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ܼ (toc) ˡΥƥȤȤɾΤ Huang äȤƱѸθäƤΤΡؤθڤ¿ǫɤߤ䤹ƥȤǤ롥ʲܼǤϾʤƤ뤬ƾ "Key concepts", "Exercises and essay questions", "Further readings" դƤꡤΩĤȤդäƤ
1. Introduction
1.1. What is pragmatics?
1.1.1. A definition
1.1.2. A brief history of pragmatics
1.1.3. Two main schools of thought in pragmatics: Anglo-American versus European Continental
1.2. Why pragmatics?
1.2.1. Linguistic underdeterminacy
1.2.2. Simplification of semantics and syntax
1.3 Some basic notions in semantics and pragmatics
1.3.1 Sentence, utterance, proposition
1.3.2. Context
1.3.3. Truth value, truth condition, entailment
1.4 Organization of the book
Part I Central topics in pragmatics
2. Implicature
2.1. Classical Gricean theory of conversational implicature
2.1.1. The co-operative principle and the maxims of conversation
2.1.2. Relationship between the speaker and the maxims
2.1.3. Conversational implicatureO versus conversational implicatureF
2.1.4. Generalized versus particularized conversational implicature
2.1.5. Properties of conversational implicature
2.2. Two neo-Gricean pragmatic theories of conversational implicature
2.2.1. The Hornian system
2.2.2. The Levinsonian system
2.3. Conventional implicature
2.3.1. What is conventional implicature?
2.3.2. Properties of conventional implicature
2.4. Summary
3. Presupposition
3.1. What is presupposition?
3.2. Properties of presupposition
3.2.1. Constancy under negation
3.2.2. Defeasibility
3.2.3. The projection problem
3.3. Analyses
3.3.1. The filtering-satisfaction analysis
3.3.2. The cancellation analysis
3.3.3. The accommodation analysis
3.4. Summary
4. Speech acts
4.1. Performatives versus constatives
4.1.1. The performative/constative dichotomy
4.1.2. The performative hypothesis
4.2. Austin's felicity conditions on performatives
4.3. Locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary speech acts
4.4. Searle's felicity conditions on speech acts
4.5. Searle's typology of speech acts
4.6. Indirect speech acts
4.6.1. What is an indirect speech act?
4.6.2. How is an indirect speech act analysed?
4.6.3. Why is an indirect speech act used? Some remarks on politeness
4.7. Speech acts and culture
4.7.1. Cross-cultural variation
4.7.2. Interlanguage variation
4.8. Summary
5. Deixis
5.1. Preliminaries
5.1.1. Deictic versus non-deictic expression
5.1.2. Gestural versus symbolic use of a deictic expression
5.1.3. Deictic centre and deictic projection
5.2. Basic categories of deixis
5.2.1 Person deixis
5.2.2. Time deixis
5.2.3. Space deixis
5.3. Other categories of deixis
5.3.1. Social deixis
5.3.2. Discourse deixis
5.4. Summary
Part II Pragmatics and its interfaces
6. Pragmatics and cognition: relevance theory
6.1. Relevance
6.1.1. The cognitive principle of relevance
6.1.2. The communicative principle of relevance
6.2. Explicature, implicature, and conceptual versus procedural meaning
6.2.1. Grice: what is said versus what is implicated
6.2.2. Explicature
6.2.3. Implicature
6.2.4. Conceptual versus procedural meaning
6.3. From Fodorian 'central process' to submodule of 'theory of mind'
6.3.1. Fodorian theory of cognitive modularity
6.3.2. Sperber and Wilson's earlier position: pragmatics as Fodorian 'central process'
6.3.3. Sperber and Wilson's current position: pragmatics as submodule of 'theory of mind'
6.4. Relevance theory compared with classical/neo-Gricean theory
6.5. Summary
7. Pragmatics and semantics
7.1. Reductionism versus complementarism
7.2. Drawing the semantics-pragmatics distinction
7.2.1. Truth-conditional versus non-truth-conditional meaning
7.2.2. Conventional versus non-conventional meaning
7.2.3. Context independence versus context dependence
7.3. Pragmatic intrusion into what is said and the semantics-pragmatics interface
7.3.1. Grice: what is said versus what is implicated revisited
7.3.2. Relevance theorists: explicature
7.3.3. Recanati: the pragmatically enriched said
7.3.4. Bach: conversational implicature
7.3.5. Can explicature/the pragmatically enriched said/implicature be distinguished from implicature?
7.3.6. Levinson: conversational implicature
7.3.7. The five analyses compared
7.4. Summary
8. Pragmatics and syntax
8.1. Chomsky's views about language and linguistics
8.2. Chomsky's binding theory
8.3. Problems for Chomsky's binding theory
8.3.1. Binding condition A
8.3.2. Binding condition B
8.3.3. Complementarity between anaphors and pronominals
8.3.4. Binding condition C
8.4. A revised neo-Gricean pragmatic theory of anaphora
8.4.1. The general pattern of anaphora
8.4.2. A revised neo-Gricean pragmatic apparatus for anaphora
8.4.3. The binding patterns
8.4.4. Beyond the binding patterns
8.4.5. Logophoricity and emphaticness/contrastiveness
8.5. Theoretical implications
8.6. Summary
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
#2680. deixis ([2016-08-28-1]) ˴ؤʸˡ (category) 1Ĥˡ; (person) 롥ľ deixis ˴طΤϡ1;Ρäˤ2;ΡʹˤΤߤǤꡤ3;ΤȤϤʳΰڤλʪȤŪΤǤ롥ֻפȡ֤ʤפλؼоݤϡäλͿԤѤФ˱ѤΤǤꡤߥ˥ˤȤäơΤ褦Ūʻؼǽ̤12;̾줬Ȥɬפ3;ΤˤĤƤϡŪˤؤ̾ʶˤȤäƤѤȤϤǤ롥㤨̾פפѤˡڡפֻġפ֤̾ѤƺѤޤ뤳ȤǽǤ롥äơο;̾ηϤˤƺǤܼŪʤΤ12;ΤǤꡤ3;ΤϾˤäƤʤǤĤǤ롥
Huang (137) ϡ3;̾礯줬ꤦͳˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Third person is the grammaticalization of reference to persons or entities which are neither speakers nor addressees in the situation of utterance, that is, the 'participant-role' with speaker and addressee exclusion [-S, -A] . . . . Notice that third person is unlike first or second person in that it does not necessarily refer to any specific participant-role in the speech event . . . . Therefore, it can be regarded as the grammatical form of a residual non-deictic category, given that it is closer to non-person than either first or second person . . . . This is why all of the world's languages seem to have first- and second-person pronouns, but some appear to have no third-person pronouns.
Ū Huang 3;̾礯ȤƸڤƤΤϡDyirbal, Hopi, Yéli Dnye, Yidiɲ, ڤӥǤ롥
¤ϡܸˤƤ⡤;̾ɤΤ褦˹ͤ뤫ȤϤ뤬3;̾ˤĤƤϸؼ̾žѤŪǤꡤȼΤΤϤʤäȤäƤ褤1;Τϥ졤졤2;ΤǤϥʡʥ줬ͭθ촴ȤƤäΤФ3;ΤϾʤȤȼθ촴ĤۤɤˤȯãƤʤä
ȤǡܸǤѸǤ⾮ҶʬΤȤ1;̾ǤϤʤͭ̾ǸƤָݤ뤬ŪʤΤθ伫ȯãȴطΤdeixis ϡλΩ֤ǤŪʻؼǽǤ뤫顤ǧǽϤȯãȴطǤϤ롥зɸȤط̣Ǹꡤdeixis Ȥ롥
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
#2675. ȸѲ ([2016-08-23-1]) ǡJones and Singh μҲŪѲŪʴοؤδؿˤĤƹͤEsperanto Τ褦ʿФȡʿԤ⤢СɡǾФ⤢Сζ̸ʤƲȤʤ⤷ȴؿԤ⤢롥ˤ衤üȿ륱¿褦˻פ롥
ĿͤȤƤϡʤȤᤤ衤͡˼븽ϤʤȻפäƤ뤷δ϶ؿäƤ櫓ǤϤʤJones and Singh εɤʤǡʤʤΡ˿͡ϿƤ˻ΤȤ˴ؿͯƤ鸽ߤˤơϾ˿ФƾƴƤǤ (cf. #958. 19Ⱦ³Ƚи ([2011-12-11-1])) Jones and Singh (154--55) ϡEco 礤˽Фʤ顤ʤȤ衼åѤˤ뤳δؿˤĤʬϤ褦ȤƤ롥
[F]or many, deliberate creation still smacks of the quasi-academic and the 'geeky'; a fringe and fantasy-based pastime that produces 'eccentricities' such as Klingon and Esperanto. . . .
Yet while deliberate invention has long been nothing more than a game for many, it has also been seriously considered as an ideal solution to what have been characterised by some as (linked) linguistic and social 'problems'. Eco (1995: 1) [= Eco, U. The Search for the Perfect Language. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.], for example, argues that the perception of linguistic diversity and difference has long been current in practically every culture, as has been the notion that this 'Babel' can be redeemed through 'the rediscovery or invention of a language common to all humanity'. In European thought, this has prompted various linguistic projects throughout the centuries, such as those listed in 7.2.a (adapted from Eco 1995: 2--3):
7.2.a Typology of 'language projects' in European scholarship
1. The rediscovery of languages postulated as original or as mystically perfect, such as Hebrew, Egyptian or Chinese.
2. The reconstruction of languages postulated, either fancifully or not, as original or mother tongues.
3. Languages constructed artificially for one of thee ends:
(a) Perfection in terms of either function or structure, such as the a-priori philosophical languages of the seventeenth century, designed to express ideas perfectly.
(b) Perfection in terms of universality, such as the a-posteriori international languages of the nineteenth century.
(c) Perfection in terms of practicality, if only presumed, such as the so-called polygraphies.
4. Magic languages, discovered or invented, whose perfection is extolled on account of either their mystic effability or their initiatic secrecy.
Ǥϡ衼åѤǤι̣ǤΡָײ (language_planning) λƤˤʤäƤ뤬 Eco ΥꥹȤˤ⤦1IJäΤ롥ϡʹߡνʵڤܡˤǤɸŪǤ롥19ʹߤοƤϤǤΡֹŪ̸ָΤǤΤФγƹˤɸಽȵϲϤޤǡֹŪ̸κܻؤƤˤʤξԤȯۤϺŪˤ礭ۤʤäƤʤνѼ¿1ĤѼ֤뤳Ȥȡν¿1Ĥθ֤뤳ȤϡϤˤʤȤ⤤뤫ΤˡԤˤϿ줬ؤ뤬ԤϼΤʤǤäǤȤ礭ʰ㤤롥ԤɸѼˤ⾯ʤ̿ͰäƤ뤳Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥ʹߡˤɸѼɬ˺ꤷμͤȤγưϡŪ˳ɾƤȤäƤ褤ιǤǤ Esperanto Volapük Ƥ꿮ꤹԤȤγư "geeky" ȤߤΤϡԻĤȤԻĤǤ롥ξȤ "geeky" ǥŪǤȤСɸˤŪ˼ꡤʤɸ餷Ƥ֤⡤ "geeky" ǥŪȤΤ⤷ʤ
Jones, Mari C. and Ishtla Singh. Exploring Language Change. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005.
