤹ȤäϴñǤϤʤ褦Ūʬۤϡ#2443. ɤˤ륱ȸ̾ʬۡ ([2016-01-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ФäƤ롥Thames, Severn, Trent ʤɤβ̾ϡ˥ȸǤȤƱꤷ䤹Τ¿ (see #1188. ɤβ̾ Thames, Humber, Stour ([2012-07-28-1]))
Kent ȸǤݤäƤΤϡΰ֡ʥ֥ƥˤͤȤۤ˻פ뤬ϥͤΥ֥ƥΤƤ̾äChevening, Chattenden, Chatham, Dover, Reculver, Richborough, Sarr, Thanet ʤɤ⥱ȸʤ뤤ȸǤݻƤ롥
¾δϢȤơ#1736. ꥹ̾ͳ ([2014-01-27-1]) ȡ#3113. ͤ˥ɤΤ ([2017-11-04-1]) ⻲ȡ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ε#3749. Ƚ줫μѸ˴Ϣ츻ؤ ([2019-08-02-1]) 褦ˡѸˤ륱ȼѸ͡ͳȤ롥ϡ#3740. Ƚ줫μѸ ([2019-07-24-1]) ΥꥹȤʬŪ˽ŤʤΤΡȤˤɾФǡΤʥȼѸȤߤʤΤƤȤȤϡѸ츻ؤ1ͼ Durkin Ǥ롥
Durkin (77--81) ϡűѸΤʶŪˤλΤĤˤĤƤϾܤ餫ˤʤˤ˼Ѥ줿Ȥ Brythonic ϤΥȼѸĤƤ롥ޤbrock "badger" (OE brocc) ϼȼѸȤäƤ褤ϡ֥ʥޡפɽ魯ȤơѸ badger ˤμ礿ϰ̤åޤǡǤ̤θä
֤ФפϤȤƴؤ bin (OE binn) ᤤѤȤ졤ˤäƤΦ˼ڤ줿Τ⤷ʤ
coomb "valley" (OE cumb) μ¤ʥȼѸǡűѸ줫ߤ뤬Ȥ̾˸줿̾ǤȤƤθŤȼѸ¿űѸǤϤۤ luh "lake", torr "rock, hill", funta "fountain", pen "hill, promontory" ʤɤ롥
The Downs ˻ĤűѸ dūn "hill" ⡤ФХȼѸǧƤ롥#1395. up and down ([2013-02-20-1]) ǸȤꡤ䤿ˤʤ߿졦ֻ down ƱʤΤ⤷ȼѸȤȡ֤Ūʸ줬ڤƤΤǤ롥¾ޥˤߤ뤳Ȥ顤ΦμѤȿꤵ롥
֤ĤĤפ̣ crag Ͻ㤬Ѹ첻ȯãˤĤϻĤΤΡȼѸȤƤ롥coble ʿ쾮פƱͤǤ롥
hog (OE hogg) ϥȸͳȤ뤳Ȥ¿ŪˤϲΤ褦
ˡȵ⤬㴳路ȤĤ褦űѸη֤ bannuc "bit", becca "fork", bratt "cloak", carr "rock", dunn "dun, dull or dingy brown", gafeluc "spear", mattuc "mattock", toroc "bung", assen/assa "ass", stǣr/stær "history", stōr "incense", cæfester "halter" ʤɤ롥Ūʸˤȡgafeluc ϸťɸ쵯ǤϤʤȤƤ롥
ťɸ쵯ȤСۤˤ drȳ "magician", bratt "cloak", ancra/ancor "anchorite", cursung "cursing", clugge "bell", æstel "bookmark", ċine/ċīne "sheet of parchment folded in four", mind "a type of head ornament" ʤɤŦƤ롥तȤ⤦1Ĥνפʸ cross "cross" Ƥ
ǶθǥȼѸβǽ⤤ȽΤȤƤϡwan "pale" (OE wann), jilt, twig 롥űѸ trum "strong", dēor "fierce, bold", syrce/syrc/serce "coat of mail" ⤳˲ä뤫⤷ʤ
˻¿פʸȤơrich, baby, gull, trousers, clan Ƥ (Durkin 91)
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
#3740. Ƚ줫μѸ ([2019-07-24-1]) Ūʸ츻ؤθȤʤѸؤΥȼѸˤĤƹͤƤȤƻȤΤϡDurkin 5 "Old English in Contact with Celtic" (76--95) Ǥ롥
Ƚ줫ѸؤμѸ줬ʤȤ¤ϵ褦ʤȼѸȤƤġñˤĤƤϡ츻ˤξܺ٤ɬ餫ˤʤäƤʤΤ¿εǵ褦ʡ̤αѸ˽ǤФм夲ϢñŪּפΤ¿ˤ⤷ȲΤ뤫⤷ʤ˥ȸ줫μѸʤΤȤܼŪ꤫顤ɤλ˼Ѥ줿Τ뤤ϤΥȸ줫äƤΤȤäޤǡ͡