δŪ1Ĥ deixis ʥľˤ롥Ѹϡꥷǡּؤפ̣ deikunúnai ͳ褹롥Huang (132) ˤСdeixis Ȥ "the phenomenon whereby features of context of utterance or speech event are encoded by lexical and/or grammatical means in a language" Ǥ롥ľɽ (deictic (expression)) ˤϡؼ (demonstrative)12;̾ (1st and 2nd personal_pronoun)ɸ (tense marker) (adverb of time and place)ưư (motion verb) ޤޤ롥
餫 deixis ⤿ʤ¸ߤʤϡdeixis ɸʤʤȡʹ֤̾Υߥ˥ȤǤʤΤˡֻס֤סֺפΤ褦ľŪǰʤǤϡʤΩʤդǽäӤΥ "Meet me here a month from now with a magic wand about this long." ȽƤƤ⡤ïˡɤǡġɤΤ餤ĹξäƲФ褤ΤǤ롥ɤ꤬ΰտޤ deixis Ǥʤ륳ߥ˥㳲Ǥ롥
ѸľɽŵȤ you 褦̾äؤ you Ѥ졤Ⱦˤä you λؼоݤѤΤǤ뤫顤ŵŪľɽȤ롥If you travel on a train without a valid ticket, you will be liable to pay a penalty fare. Τ褦˰̿;ΤȤѤ you ǤϡľŪϤʤҤƤꡤ2;̾ you ľŪˡȤ٤
ľɽΤ⤦1ĤŵȤơthis 褦ؤʤɤʪŪʥ㡼ȼä this table ȸȤ this ϤľŪˡȤ뤬ʪŪʹưȼ鷺 this town ȸȤˤϡ this ľŪǤϤ뤬ħŪˡȤ롥ԤԤȯŸŪŪˡȹͤ졤ºݡ㡼ˡ (gestural) ǤѤ줺ħŪ (symbolic) ˡ礤Ƥե voici, voilà Τ褦ľɽ⤢롥СħŪˡΤߤľɽȤΤϤꤽˤʤ
ʾꡤľɽˡϰʲΤ褦ʬव (Huang 135 οޤѡˡ
Gestural
Deictic use
Deictic expression Symbolic
Non-deictic use
ܿȼ (borrowing) ϡá֡졤̣γƤꡤ͡˸椵Ƥ#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1]) ǿ줿褦˸ŪѤˤĤƤϤޤ椬ѤƤʤ#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1]) 褦ˡɸ (discourse_marker) ٤ɽ魯μѤʤɤϤ뤷ष䤹餢뤫⤷ʤȸ뤬ŪʸϾʤ
ʤǥ1ĤȤơPrince ʸɤYiddish طʤıѸѼ (Yiddish English) ˤơŪʤɤʸƬˤäƤ 礬ɸѸˤεǽȤϰۤʤ뵡ǽѤƤ¤ꡤ Yiddish ˤбΤõǽѤ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ
ɸѸǤϡŪƬ˽Ф Focus-Movement ʸˡŪǤ롥㤨С
(1) Let's assume there's a device which can do it --- a parser let's call it.
Ǥϡlet's call it ʬȤȤƤꡤ¤δ鿷 a parser ʸƬ˰ươƤ롥
Yiddish English Ǥߤбư (Yiddish-Movement) Ǥ⡤褦Ⱦϳǧ뤬ͻҤۤʤäƤ롥㤨СYiddish English 鼡Τ褦ʸƤߤ褦
(2) "Look who's here,' his wife shouted at him the moment he entered the door, the day's dirt still under his fingernails. "Sol's boy." The soldier popped up from his chair and extended his hand. "How do you do, Uncle Louis?" "A Gregory Peck," Epstein's wife said, "a Montgomery Clift your brother has. He's been here only 3 hours, already he has a date."
a Montgomery Clift your brother has ȰưäƤ뤬ɸѸ (1) ξȰۤʤȤ롥ξʸȤˡ٤κϤεǽƯƤȲǤ뤬(1) Ǥʬʹΰռˤ롤ʤ (salient) ǤΤФơ(2) ǤʬǤʤäơɸѸλȤˤȤäơ(2) ϸʸˡȤưȿϤƤʤʤǤʤʸ̮ˤŪ虜虜Ƭ˽ФΤȡüԤΰտޤˤΤǤ롥ɸŪ Focus-Movement Yiddish English ͭ Yiddish-Movement Ǥϡõǽ㴳ۤʤäƤΤǤ롥
Yiddish-Movement õǽħϡʬ salient ǤʤƤ⡤ȤˤȤѤˤ롥Ǥϡ Yiddish-Movement õǽϤɤƤΤȤСޤǤʤ Yiddish ǤȤPrince (515) ۩". . . Yiddish-English bilinguals presumably found English Focus-Movement to be syntactically analogous to Yiddish Focus-Movement and associated with the former the discourse function of the latter."
Τ褦õǽμѤ꼰ȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Prince 517)
Given S1, a syntactic construction in one language, L1, and S2, a syntactic construction in another language, L2, the discourse function DF1 associated with S1 may be borrowed into L2 and associated with S2, just in case S1 and S2 can be construed as syntactically 'analogous' in terms of string order.
졦ŪʼѤȤǤ⤤٤Τñˤ̣ (semantic_borrowing) ȻƤʤʤˤƸԤѻ褦ˡԤ⾯ʤʤΤ⤷ʤ
Prince, E. F. "On Pragmatic Change: The Borrowing of Discourse Functions." Journal of Pragmatics 12 (1988): 505--18.
ε#2677. Beowulf ˤߤֲפɽ魯 ([2016-08-25-1]) ǡűѻʸŪȤƤ kenning ˿줿kenning ζϡ#472. kenning ([2010-08-12-1]) ǵ Beowulf ȾʤȤ⤦1Ĥλ˸ kenning Ĥɲä (Baker 136) åỌ̇̄롥
| kenning | literal sense | meaning |
|---|---|---|
| bāncofa, masc. | "bone-chamber" | body |
| bānfæt, neut. | "bone-container" | body |
| bānhūs, neut. | "bone-house" | body |
| bānloca, neut. | "locked bone-enclosure" | body |
| brēosthord, neut. | "breast-hoard" | feeling, thought, character |
| frumgār, masc. | "first spear" | chieftain |
| hronrād, fem. | "whale-road" | sea |
| merestrǣt, fem. | "sea-street" | the way over the sea |
| nihthelm, masc. | "night-helmet" | cover of night |
| sāwoldrēor, masc. or neut. | "soul-blood" | life-blood |
| sundwudu, masc. | "sea-wood" | ship |
| wordhord, neut. | "word-hoard" | capacity for speech |
űѸʣ (compounding) ˤդʸäϡ#1148. űѸ˭ʸϡ ([2012-06-18-1]) ǤǧѤߤʣϤȤ櫓ʸˤƺ¤˳Ѥ줿º Beowulf ɽűѻˤƤϡֲסͦΡס襤סֳפʤɤѽФ복ǰФơ͡ (synonym) Ѥ줿ϡñĴ뤿Ǥ⤢äε#2676. űѻƬ ([2016-08-24-1]) Ǽ夲Ƭε§˱褦˼ɽɬפäǤ⤢ä
ʲBaker (137) ꡤBeowulf ʵڤӤ¾λˤ˸ֲ緯פɽ魯褦ʣ줬¿ñǤθޤޤƤˡ
bēagġyfa, masc. ring-giver.
bealdor, masc. lord.
brego, masc. lord.
folcāgend, masc. possessor of the people.
folccyning, masc. king of the people.
folctoga, masc. leader of the people.
frēa, masc. lord.
frēadrihten, masc. lord-lord.
frumgār, masc. first spear.
godlgġyfa, masc. gold-giver.
goldwine, masc. gold-friend.
gūðcyning, masc. war-king.
herewīsa, masc. leader of an army.
hildfruma, masc. battle-first.
hlēo, masc. cover, shelter.
lēodfruma, masc. first of a people.
lēodġebyrġea, masc. protector of a people.
mondryhten, masc. lord of men.
rǣswa, masc. counsellor.
siġedryhten, masc. lord of victory.
sincġifa, masc. treasure giver.
sinfrēa, masc. great lord.
þenġel, masc. prince.
þēodcyning, masc. people-king.
þēoden, masc. chief, lord.
wilġeofa, masc. joy-giver.
wine, masc. friend.
winedryhten, masc. friend-lord.
wīsa, masc. guide.
woroldcyning, masc. worldly king.
ˤϻˤʤʣ¿ޤޤƤꡤŪʣ (poetic compound) ȸƤФƤ롥1Ǥ2Ǥ folccyning (people-king) Τ褦⤢СξǤۤƱǾĹ frēadrihten (lord-lord) Τ褦⤢롥ˡȥ˥ߡѤ椫ͷ bēagġyfa (ring-giver) ⤢롥Ǹ˵तŪʣ kenning ȸƤФ졤űѻˤ礭ħȤʤäƤʡ#472. kenning ([2010-08-12-1]) ȡˡ
Baker, Peter S. Introduction to Old English. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
Ѹˤϡ˸ƬλҲ碌ĴҤФƬ (alliteration) 롥ܥ֥Ǥϡ#943. Ƭˤ ([2011-11-26-1]) Ϥᡤalliteration γƵǡ˸Ѹ˻ĤƬθݤäƤ
ѸˤǡƬפȤСʤˤűѻˤ뱤Χ§ȤƤƬפФ롥ƬϡűѸΤߤʤ餺ťɸ졤ť졤ŹϥɥĸʤɥޥαʸħŤ뱤ΧμʤǤꡤƥ졦ޥεӱ (rhyme) ȺΩäʤƥޥŪʤαΧʤˤĤơűѻˤƤ˻Ѥ줿Baker (124--26) ˵äƳ⤷
űѻ1 (line) 2ĤȾ (verse) ʤäƤꡤȾԤ on-verse (or a-verse)ȾԤ off-verse (or b-verse) ȸƤ֡δ֤ˤιԴֵٻ (caesura) ޤäƤꡤΰǤĹζɽ蘆ΤǤ롥ȾԤˤ2Ĥζʤ줾 lift ȸƤ֡ˤޤޤƤꡤμϤˤϼ岻 (drop) ֤롥Τ褦˹Ԥˤơon-verse 2Ĥ lifts 뤤ξθƬȡoff-verse κǽ lift θƬϡƱΤȤʤ롥줬űѻƬǤ롥
ƬδܤϸƬҲˤΤºݤˤϸƬ첻ˤΤ⤢롥첻ˤƬǤ첻βʤΤǡ㤨 e i ǤⲡǤ롥ޤҲˤƬˤĤƤϡsc, sp, st λҲ˸¤äơλҲȤȲʤФʤ餺㤨 stān sāriġ ϲǤʤ (see #2080. /sp/, /st/, /sk/ Ҳð ([2015-01-06-1])) g ġc ċ ϲۤʤ졤̾ߤ˱ƧळȤǤ롥
ƬԤ֤ѥˤϡĤΥꥨ롥ܤϰʲ3Ǥ롥
xa|ay: þæt biþ in eorle indryhten þēaw
ax|ay: þæt hē his ferðlocan fæste binde.
aa|ax: ne se hrēo hyġe helpe ġefremman
ʲΤ褦 ab|ab η (transverse alliteration) ab|ba η (crossed alliteration) ⸫뤬̤˽ŪʶäƤȹͤ롥
ab|ab: Þær æt hȳðe stōd hringedestefna
ab|ba: brūnfāgne helm, hringde byrnan
űѸƬλԤϡ嵭ι¤ܤȤơξ͡ʺ§˱äƹƤ롥Ϣơ#1897. "futhorc" acrostic ([2014-07-07-1])#1560. Chaucer ˤƬ ([2013-08-04-1]) ⻲ȡ
Baker, Peter S. Introduction to Old English. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
Esperanto ɽ (artificial_language) ήɤθؤˤƿ˵뤳ȤϤۤȤɤʤ⤽ΤϤǤ롥ؤδؿϡħηϡSaussure "langue" 뤤 Chomsky "competence"ˤ餫ˤ뤳ȤˤꡤͰŪˤǤäˤ뤳ȤϤǤʤѲΩ줫⡤ϾʤȤ¤Ф줿ˤüԤ⤤ʤ̾ߤϤθѲˤ˳뤿ᡤޤȤ˰٤ͳʤȰ콳롥
˼ҲŪʴѲ Johns and Singh ϡ1Ϥ䤤 Language invention ˴ؤͤƤ롥ͳ˼褦
We have . . . included select discussion of such [invented] systems here primarily because invention constitutes part of the natural and normal spectrum of human linguistic ability and behaviour and, as such, merits acknowledgement in our general discussion of language use and language change. At the most obvious level, linguistic inventions are, despite their tag of artificiality, ultimately products of the human linguistic competence and, indeed, creativity, that produces their natural counterparts. In many cases, they are also often born of the arguably human impulse to influence and change linguistic behaviour, an impulse which . . . fundamentally underlies strategies of natural language planning. Thus . . . languages may be invented to reflect particular world views, promote and foster solidarity among certain groups or even potentially for the purpose of preserving natural linguistic obsolescence as a result of the domination of one particular language. It is in such real-life purposes that our interest in linguistic invention lies . . . .
ˤϸǽϤؤθڤ⤢뤬ȤƼҲŪʴؿˤռȤäƤ褤ȯѡηϤѻưŤͻ뤳Ȥǡ͡ȤΤ˲ƤΤΤɤʬƤΤʤʹưˤѤ褦ȤΤʤΤȤŪʸФҥȤ뤫⤷ʤȤ櫓ѲȤδϢǤϡʤײȤäͰŪʸѲߤƤΤȤˤĤʤ롥ĤޤȤϡεǽȤϲʤ͡ϸѲѰۤΤȤˤˤĤƹͻݤˡ1ĤκǤȤȤѲˤȤ
Jones and Singh (182) ϡξ "as a linguistic exercise, the processes of invention, as well as its concomitant problems and issues, have the potential to complement our general understanding of how human language functions as successfully as it does" ȸڤƤ롥츫Τ褦˻פʤºݤ˱꤫⤷ʤˤŪ꤫ϤŪʵäƤ椯礬⤷Ϣơ#963. Ѹˤȿ ([2011-12-16-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ۤˡȤƤϡ#958. 19Ⱦ³Ƚи ([2011-12-11-1])#959. Ūʹݿ줬٤ ([2011-12-12-1])#961. ([2011-12-14-1]) ⻲ȡ
Jones, Mari C. and Ishtla Singh. Exploring Language Change. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005.
Austin ȯù (speech_act) ˤСʸˤϡĥĽʸ (constative) ȡξ˹٤ȼʸ (performative) Ȥ̤롥㤨СMy daughter is called Elizabeth. ĽʸI name this ship the Princess Elizabeth. Ͽʸ롥
ʸˤϡι٤ɽ魯ưŪ˴ޤŪʸ (explicit performative) ȡޤޤʤżŪʸ (implicit performative) 롥㤨СI command you to surrender immediately. ŪʸSurrender immediately. ϰżŪʸǤ롥Ūʸˤ٤ɽ魯ưʸξˤ commandˤư (performative verb) Ȥ
Austin ϡѸˤŪʸ̣ŪħȤơ3Ƥ롥(1) ưޤǤʤħȤȤ٤ˡ(2) hereby դä뤳Ȥǿʸ뤳ȤĴ뤳ȤǤ롤(3) 1;ñμ줬Ωǽư֤ľˡñ㸽߷ư줬Ѥ롥3Ĥħ碌ŵŪʿʸĤƤ
I hereby christen this ship the Princess Elizabeth
I now pronounce you husband and wife.
I sentence you to ten years in prison.
I promise to come to your talk tomorrow afternoon.
I apologize for being late.
Austin ȤǧƤ褦ˡ(3) ħͭʤŪʸ⤢롥Huang (97) äʲʸˤߤ褦ˡ1;ʣμ줬Ωľ⤢뤷ʳο;Τμ줬ΩĤȤǽǤ롥ư줬;ΤǤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꤦ뤷߿ʹԷư֤οʸ⤢ꤦ롥
We suggest that you go to the embassy
You are hereby warned that legal action will be taken.
Passengers are hereby requested to wear a seat belt.
Notice is hereby given that the Annual General Meeting of O2 plc will be held at The Hexagon, Queens Walk, Reading, Berkshire RG1 7UA on Wednesday, 27 July 2005 at 11.00 am for the following purposes: . . . .
The management hereby warns customers that mistakes in charge cannot be rectified once the customer has left the counter.
It is herewith disclosed that the value of the estate left by Marcus T. Bloomingdale was 4,785,758 dollars.
Are you denying that the government has interfered? --- I am denying that.
You are being discharged on the grounds of severe temperamental unsuitability for service in the Royal Navy.
˲οʸϤʤ褦⤷ I christened this ship the Princess Elizabeth last Sunday. ȸäȤƤ⡤ĽʸǤꡤʸȤϤʤꤨʤ
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
ܥ֥ǤϲܤǤ롥ˤѸνȡֲڡפϡ褷ƱѸȤ̸ΤĸŪü˵٤ΤǤϤʤǤϤʤñ˼ҲŪΩĤ餳פʤΤǤ롥ΤȤϡ٤Ǥ֤ⷫҤ٤Ƥɬפ롥ȤΤϡѸǽοäΤ餳ǡܤǤϤȤ櫓Ƥ뤫Ǥ롥Ѹ줬ְΤפȤСϸŪˤǤϤʤҲŪˡְΤפȤˤʤ
Algeo and Pyles (224) ƱݤμĥѤ褦αѸѼϤ塤ǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
What, then, it may be asked, is the English language? Is it the speech of London, of Boston, of New York, of Atlanta, of Melbourne, of Montreal, of Calcutta? Is it the English of the metropolitan daily newspaper, of the bureaucratic memo, of the contemporary poet, of religious ritual, of football sportscasts, of political harangues, of loving whispers? A possible answer might be, none of these, but rather the sum of them all, along with all other blendings and developments that have taken place wherever what is thought of as the English language is spoken by those who have learned it as their mother tongue or as an additional language. However, the most important variety happens to be the standard English written by British and American authors---and it should be clear by now that the importance of that language is due not to any inherent virtues it may possess, but wholly to its usefulness to people around the world, whatever their native language.
ѸϡʣʶޤʸˡʤꤷƤƳؤӤ䤹ȤͳȤƺѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤѸϡȯηϤηϤͥƤȤͳŪ˼Ƥ櫓ǤʤѸϡŪˤ¾̵θ٤ơȤ櫓ͥƤ櫓ǤäƤ櫓Ǥʤ1ĤθǤ롥Ѹϡä˶ʹߤˤ̤ơ˳ȻƤˤꡤ¿οͤߥ˥ƻȤƺѤҲŪͭƤ顤ˤƱѸϡְΤפȤˤʤäƤΤǤ롥
μĥϰʲεǷ֤ƤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1])#1082. ʤѸȤʤä (1) ([2012-04-13-1])#1083. ʤѸȤʤä (2) ([2012-04-14-1])#1607. Ѹ춵Ū¦̡ ([2013-09-20-1])#1788. Ķ̱²νиȳ˴Ϳװ ([2014-03-20-1])#2487. νȤϡμҲŪϤΤȤǤ ([2016-02-17-1])
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
ꥫѸüԤϥꥹѸüԤŪʸˡˡŻ뤹뷹Ȥ롥ꥫѸ̢䤹뵬ϼŪʤϡ#897. Web3 νǤ50ǯ ([2011-10-11-1]) #1304. ꥫѸΡݼס ([2012-11-21-1]) ǤҤ٤褦ˡȤΤǤ롥ˤ͡ŪͳȻפ뤬ŵŪѸ˽ Algeo and Pyles (209--10) Ƥ椷ʤҲؤʲͤκ߽Ȥ1ĤθƤ롥
Perhaps because pronunciation is less important in America than it is in Britain as a mark of social status, American attitudes toward language put somewhat greater stress on grammatical "correctness," based on such matters as the supposed "proper" position of only and other shibboleths.