طʤˤϡѸˤȥȽθ츻ξ˾ܤȤʤȤŪʻ⤢롥ޤȸ츻ؤ䥱ȸӸؤΤΤ⡤ȯŸ;Ϥ˻ĤƤȤ¦̤⤢롥ȤС̾ʤɤ̾˴ؤơ#1188. ɤβ̾ Thames, Humber, Stour ([2012-07-28-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡȸ츻⤢Τ
ˡѸüԤȥȽüԤȤܿϡԤΦˤ夫鸽˻ޤạ̇̄Ǥڤ뤳Ȥʤ³Ƥ롥θ줬Φ˥ޥ˼Ѥ줿ñʤΤͤΥ֥ƥؤޤäƤΤʤΤθˤƤΤˤήΤʤΤȽȤʤ⤢롥
Υȸ줫äƤȤˤĤƤϡ˺ݤơ#778. P-Celtic Q-Celtic ([2011-06-14-1]) ǿ줿Ūħ˻ͤˤʤ롥βȯãϵ1ǯŪ®˵äȤ졤礦ɥͤ夹ʤΤǡ츻ˤ̯ꤲ롥
奱ȸؤȯŸƤС嵭ˤΤθ̤ˤĤƤϡDurkin (80--81) ν긫ͤˤ줿
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
#3741. Ѹޡ forto ([2019-07-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸˤ to forto ʤɤ¤ǡޡȤ at ȤѤ줿θߤΤֻ at ȤʪǡťΥɸޡ at ѤΤȤ롥ξ֤ȤɤΤȤ츻ˤΤǡμѤȤϡˡμѤȤ٤㤫⤷ʤOED at, prep. ˤȡޡȤƤˡˤĤƼΤ褦˵Ҥ롥
VI. With the infinitive mood.
39. Introducing the infinitive of purpose (the original function also of to; cf. French rien à faire, nothing to do, nothing at do, nothing ado n. and adj.2). Obsolete exc. dialect.
Corresponding to Old Norse at (Danish at, Swedish att) in gefa at eta to give one at eat, i.e. to eat; but not, like it, used with the simple infinitive; the nearest approach to which was in the phrase That is at say = French c'est à dire.
MED at adv. with infinitive Ȥȡat do, at ete, at kep, at sai Τ褦ʷޤäưȤȤѤ뷹ȤMED ǽĤƤ
c1280 Chart.in Birch Cart.Sax.2.326: Yat ye land of seint Wilfrai..fre sal be ay; At na nan..In yair Herpsac sal have at do.
c1300 Horn (LdMisc 108)906: Þe hondes gonnen at erne [Hrl: to fleon] In to þe schypes sterne.
c1330(?a1300) Tristrem (Auch)543: Ynouȝ þai hadde at ete.
c1330(?c1300) Guy(1) (Auch)2495: Þat he cum wiþ þe at ete.
(1399) RParl.3.451a: The Answers of certeins Lordes, that is atte saye, of the forsayd Ducs of Aumarle [etc.].
ťΥɸˡͳ褹ȤȤ黡褦ˡޡ at ˤ褯ߤ줿eLALME Item 81 ȤƼ夲Ƥꡤʲ Dot Map 롥ΤŪʬۤ

ʤߤ̾ ado ưݡפ at do ޤäΤͳ褹롥ԥδ Much Ado About Nothing ض٤ϡפ much to do about nothing ȤȤǤ롥֤٤ȡעݤʻŻעưפۤɤΰ̣ȯŸФȹͤ롥Фϰʲ̤ǡǤˡư͡פۤɤΰ̣ǻȤƤ롥
c1380 Firumb.(1) (Ashm 33)5648: Olyuer wyþ a corde bond him fast, Ac arst was muche ado.[ | ѥڡ ]
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