Algeo and Pyles ϲʤθҤ٤Τ⤷ʤȯظˤϡ֤ζƱΤˤƤⲿ餫μҲŪʶ̤ϤΤפȤ褦˻פ롥ꥹˤϼȤƳɸΤȤƤȯκۤꡤꥫˤϼȤƶܤƻ̵ͭɸΤȤƤʸˡκۤΤȡҲŪʶ̤μȼʤξΤǰۤʤ뤬ˤ¸ߤϤ롤Ȥĥ
ΤˤθȤƤ⡤ʤμʤꥹǤȯǤꡤꥫǤʸˡǤΤȤϻĤ롥ϱѸ˼Ҳؤζ̣ȥԥåˤʤꤽǤˤΥ̸Ūʴ鼨٤ห1Ƥߤ褦ϡ#1503. 졤áȯμҲŪ ([2013-06-08-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Hudson αʲ˴ط롥
Hudson (45) ϡʸˡáȯŵŪʼҲŪˡ줾ķɽ魯סɽ魯ס֥ǥƥƥɽ魯ǽΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥⤷βʤСȯκۤפʼҲỤ̄ĥꥹǤϡüԤ°볬ɸ뤳ȤŻ뤹뷹ȤȤ졤ʸˡκ̣ۤĥꥫǤϡüԤҲŪ«ɸŻ뤹뷹ȤȤ롥ñ㲽Ʋ᤹СꥹǤϽ°볬ؤε°ռŻ뤵졤ꥫǤϹȤؤε礬Ż뤵롤ȤȤˤʤ
Hudson βϽ벾ǤꡤΤ褦˵ʤ뤳ȤûŪspeculation ȤƤϼ¤ˤ⤷
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
ѸˤƻƱ flat_adverb ñˤλѤˤĤơ#982. ꥫѸθѽФ flat adverb ([2012-01-04-1])#983. flat adverb μ ([2012-01-05-1])#993. flat adverb ˤĤƤ줳 ([2012-01-15-1])#996. flat adverb ΤӤӤʡ ([2012-01-18-1])#997. real bad ȡ֤Фס ([2012-01-19-1]) ʤɤǿƤȤƥꥫѸθ졦¯϶ɽȤѤ뷹ȽҤ٤
ɸѸǤ flat adverb ϤۤΩʤȤ뤬ɸѸγܤСλѤ20ȾˤƤ𤵤Ƥ (Tagliamonte 73--74) ФСɸŪסָŪסֶܤΤʤס罰ŪפʤɤΥ졼٥뤬Ž뤬DZΧԹǡֻŪפˤѤ롥˥ԥ졤쥪졤ꥫѸä Appalachian and Ozark EnglishˤǤʹ뤷Tristan da Cunha Channel Islands αѸʤνѼdzǧƤ롥ꥹǤ⡤ʲ˸褦˽Ǥ̤˻ѤƤ뤷Estuary English ǤŵŪʹ롥Ĥޤꡤ¿αѸѼ flat adverb ѤƤΤΤ٤Ƥ1ĤṲ̄ȤϸڤʤŪ flat adverb η³Ȥ륱ϾʤʤȻפ롥
Tagliamonte ϡ"Roots Archive" ȸƤФ륤ꥹˤåѥˤꡤCumnock (south-west Scotland), Cullybackey (Northern Ireland), Maryport (Cumbria) 3Ǥ flat adverb λΨĴflat adverb ٤ȡб -ly ٤Ȥ碌100%761ˤȤȤԤΨϡCumnock 49%Cullybackey 47%Maryport 18%ä (Tagliamonte 77) ˤä flat adverb λΨ˥ХĥϤ뤷ޤ켫Τۤʤ褦ˤƤ褷٤㤯ʤȡޤ flat adverb ϶ŪŪʰ̣Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿ȤʬäȤʺǸˤĤƤϡ#1174. Ѹñ -ly Υڥ ([2012-07-14-1]) ȡˡΤ褦ɸѼܤСflat adverb ϸߤߤȤäƤ褵
flat adverb ˤˤĤƤϡ˥ĥäΤۤ#984. flat adverb ϥƥϤηƻ줬ƻ ([2012-01-06-1])#998. Ѹ flat adverb -ly adverb ([2012-01-20-1])#1172. ѸΥƥñ ([2012-07-12-1])#1190. Ѹˤȯã ([2012-07-30-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
Tagliamonte, Sali A. Roots of English: Exploring the History of Dialects. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
ɸ˴ؤơ#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1]) #2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1]) Ϥᡤܥ֥Ǥ¿ˤƤʸηϤݼϤޤǤʤʸѤ١ʤդΤäդ椷ݼŪǤ뤳ȤϳΤʻ¤Ǥ롥ʤʤΤܼ͡ŪΤꤿ
ε#2669. ѸܸʸˡˤĬή ([2016-08-17-1]) ǻȤ (86) ˡդλλäդޤ¿ͳƤ뤯꤬ꡤɸͻǤ˥ҥȤˤʤ롥ʸʸεΤϿΤˤʤƤ롥ޤˤ붯ĴϰѼԤˤΡ
ɮϿΤθʸǤ˽θƬ줽ΤޤޤǤϤʤʤۤϤȯ̾˻ƸƬ˶ᤤФƾθʸظƬ줽ΤޤޤǤϤꤨǤʸȤƤΡʤϤθƬǵɮϿΤθʸǵʸ˶ŤϡθƤεҴŪҲŪŪŪΤĻĶŵŪҴɬŪ˷ӤĤǤ롥˰صҴŪҲŪŪŪĸƤʸ졤ʸ줬Ω롥äƤϡ褷ƤλɮϿΤθʸǵϸƬ֤ΤΤǤ褢ꤨʤƱˡʤ餺Ūʸŵޤ̣ˤơ褷ƤƱǤ뤳ȤǤʤȤؤСθʸˤΩ˾ʸˤϤʸʸݤ⤬Ǥ롥ͥ줿ʤȤΤϡɮϿΤθʸǵϸŪ¯ȸŵŪŪʲȤκ¡ǵϸʸΰפˤƤФд줿ϸġΰĿͤȤƤʹȤȤˡİ̤ȤƤΤνμԤƤĿŪˤƼҲŪŪˤƵҴŪʴפΩġ餳ͥ줿̣ˤˤˤΤΤǤ롥
ĴʬȤƤ뤳Ȥϡˤаʲ̤Ǥ롥դäդ٤ơֵҴŪҲŪŪŪפĤ٤ΤǤꡤݤ³뤿ˤϡǤˤΤ褦ͭ뤳Ȥ̤ƾƤ¸νդϤΤȤȤǤ롥äդϾѲ³ƤΤǤ뤫顤夫³Ť뷹ΤդϡŪ˸ŤݼŪȤȤˤʤ롥С͡ϡդȤƴƤΤȤ³뷹ΤΤ褦ˡդݼŪǤͳϡ줬ܼŪˡֵҴŪҲŪŪŪפǤȤΩ뤳Ȥˤꡤ褯Ǥ롥
ҡʸˡˤλʬסعء221955ǯ79--87ǡ
ˤˤʬˤĤƤϡperiodisation γƵǼ夲ƤѸˤ˴ؤƤСűѸ졤Ѹ졤Ѹʸޤˤ3ʬˡĹ餯ԤʤƤʸˡˤȤѸˤΤ3ʬˡ褦ȤʤС1ĤˤϰĸͳζޤɤΤ餤ݻƤ뤫뤤ϾüƤ뤫Ȥ٤롥ˤꡤűѸ = full inflection, Ѹ = levelled inflection, Ѹ = lost inflection ζʬ롥2ܤˡϢư뤫ǡŪˤʬ (synthesis_to_analysis) ؤĬήѻ졤μ٤ˤäơűѸ = syntheticѸ = synthetic/analyticѸ = analytic Ȥʬ롥ξ⡤ѸϲϴȤŪʰ֤ŤȤʤ롥
ơܸʸˡˤˤĤƤϡѸʸˡˤ˸褦礭Ĭή䡤ʬ벿餫δϤΤ (81--83) ˤСܸʸˡˤˤ³ؤ礭ή줬ǧ졤μ٤ˤäơ³ͥθ塤³ͥζ3ʬȤδơλħ⤹ȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
| ŷĤκīޤ | ʸˤ³δطŪɽ̤˽ФƤꡤŪط̤तƤ롥³δطϡīä˷Ӥˤäɽ蘆ƤꡤʿīޤǤ¿ͲϤ | |
| ĮƬǯ֤ޤ | ʸˤ³δطŪطƤ롥Ǥ³ƤǡŪˤʤΤͤ줿ήʸΩħϤι˸ˤߤ롥 | |
| ±ǯ֤鸽ߤޤ | ʸˤŪطŪɽ̤˽ФƤꡤ³δط̤तƤ롥 |
ߡ͡ʱѸѼ (world_englishes) ʬۤƤ롥ơθħäǤꡤߤΰۤʤ¿¿ͤǡֱѸפȤưˤ褦ȤƤۤɤɸŪʥꥹѸȥꥫѸɤ٤Ƥ⡤ˤäƤΰ㤤ˤΤʤΤƱꤹΤϡ䤹ʤʡ#627. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ ([2011-01-14-1])#628. 2Ѽ֤̻ӤˤäŪۤ (2) ([2011-01-15-1]) ȡˡ
Tagliamonte ϡαѸѼ֤δطĤʤ碌ߥåϡꥹμνѼȤˤˤȼĥ (p. 3) ǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
It is fascinating to consider why the many varieties of English around the world are so different. Part of the answer to this question is their varying local circumstances, the other languages that they have come into contact with and the unique cultures and ecologies in which they subsequently evolved. However, another is the historically embedded explanation that comes from tracing their roots back to their origins in the British Isles. Indeed, leading scholars have argued that the study of British dialects is critical to disentangling the history and development of varieties of English everywhere in the world . . . .
Tagliamonte ȤƤ뤳Ȥϡ㤨мΤ褦ʤȤꥹμήѼȥꥫμήѼ¤٤ƸߤθŪۤФѼˤμˤ褦ȤƤ⡤٤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѤƥꥹ뤤ϥꥫήѼ⤤ĤޤƲ¤ӤˤμȤȤ˸ŪƱСߤѼӤĤߥåǽ롥㤨СߤΥɥαѸõƤ⸫ĤʤҥȤåȥɤαѸȤˤиĤ뤳Ȥ⤢ΤǤϤʤ
Tagliamonte ǽҤ٤ƤΤϡδ˾Ǥ롥δ˾äơˤӤˡȤ "comparative sociolinguistics" ƤƤΤΡӼҲءפˡĤӸ (comparative_linguistics) ΤijؽŪ̩뤳ȤϤۤԲǽȤäƤ褤1ĤŪƤȤƴޤѸαƺΤ褦ʼפФǤʤԥѸ졤쥪Ѹ졤AAVE ʤѼˤ뤤ꤲƤ
ܽκǸǡTagliamonte (213) ϱѸˤȤ뤤̤𤤾夲Ƥ롥
Dialects are a tremendous resource for understanding the grammatical mechanisms of linguistic change. Dialects are also the storehouse of the heart and soul of culture, history and identity. Delving deep into the nuts and bolts of language, deeper than words and phrases and expressions, down into the grammar, we discover a treasure trove. Beneath the anecdotes and nonce tales are hidden patterns and constraints that are a system unto themselves, reflecting the legacy of regional factions, social groups and human relationships. As language evolves through history, its inner mechanisms are evolving, but not in the same way in every place nor at the same rate in all circumstances --- it will always mirror its own ecology.
Tagliamonte, Sali A. Roots of English: Exploring the History of Dialects. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
Algeo and Pyles (280--81) ˡChaucer The Canterbury Tales Ellesmere ܡˤ General Prologue Ƭ27ԤˤĤơեѸ˥åΤܤΤ롥ʲ˺Ƹ褦
Whan that Aprille with hise shoures soote
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote
And bathed every veyne in swich licour
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth
Inspired hath in every hold and heeth
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
Hath in the Ram his half[e] cours yronne,
And smale foweles maken melodye,
That slepen al the nyght with open eye---
So priketh hem nature in hir corages---
Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,
And Palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,
To ferne halwes kowthe in sondry londes
And specially fram every shires ende
Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende
The hooly blisful martir for to seke
That hem hath holpen when þt they were seeke.
Bifil that in that seson on a day,
In southwerk at the Tabard as I lay
Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage
To Caunterbury with ful devout corage,
At nyght were come in to that hostelrye
Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye
Of soundry folk by aventure yfalle
In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle
That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde.
27Ԥǹ189줬ѤƤ뤬2ٸ pilgrimage corage 1ȿۤʤǷȡ24 (12.70%) ޤǤեѸǤ롥οϡե˴ǽä Chaucer ʤǤϤȤ櫓ǤϤʤ餯14ȾζܤɥαѸŵŪͤȤäƤ褤Serjeantson (151) ˤСChaucer Ѥ10--15%ϥեѸäȤȤGeneral Prologue Ƭ27Ԥ Chaucer ȤƤŵŪʿŪͤƤȤ롥
ѸǤϥեѸΨϤɤ줯餤ʤΤʤѰˤäưۤʤɸŪʸϸоݤĴѸξ٤Ȥ⤷
General Prologue ƬˤĤƤϡ#534. The General Prologue Ƭθ߷ȴλ ([2010-10-13-1])#2275. ѸβηϤ The General Prologue ([2015-07-20-1]) ȡ
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
Serjeantson, Mary S. A History of Foreign Words in English. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1935.
15Ⱦ˰ (printing) ⤿餵줿塤³16δ֤ɸŪˡؤϺϤޤäκݤηƻֻˤȤɤޤ餺ˡ (punctuation) ˤڤ֤Ȥˤʤä
ΩμܤλˤϡƼζɵ椬̣ŪŪȤϲɤΤΥɤȤ͡ѤƤ¿ϰλʹߤ˾äƤޤäο30ĶȤƤΤƱζɵ⤢äμܤǤϤεǽɬ⸽ΤΤƱǤϤʤäʾФƽؤȸФβϴȤƤꡤѸˤ⤤ޤʤä
ΰȼԤϴŪˤϼܤˤäɵƸ褦ȤбʤΤ⤢ꡤ뤳Ȥ¿äŪˤϡ</> (virgule) <.> (point) Ϲǧ줿</> εǽϸߤ <,> (comma) 1520ǯ夫鸽ߤΤ褦 <,> ֤褦ˤʤäȼԤˤäƤξԤȤѤΤ⤢äˡ
ΰǤϡۤ <:> (colon), <> (paragraph mark), <//> (double virgule) ʤɤѤ졤ɵȤƤ <( )> (parentheses), <;> (semicolon), <?> (question mark) ʤɤƳ줿ˤϻ֤פ㤨С<;> ʤɤϡCoverdales ˤ1538ǯοθ˸줳뤬ɤѤ褦ˤʤΤ1570ǯʹߤȤäƤ褤
17äƤ⡤ޤˡ³㤨СShakespeare First Folio (1623) Ǥ⡤ȴò䡤ȥߥλȤʬϰӤƤʤäݥȥե (apostrophe) ϥե (hyphen) ͽʤȤ˸줿 (ex. advan'st (= advanced), cast-him (= cast him)) ꤵϸ Shakespeare ιˤȿǤƤꡤۤʤǤۤʤѤȤ֤ˤʤäƤ롥
ݥȥեˤĤưäƤζɵ϶οǤꡤάѤФΤ1559ǯǤ롥ʤߤΥݥȥեˡȤƽͭʤɽ魯 <'s> ǤλѤ뤬ȯãϤä٤18ΤȤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡǤˡΰĤȤˡޤäƤζɵ⡤ѸǤϤޤ夷ƤʤäΤȤϡƳξ⤬˳̿ŪäȼԤŬΤˤ˻ԺΤ1ĤλɸȤߤʤȤǤΤǤϤʤʾ塤Crystal (261) ȤƼɮ
Ϣơ#574. punctuation 4Ĥεǽ ([2010-11-22-1])#575. Ū punctuation ˤ500ǯۤɡ ([2010-11-23-1])#582. apostrophe ([2010-11-30-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Crystal, David. The Stories of English. London: Penguin, 2005.
Austin Searle θǤϡȯù (speech_act) Ŭڤ˿Ԥ뤿ˤĤξŬ (felicity conditions) 롥ȯù٤ϤΤ褦ʾ郎줿ǤϤƼ¸ΤǤꡤ Searle ˤСΤ褦ʾȯù٤Ф§ (constitutive rules) ΤΤǤ⤢롤Ȥ (Huang 104, pp. 101--02)
Ūˤϡȯù٤Ŭϡ(i) ̿ (propositional content), (ii) (preparatory condition), (iii) (sincerity condition), (iv) ܼ (essential condition) 4फʤ롥ä Sʹ H٤ Aɽ e ȤȤ㤨С« (promising) Ȥȯù٤ФŬϡʲΤ褦ˤʤ (Huang 105)
Searle's felicity conditions for promising
(i) Propositional content: future act A of S
(ii) Preparatory:
(a) H would prefer S's doing A to his not doing A, and S so believes
(b) It is not obvious to both S and H that S will do A in the normal course of events
(iii) Sincerity: S intends to do A
(iv) Essential: the utterance of e counts as an undertaking to do A
(i) ̿ϡȯäˤʤ̿ƤΤȤǤꡤȯù٤˴ؤʬȤ˻ĤȯΤؤ«ξˤϡS A Ԥʤȡפˤʤ롥(ii) λϡŪɬܾΤȤǤꡤH A οԤ˾ǤȤȤ䡤äƤƤ A ʤȤȤ S H ΤäƤ뤳Ȥʤɤ롥(iii) ϡS A Ԥջ֤뤳ȤǤ롥(iv) ܼϡe S οԤΰջ֤ΤȤȯƤ뤫ݤȤ롥ξΤ٤ƤʤСŬڤ«ι٤ȤϤʤʤ
Ʊͤˡ (requesting) Ȥȯù٤ŬƤߤ褦 (Huang 105)
Searle's felicity conditions for requesting
(i) Propositional content: future act A of S
(ii) Preparatory:
(a) S believes H can do A
(b) It is not obvious that H would do A without being asked
(iii) Sincerity: S wants H to do A
(iv) Essential: the utterance of e counts as an attempt to get H to do A
㤨 Can you drive me home? Ȥȯù٤ŬڤΩ뤿ˤϡ֤ʤ֤DzȤޤפȤ̿ˤĤơֻפ֤ʤפžǤ֤ˤꡤޤʤäƤʤȤȤΤäƤꡤäƤ餤ȤפäƤꡤĤȯäˤꤽΰտޤϤȿƤ롤ʤɤν郎ʤФʤʤ
Huang, Yan. Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP, 2007.
ѻҡȯù١סظ١翮סԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ93--107ǡ
ε ([2016-08-11-1]) Ƴ֥ץѡפȡ֤äĤѡפΩϡHaugen ѸǤ importation substitution Ω˴롥#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡimportation ȤϼѸη褽Τޤ˼ळȤǤꡤsubstitution ȤϼѸηб뼫ηѤ뤳ȤǤ롥 (borrowing) ȸƤФ뤫ˤϡɬεΰ̣Ƥ롥ǤϡץѤäĤѤۤʤȤʤ
ơ2μˡΩǰƬˡüѤŪ¿ȤѸܸʤɤθȡŪʤȤ륢ɸʤɤθκˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦θθäӤȡʤۤɡ㤨бѸˤϷŪ¾ͳ褹Τ¿ɸˤϤΤ褦ʤΤʤȤϳΤǤ롥ץѤ¿ɤȤ˸¤СѸϼѤ¿ɸϼѤʤȤˤʤ롥äĤѤĴȤɤ⤷ȡɸϰƳ¿ʤäĤ˼ѤƤǽΤǤϤʤäĤѤϡɽ̾塤ѤǤ뤳ȤʬˤȤħ뤿ᡤܤ츻ĴƤߤʤȤϤäꤷȤʤβǽϽʬˤ롥#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ㤨мѤ¿ȸѸȾʤȸ륢ɸκϡ¤ΤȤѤ¿ɤΤΤκǤϤʤ2ĤμѤˡ (importation and substitution) ΨκǤǽ뤳ȤˤʡפꡤξˡˤѤä碌ΤθμѤ̤ȹͤΤǤС̤˸Ƥۤɽ֤Ѥ¿ɤϤʤΤ⤷ʤפȤ뤫⤷ʤҤäȤȡ줬٤μळۤʤ졤ɤΤȤ빽١ʼѹˤʤΤǤϤʤ֤˥١ʼѹˤ٤κޤäʤȤޤǤϸʤ
ˡ2μˡȤ顤¾줫μѤŪ (purism) ˤĤƹͤƤߤѸˤˤܸˤˤ⡤Ԥ¾줫θüѤȽ夬äָŤɤѸסܸ褵פʤɤȶӤʤ顤ˤ褦볰뤳ȤˤΤʤ1٤Ȥʤ֤줿Τ褦ʽԤƤΤϥץѤФƤǤꡤ¤鼫ȤˤƤäĤѤƤܸξȤСΩ줫֥롼ספȸ鷺ˡֺפȸ٤ȤͤȤȡοͤϱѸ working group Ȥ signifiant μڤˤƤΤΡsignifié ˤĤƤ̵Ƚ˼Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ʊ٤ʤܤ˸륹٤褤Ȥո⤢СƱ٤Ǥ٤ݤäΩʤΩפǤȤո⤢μѤȥ٤ȤϤĤŤƤȻפ
ȸüѤˤĤƤϡ#1408. ([2013-03-05-1]) #1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1])#1545. "lexical cleansing" ([2013-07-20-1])#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1])#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1])ˡ#2068. ؤ ([2014-12-25-1])#2069. ؤءˡ ([2014-12-26-1])#2147. ѸΥեѸȽ ([2015-03-14-1])#2479. ѸθüѤФȿưȤƤθϤɤޤܵä ([2016-02-09-1]) ʤɤȡ
Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.
ɸϻξ˺äѸä˸ùܡˤμѤˤ礭ʬơ֥ץѡפȡ֤äĤѡפ2बȹͤƤ롥
ñˤ뤿ˡܿ˺ݤƺǤ褯ѻñ٥μѤ˸ꤷƹͤ褦̾¾줫ñڤƤȤȤ˵뤳Ȥϡ¦θñȤ (sign) ¿ѹϤˤ衤褽Τޤ˥ԡ졤ùܤȤ夹뤳ȤǤ롥ȤϡüŪ˸и (signifié) ȸ (signifiant) ΥåȤǤ뤫顤ΥåȤΤޤޥԡƤȤȤˤʤ (ֵפˤĤƤϡ#2213. 塼ε桤˥ե˥ե ([2015-05-19-1]) ) 㤨СѸϥե줫 uncle ֤פȤȸΥåȤڤꤿܸϥݥȥ줫 tabaco ʥХˡֱפΥåȤڤꤿ
ΤˡȸΥåȤǼڤΤǤ̤μѤȹͤ뤬ϼڤꤺ˸ΤڤƤ̣ (semantic_borrowing) (loan_translation) Ȥ⤷Фи롥㤨СűѸ god ϸ֥ޥοפ̣ꥹȶ˿˵ڤӡбƥ deus ΤäƤ֥ꥹȶοפΰ̣ڤ졤˿ʸդädeus Ȥƥε椫ڤꤿΤϡΤߤǤꡤ god Ѥ³櫓Ǥʡ#2149. ̣ ([2015-03-16-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1]) ȡˡϰ̣ѤȤ롥ޤűѸ줬ƥ trinitas Ǥʤ Þrines "three-ness" ؤȡפƼ줿Ȥ⡤ƥ줫ϸҼڤȤƤϥƥޤǴʤ褦ʶ˼줿ΤǤ롥
̤μѤỌ̇̄ѤѤʤɤΤüʼѤȤδ֤Ƕ̤ƤΤϡʤȤ줫ڤƤȤȤǤ롥ɤ⤷ʤ⤷ʤˤƤ줫ڤƤΤǤ롥#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) Ǥդ̤ꡤϽפǤ롥ˤƤ¾ͤڤƤȤǡ٤Ǥ롥㤦Τϡθȼѡ̾μѡˤǤϼѡʥ١ˤǤ뤳Ȥθȼʤѡʰ̣ѤѡˤǤϼѡʥ١ˤǤ뤳ȤɽŪˤʬʤȤǤ롥顤Ԥ֥ץѡסԤ֤äĤѡפȸƤ֡
Ϥơɤ餬ꥹ٤Ǥ礦ƳϤɤΥפΥ٤ߤǤ礦
ѻݤζ (synchrony) ̻ (diachrony) Ȥ2Ĥθϡ塼 (Ferdinand de Saussure; 1857--1913) ν̤⤤ư衤ؤδܳǰȤ夷Ƥܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ȥˤۤ褦ȤĤĤ⡤ŪˤϤ2ʬˡƤ
2Ĥ֤ζ̤ˤĤƤϡ#2555. 塼ˤζ֤̻֡ ([2016-04-25-1]) Dz⤷ϡSaussure ȤΡڤδȡפˤꡤ2ʬˡˤĤä
ֶؤפȾΤ륽塼ϡѲ椹̻Ūʡؤȡˤξ֤椹ֶŪʡؤ̤뤳Ȥĥ塼ˤС2ĤδϤޤäƤ줺ΩΤǤ롥ϡ礦ڤδڤ2Ĥˡ롥1Ĥϴʿڤꡤǯؤιޤ줿̿ޤѻ뤳ȡ⤦1Ĥϡľڤꡤּ˱äڤĹѻ뤳ȤǤ롥Aitchison (38) οƸ褦

#1025. ֤̻֤δط ([2012-02-16-1]) εǿ줿뿷פȤǸľС֤ϥ̿Ƥ̻֤ϥӥǥ黣ƤŤưδطȤäƤ褤
֤̻֤͡ˤĤƤϡ#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1])#1076. 塼뤬֤̻֤ͥ褵3Ĥͳ ([2012-04-07-1])#1040. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡ ([2012-03-02-1])#1260. ֤̻֤ ([2012-10-08-1])#1426. ̻ŪѲȶŪѰ (2) ([2013-03-23-1])#2197. 塼ζ֤̻֤ǧ ([2015-05-03-1])#2563. ̻ءؤȤѸäơ ([2016-05-03-1]) ϤȤơdiachrony γƵǰäƤΤǡȤ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ִܸá (basic vocabulary) ȤѸϡĴˤ͡ʵ˽Ф魯ε#2660. glottochronology ȴܸá ([2016-08-08-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡ̸ˤƤ⡤̤ˤƤ⡤ܸäȤϲʤΤɤޤǤϰϤޤΤҴŪ뤳Ȥ
glottochronology ˷ȤؼԤϡȼ̸Ū̻Ūʴ顤ܸåꥹȤΤԽƤ㤨СʬʬǤ Swadesh (456--57) ϡʥꥹȤϺʤȤȤǧĤġ200줫ʤƤ롥ΰHymes ("Lexicostatistics" 6) ͳǷǤ褦
all, and, animal, ashes, at, back, bad, bark, because, belly, big, bird, bite, black, blood, blow, bone, breathe, burn, child, cloud, cold, come take, count, cut, day, die, dig, dirty, dog, drink, dry, dull, dust, ear, earth, eat, egg, eye, fall, far, fat-grease, father, fear, feather, few, fight, fire, fish, five, float, flow, flower, fly, fog, foot, four, freeze, fruit, give, good, grass, green, guts, hair, hand, he, head, hear, heart, heavy, here, hit, hold-take, how, hunt, husband, I, ice, if, in, kill, know, lake, laugh, leaf, leftside, leg, lie, live, liver, long, louse, man-male, many, meat-flesh, mother, mountain, mouth, name, narrow, near, neck, new, night, nose, not, old, one, other, person, play, pull, push, rain, red, right-correct, rightside, river, road, root, rope, rotten, rub, salt, sand, say, scratch, sea, see, seed, sew, sharp, short, sing, sit, skin, sky, sleep, small, smell, smoke, smooth, snake, snow, some, spit, split, squeeze, stab-pierce, stand, star, stick, stone, straight, suck, sun, swell, swim, tail, that, there, they, thick, thin, think, this, thou, three, throw, tie, tongue, tooth, tree, turn, two, vomit, walk, warm, wash, water, we, wet, what, when, where, white, who, wide, wife, wind, wing, wipe, with, woman, woods, worm, ye, year, yellow
ΰȼȤ߹碌ΤǤꡤθβФ뤳ȤˤʤäȤ괰ʴܸåꥹȤϺʤΤ顤餫θĴԤʤˡΰˤȤΤϡ1ĤˡǤϤ롥ʤSwadesh ǯ¬οǤΤѤΤϡӸ줿100ΥꥹȤǤꡤϡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) ǷǺܤ̤Ǥ100ꥹȤΤۤǯŪͭ⤤Ȥո⤢ (Hymes, "More" 341)ˡ
ܸäˤĤƤϡ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])#1961. ܥ٥ơ ([2014-09-09-1])#1965. Ūʸǡ ([2014-09-13-1])#2625. ťΥɸ줫μѸ ([2016-07-04-1]) ʤɤεȡ
Swadesh, Morris. "Lexico-Statistic Dating of Prehistoric Ethnic Contacts: With Special Reference to North American Indians and Eskimos." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 96 (1952): 452--63.
Hymes, D. H. "Lexicostatistics So Far." Current Anthropology 1 (1960): 3--44.
Hymes, D. H. "More on Lexicostatistics." Current Anthropology 1 (1960): 338--45.
glottochronology ˡɾ Hymes (11) ϡ⤦1ͤοؼ Gleason ˤ1950ǯȤʤ顤ѲΨ˴ؤ3ĤˤĤƲ⤷Ƥ롥
(1) Every lexical item at every given time has a certain probability of change.
(2) This probability of change is variable, and is influenced by both linguistic and non-linguistic factors.
(3) There exist certain sets of largely independent vocabulary items in which the probability of change within the group is large relative to the variability of that probability of change.
glottochronology Ǥϡ(1) (2) 餫ȤƤHymes ä˽פȻŦΤ (3) βǤ롥ˤСäˤϤĤ췲Ĥꡤ췲Ūꤷΰٹ礤ɤṲ̄θ췲ŪǤꡤٹ礤ɤŪ礭ȤŪˤϤ "basic vocabulary" "non-basic vocabulary" ʤɤζ̤ǰƬˤƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤɬ餫Ǥʤ "(non-)basic" ȤѸȤ鷺ˡŪ׳ŪʼˡǡäʬФǽƤ롥ºݤθڤˤϡ¿θθäˤĤĴ줾ˤĤĹ֤ˤ錄̻ŪʸѲΨᡤӤȤƻʺȤɬפǤꡤ˷ФȤΤǤϤʤڲǽϳݤƤȤפǤ롥
̡뤤ϸ̸ˤơܸ (basic vocabulary) ȤϲȤϡҴŪΤƳüԤˤȤäƤľŪʬΤǤϤ뤬ϰϤҴŪΤε#2659. glottochronology lexicostatistics ([2016-08-07-1]) Ǥ줿褦ˡܸäƱ˴Ϳ°Ȥ (1) Ū commonness (or frequency), (2) ̸Ū universality (of semantic reference), (3) ̻Ū (historical) persistence 3郎ƤƤꡤ餬ߤˤ褽شطˤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥3Ĥ°γơˤɤ٤νŤߤĤǽŪ˴ܸäꤹ٤ˤĤơä˹դϤʤ
glottochronology ˤȤäƤϡܸäȤϤޤǸǯ¬ꤹ뤿κǤϤ뤬षκõβǡܸäȤϲȤοˡξ¦̤뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤϤʤȤפ롥glottochronology Ȥʬ̤ˤĤƤ¿ȽʤƤβǷ깭ƤϤФܼŪǤꡤʿ˸ػŪʹ礭Ȥ
glottochronology ȴܸäˤĤƤϡHymes (32--33) ܤƤΤǡȡ
Hymes, D. H. "Lexicostatistics So Far." Current Anthropology 1 (1960): 3--44.
ؤʬȤƤθǯ (glottochronology) ȸ׳ (lexicostatistics) ϡФƱѤƤglottochronology ϻϼԤǤ Swadesh ϡξѸȤʬƤ롥伫Ȥ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) εǡξԤϰۤʤȤΩglottochronology ʸǯءˤϡꥫθؼ Morris Swadesh (1909--67) Robert Lees (1922--65) ˤä1940ǯ˳줿̻ؤ1ʬǤ롥μˡ lexicostatistics ʸ׳ءˤȸƤФ롥פȽҤ٤ϡѸˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ؼԡҲؼԤ Hymes (4) Swadesh ˰͵ʤ顤ξѸζ̤Τ褦Ƥ롥
The terms "glottochronology" and "lexicostatistics" have often been used interchangeably. Recently several writers have proposed some sort of distinction between them . . . . I shall now distinguish them according to a suggestion by Swadesh.
Glottochronology is the study of rate of change in language, and the use of the rate for historical inference, especially for the estimation of time depths and the use of such time depths to provide a pattern of internal relationships within a language family. Lexicostatistics is the study of vocabulary statistically for historical inference. The contribution that has given rise to both terms is a glottochronologic method which is also lexicostatistic. Glottochronology based on rate of change in sectors of language other than vocabulary is conceivable, and lexicostatistic methods that do not involve rates of change or time exist . . . .
Lexicostatistics and glottochronology are thus best conceived as intersecting fields.
Ĥޤꡤglottochronology lexicostatistics ʪξԤνŤʤʬʤפˤǯ¬ꤹ礬ʬˤȤäƤǤ褯Τ줿ʬǤ뤫顤ξԤ¾ƱȤʤäƤȤȤSwadesh 80ǯФäߤǤϡlexicostatistics ϡŻҥѥȯŸˤǯ¬Ȥ̵طνⰷʬȤʤäƤꡤμϰϤϹäƤȤ
ǰѤ Hymes ʸϡˤ "basic vocabulary" ȤϲȤŪʪĤˤĤƿƤäƤꡤɤβͤ롥"basic vocabulary" ϡcommonness (or frequency), universality (of semantic reference), (historical) persistence Τ줫°뤤ϤȤ߹碌˴ŤΤȳͼƤ뤬ƱʸϤդεˤĤƤܤܸäˤĤƤϡ#1128. glottochronology ([2012-05-29-1]) #1965. Ūʸǡ ([2014-09-13-1]) εľܤ˰äۤ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1])#1089. ȸ; ([2012-04-20-1])#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])#1497. taboo ŪȤʤͳ (2) ([2013-06-02-1])#1874. ٸθݼ ([2014-06-14-1])#1961. ܥ٥ơ ([2014-09-09-1])#1970. ¿٤شط ([2014-09-18-1]) ʤεǴͿ˿ƤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿
Hymes, D. H. "Lexicostatistics So Far." Current Anthropology 1 (1960): 3--44.
ѷʸˡʤɤǤϡƻ줬ˡ (attributive use) ȤѤƤ the big table Ȥϡˡ (predicative use) ȤѤƤ the table that is big Ȥ礫ŪΤȹͤƤԤδطϢ be Ĥäƻ̾˰ưȤ§Τ¿μ㤬Τ褦褦ˤפ뤬Ūˤɬ⤦ޤʤBolinger ͳĤƤ롥
1ܤˡˡȤƤѤʤƻ줬¿롥㤨Сthe main reason ȤϸƤ *The reason is main. Ȥϸʤfond, runaway, total ۤƱηƻϤ (see #643. ΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ ([2011-01-30-1])#712. ΩȤȯ -ed IJʬƻ (2) ([2011-04-09-1])#1916. ˡȽˡǰۤʤ֤ķƻ ([2014-07-26-1])) ȿФˡThe man is asleep. Ф *the asleep man Ȥϸʤ褦ˡˡȤƤѤʤƻ⤢롥طꤹʤСʤ *The reason is main. ʸǤʤ顤the main reason ŬʤǤΤʤ⤦1ĤˤĤƤϡʤ The man is asleep. *the asleep man ؤޤʤΤʤФʤʤ
2ܤˡѷʸˡĹξäǤˤϤطꤹ뤳ȤǡषξФƤޤäƤȤȤThe jewels are stolen. the stolen jewels 褦The jewels are stolen. ϡ֤ФޤפȤ٤ɤߤȡ֤ФʤǤפȤɤߤꡤξŪǤ롥ꤵ the stolen jewels ɤߤʤξŪǤϤʤȤǡʳˤȹͤ the jewels stolen ɤߤϤꤨ٤ɤߤȤʤꡤξŪǤϤʤȡνȯãɤߤϡ줾֡ס?ס֡פȤʤꡤν֤ȤʤȡŪǤ롥
Bolinger Ͼ嵭2İʳˤ⡤ȤʤͳۤˤƤ뤬ε̤ƼĥƤΤϡˡ "reference modification" Ǥꡤˡ "referent modification" ǤȤȤThe lawyer is criminal. ֤۸ΤȺԤפˤơƻ criminal ϼλؼоݤǤ֤۸ΡפƤ롥the criminal lawyer ַ۸Ρפˤơcriminal Ϥ۸ΤɤΤ褦۸ΤʤΤȤ̤Ƥ롥СWhat kind of lawyer? ȤƤ criminal (lawyer) ȤȤ
ɸ2ĤζСthe big table the table that is big ϡߤȤطˤȤϡ̣Ū˰ۤʤɽȤȤ館٤Ǥ롥ԤϤΥơ֥μɽȤƤΤФơԤϤΥơ֥̤Ƥ롥
ºݤˤϤۤñʵǤϤʤΤˡȽˡκͤǽפʥݥȤǤ롥
Bolinger, Dwight. "Adjectives in English: Attribution and Predication." Lingua 19 (1967): 1--34.
ʸػŪˤϡJohn Lydgate (c1370--1449) Chaucer ɿԤˤȤǤϸ꤬Τɾ뤳Ȥ¿ʡ#2503. Ѹʸء ([2016-03-04-1]) ȡˡ15ɤεΥѥȥȤŪʻͤȤ졤Ĺϡ֤ƤĶˤäơȤϽ줿Ȥ⤤ΤǤ롥ʸŪˤϡ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡƥФˡλȤȤƤΤƤ롥
Pearsall ϡ"Lydgate as Innovator" ȤճΤȤͤ路Lydgate αʸػ˾κɾߤƤ롥ȤƤϡLydgate Chaucer ߽Фκο路Ĵ礹뤳Ȥˤäơ줬ȤƼѤƤäۤȤȤǤ롥Pearsall μĥĤȴФ
. . . Lydgate's career, poem by poem, was a determined effort not just to emulate Chaucer but to surpass him in each of the major poetic genres he had attempted. (7)
. . . Lydgate's ambitious attempt to build an English poetic tradition by "fortifying" (in Dryden's sense) preliminary structures thrown up by Chaucer . . . . (7)
. . . Lydgate did on a large scale what Chaucer had first hinted at on a small scale and in so doing introduced change by sheer reiteration. (8)
. . . Lydgate found himself extending the outbuildings of the mansion of English poetry that Chaucer had established. All he knew was how to lay one line beside another, but somehow, accidentally, he invented the English poetic tradition. (22)
ǤϡLydgate αѸ˾˲̤ϲPearsall ˤȡLydgate ϡѸ줬ƥե渪ʸظȤƵǽ뤳Ȥ Chaucer ϩŪˤ˳ĥȤ̤ΤȤȤ櫓ƳˡLydgate 礭褦Pearsall (8--9) ۩"Someone . . . had to do the work of introducing the many new words that English needed to cope with the vast new range of responsibilities it was taking over from Latin and French, and in an extraordinarily large number of cases it was Lydgate."
OED ˤȡLydgate ȤʤäƤñϾʤʤ㤨 abuse (vb.), adjacent, capacity, circumspect, combine (vb.), credulity, delude, depend, disappear, equivalent, excel ʤɤñ줬ޤޤ롥Lydgate ϤññƳǤϤʤ֤Ѥ˹Ȥ⸫ƨƤϤʤʤƱͤˡLydgate ȤƳԤǤϤʤȤ⡤㤨 Chaucer ƳΤ1٤Ѥʤä褦ñ֤͡ܤ˿褦ˤӤDzǤʤMED ˤĴǤϡcasual, circular, continuation, credible, dishonest, examination, existence, femininity, finally, foundation, ignorant, influence, intelligence, introduction, modify, onward, opposition, perverse, refuge, remorse, rigour, seriously ʤɤΤ褦ñȤƵ롥դˤСλ䤿 Chaucer θ˲餫οƤߤȤС Lydgate ֤äƷӤĤƤƤ뤫ȤΤǤ (Pearsall 9)
ҤȤ Lydgate αѸ˾СˡƳ뤳ȤǡָҤѸѼȤϤΤȤפȸŪHenry V ɮƬȤ¦Ϥ路 Lollard ʤɤѤ¾ѼȤκ̲ޤäȤȤ¦ΡѼηǤ롥Pearsall (20) ϡLydgate aureate diction Τ褦˰֤ŤƤ롥
[T]he writing that [Henry V] encouraged, and the writing that Lydgate did . . . in the aureate and Latinate style, demonstrates, one may assume, a policy of reasserting a kind of English as remote as possible from the vernacular promulgated in Lollard writings and biblical translation. English had replaced French as the literary language of England and was increasingly taking over roles traditionally reserved for Latin, but there were kinds of English more appropriate than the language of the people to the preservation of the clerical monopoly and its state sponsors. "Aureation" in Lydgate may be seen in this light as a political choice as well as a stylistic one.
ϢơLydgate ʸؼԤˤĤơ#298. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ (2) ([2010-02-19-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Pearsall, Derek. "Lydgate as Innovator." Modern Language Quarterly 53 (1992): 5--22.
#2547. 奤ɷǯΰ ([2016-04-17-1])#2649. 奤ꥹäǤΰ ([2016-07-28-1]) ˰³ΤΰȤ櫓ǽΤϡΩμͤˤФи줿褦ˡAmerican English British English ȤΩ䡤Ϣפ˴ؿƤäơѸˤˤƤˤΤܤ̾Ĥ롥
奢ꥫΤˤĤơܤ TheUSAonline.com --- All Presidents of the United States, whitehouse.gov --- The Presidents Presidents of the United States (POTUS) ȡ
| ̾ǯ--ǯ | пȽ | °̾ | Ǥ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | George Washington (1732--99) | Virginia | Federalist | 1789--97 |
| 2 | John Adams (1735--1826) | Massachusetts | Federalist | 1797--1801 |
| 3 | Thomas Jefferson (1743--1826) | Virginia | Republican | 1801--09 |
| 4 | James Madison (1751--1836) | Virginia | Republican | 1809--17 |
| 5 | James Monroe (1758--1831) | Virginia | Republican | 1817--25 |
| 6 | John Quincy Adams (1767--1848) | Massachusetts | Republican | 1825--29 |
| 7 | Andrew Jackson (1767--1845) | South Carolina | Democrat | 1829--37 |
| 8 | Martin Van Buren (1782--1862) | New York | Democrat | 1837--41 |
| 9 | William Henry Harrison (1773--1841) ʺǤ˻˴ | Virginia | Whig | 1841 |
| 10 | John Tyler (1790--1862) Τ龺ʡ | Virginia | Whig | 1841--45 |
| 11 | James Knox Polk (1795--1849) | North Carolina | Democrat | 1845--49 |
| 12 | Zachary Taylor (1784--1850) ʺǤ˻˴ | Virginia | Whig | 1849--50 |
| 13 | Millard Fillmore (1800--74) Τ龺ʡ | New York | Whig | 1850--53 |
| 14 | Franklin Pierce (1804--69) | New Hampshire | Democrat | 1853--57 |
| 15 | James Buchanan (1791--1868) | Pennsylvania | Democrat | 1857--61 |
| 16 | Abraham Lincoln (1809--65) ʺǤ˻˴ | Kentucky | Republican | 1861--65 |
| 17 | Andrew Johnson (1808--75) Τ龺ʡ Democrat Ǥä Republican ̾ Lincoln θȤʤä | North Carolina | Republican | 1865--69 |
| 18 | Ulysses Simpson Grant (1822--85) | Ohio | Republican | 1869--77 |
| 19 | Rutherford Birchard Hayes (1822--93) | Ohio | Republican | 1877--81 |
| 20 | James Abram Garfield (1831--81) ʺǤ˰Ż | Ohio | Republican | 1881 |
| 21 | Chester Alan Arthur (1830--86) Τ龺ʡ | Vermont | Republican | 1881--85 |
| 22 | Grover Cleveland (1837--1908) | New Jersey | Democrat | 1885--89 |
| 23 | Benjamin Harrison (1833--1901) | Ohio | Republican | 1889--93 |
| 24 | Grover Cleveland (1837--1908) | New Jersey | Democrat | 1893--97 |
| 25 | William McKinley (1843--1901) ʺǤ˰Ż | Ohio | Republican | 1897--1901 |
| 26 | Theodore Roosevelt (1858--1919) Τ龺ʡ | New York | Republican | 1901--09 |
| 27 | William Howard Taft (18S7-1930) | Ohio | Republican | 1909--13 |
| 28 | (Thomas) Woodrow Wilson (1856--1924) ʺǤ˻˴ | Virginia | Democrat | 1913--21 |
| 29 | Warren Gamaliel Harding (1865--1923) Τ龺ʡ | Ohio | Republican | 1921--23 |
| 30 | Calvin Coolidge (1872--1933) | Vermont | Republican | 1923--29 |
| 31 | Herbert Clark Hoover (1874--1964) | Iowa | Republican | 1929--33 |
| 32 | Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882--1945) 1940ǯ1151944ǯ117˺Ǥ˻˴ | New York | Democrat | 1933--45 |
| 33 | Harry S. Truman (1884--1972) Τ龺ʡ | Missouri | Democrat | 1945--53 |
| 34 | Dwight David Eisenhower (1890--1969) | Texas | Republican | 1953--61 |
| 35 | John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917--63) ʺǤ˰Ż | Massachusetts | Democrat | 1961--63 |
| 36 | Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908--73) Τ龺ʡ | Texas | Democrat | 1963--69 |
| 37 | Richard Milhous Nixon (1913--94) ʺǤ˼Ǥ | California | Republican | 1969--74 |
| 38 | Gerald Rudolph Ford (1913--2006) ʷˡ25ˤΤ龺ʡ | Nebraska | Republican | 1974--77 |
| 39 | James Earl Carter ("Jimmy") (1924--) | Georgia | Democrat | 1977--81 |
| 40 | Ronald Wilson Reagan (1911--2004) | Illinois | Republican | 1981--89 |
| 41 | George Herbert Walker Bush (1924--) | Massachusetts | Republican | 1989--93 |
| 42 | William Jefferson Clinton (1946--) | Arkansas | Democrat | 1993--2001 |
| 43 | George Walker Bush (1946--) | Connecticut | Republican | 2001--09 |
| 44 | Barack Hussein Obama (1961--) | Hawaii | Democrat | 2009--16 |
| 45 | Donald John Trump (1946--) | New York | Republican | 2016-- |
Ū˸ʸ ("politically correct" language reform) ϡ1970ǯʹߡѸ͡ʵƤӡºݤ˿͡θոѤƤβ "political_correctness" Ȥɽ˼깤ĤƤơ21äƤϡ̤Ĥɽ蘆ʤȸۤɤޤǤˤʤäƤƤ롥"PC" ȤѸϰ̣ΰ (semantic pejoration) ФȤȤǤꡤθפؤϤؼΤȤƤǤϤʤޤ˿м̵ѤʸոؤΤȤƤȤ館褦ˤʤäƤޤäѸȤƤϡ˴ؤ¤ꡤ"nonsexist language reform" ȤɽѤƤΤ⤷ʤ
"PC" ޤоݤˤޤ侮줿Τϡ¿ο͡βפΡָפ˸ջǤꡤθܴ٤˼ͳCurzan (114) ϡPCפ㤯ɾƤ뤳Ȥ˴ؤơطʤΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥
Politically correct language and the efforts to promote it are regularly ridiculed in the public arena. Fabricated language reforms such as personhole cover for manhole cover and vertically challenged for short are held up as symptomatic of the movement's excesses. I call these fabricated because I have never actually heard any advocate of nonsexist language reform seriously propose personhole cover or anyone proposing any kind of language reform make a serious case for vertically challenged. Yet they can show up side by side with more common, even at this point mainstream reforms such as Native American for Indian, African American for Black. If Urban Dictionary provides a snapshot of attitudes about the term political correctness, the term's negative connotations have gone beyond silly and unnecessary and now include manipulative, harmful, and silencing. The first definition in Urban Dictionary in Fall 2012 (which means it had the best ratio of thumbs up to thumbs down) read: "Organized Orwellian intolerance and stupidity, disguised as compassionate liberalism." It goes on to note: "Political correctness is most well known as an institutional excuse for the harassment and exclusion of people with differing political views." Subsequent definitions link politically correct language to censorship and "the death of comedy."
PCפιޤˤäƸո˴ؤƲѤäȤСʸ礬ޤ줿ȤȰʾˡĿͤΤ褦ʸո֤Ȥ٤ΤΤṲ̄ˤޤʤʤäȤȤ롥졹θѤˤơPC term non-PC term ΤѤ뤫ȤϤʤˤʤäƤޤäĿͤΩˡäƤޤäȤäƤ褤Curzan (115) ۩"Politically correct language efforts force speakers to confront the fact that words are not neutral conveyors of intended meaning; words in and of themselves carry information about speaker attitudes and much more. Politically correct language asks speakers to use care in avoiding bias in their language choices and to respect the preferences of underrepresented groups in terms of the language used to refer to them."
ʾηаޤPCפμҲŪɾäƤΤϻ¤Ѳ뤤ϸѤѲȤ餤СƿͰŪѲˤ⤫餺οǯΤƤʻȤ롥̤ˡˡβפäβפʤɸ˴ؤտŪʲϡƵǤ롥ʤǤϡ褽͡δ֤˲פٻʷϵƤ롥¦餫ηǥХååפɿ魯뤳ȤǡפʤǤΤǤ롥ŪפϡʤȤŪʽդȤ쥸ˤʬŪǤϤȤոû֤ǿ͡θոѤƤΤȼΤϡܤĥ̤ɾƤ褤Τ⤷ʤCurzan (116) ⤳®٤ˤĤơ"The speed with which some politically responsive language efforts have changed Modern English usage is remarkable." ɾƤ롥
Curzan, Anne. Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History. Cambridge: CUP, 2014.
ѸˤϡɸΤ褦˿ñ̤ФʣƻȤʤɽ롥#1766. a three-hour(s)-and-a-half flight ([2014-02-26-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŵŪˤñ̤̾ʣȤʤ㳰⤢뤬̤ˤ *a six-feet man *a ten-miles drive ȤʤʤʤʣˤʤʤΤ
¤ϡηŪˤʣ°ʤ̾ĤǤ롥äơ衤ʤʣäȤ˲ѲŪñƱ夤ƤޤäȤΤμǤ롥
űѸǤϡΤ褦ɽˤñ̤ɽ魯̾ʣ°ʤ˶ޤ줬̾Ƥfōt mīl ξˤϡΤޤޤñʤη֤ǤϤʤʣ°ʤη֤˶ޤ fōta, mīla ȤȤѸˤʣ°ʤɽ魯 -a /ə/ ؤȿʿ˸ˤϴ˾ṳ̈Ȥơ֤ȤƤϲ⺯פĤȤʤΩäΤʣ°ʤεǽӤӤˡΤΤϷȤƼѤ졤ߤ˻äƤ롥Ѹͽۤʣ *six-feet *ten-miles ˤʤäƤ餺츫Ե§ʸˡˤߤ뤬ϸűѸʸˡܤʤΤǤ롥
űѸ̾γʶޤη֤Τ褦ȤʤäƸѸ˻ĤäƤϡʤ㤨С#380. often <t> ǤϤʤ <n> ⤷ ([2010-05-12-1]) ǿ줿 whilom, seldom, often θΡ첻ɡפαˡĤƤʣͿʸ -um ѷΤ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤalive ʤɤˤϡűѸֻ on līfe ˵§Ūˤߤ줿ñͿʸ -e ʤȤֻĤäƤ롥ۤˤϡLady Chapel ladybird 1 lady ̵Τ褦ˤߤ뤬ĤƤñ°ʸ -e դƤ줬˿ʿüˡŪˤϺפĤƤʤǤ롥
ʾ塤Algeo and Pyles (105) ͤˤƼɮ
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
(morphology) Ȥϡ (inflectional morphology) (derivational morphology) ʬΤǤ롥2ʬˡϡ#456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1])#1761. Ȥʧֹ⤵פȡֹߡס ([2014-02-21-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡŪʤǤϤʤؤǤϹȤƤ롥
2ʬˡˤ˺ʬƤ椯ȤǤ뤬Bauer (33) ŪѸ췲ƳĤķʬ⤷ƤƤΤǡѤ褦ˤϡε#2652. ʣ̾ΰ̣Ūʬ ([2016-07-31-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ʬޤƤ롥
Morphology deals with the internal structure of word-forms. In morphology, the analyst divides word-forms into their component formatives (most of which are morphs realizing roots or affixes), and attempts to account for the occurrence of each formative. Morphology can be divided into two main branches, inflectional morphology and word-formation (also called lexical morphology). Inflectional morphology deals with the various forms of lexemes, while word-formation deals with the formation of new lexemes from given bases. Word-formation can, in turn, be subdivided into derivation and compounding (or composition). Derivation is concerned with the formation of new lexemes by affixation, compounding with the formation of new lexemes from two (or more) potential stems. Derivation is sometimes also subdivided into class-maintaining derivation and class-changing derivation. Class-maintaining derivation is the derivation of new lexemes which are of the same form class ('part of speech') as the base from which they are formed, whereas class-changing derivation produces lexemes which belong to different form classes from their bases. Compounding is usually subdivided according to the form class of the resultant compound: that is, into compound nouns, compound adjectives, etc. It may also be subdivided according to the semantic criteria . . . into exocentric, endocentric, appositional and dvandva compounds.
ʸϤƤʬΤפʽˤĤƿ褦Bauer (34) ѤƼˡ
[ The Basic Divisions of Morphology ]
INFLECTIONAL
(deals with forms CLASS-MAINTAINING
of individual lexemes)
MORPHOLOGY DERIVATION
(affixation)
CLASS-CHANGING
WORD-FORMATION
(deals with COMPOUND NOUNS
formation of
new lexemes) COMPOUNDING COMPOUND VERBS
(more than one
root) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
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